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Pavement Analysi s
and Desig n
Second Edition

Yang H . Huan g
University of Kentucky

PEARSO N
Prentice
Hall
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
3 72.
( 31
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Availabl e

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Marketing Manager: Holly Stark

PEARSO N 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall
Prentic e Pearson Education, Inc .
Hall
Upper Saddle River, NJ 0745 8

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

Pearson Prentice Hall is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc .

The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book . These efforts include the
development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness . The author and pub -
lisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation con-
tained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages i n
connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs .

Printed in the United States of Americ a

10 9 8 7 6 5

ISBN 0-13-142473- 4

Pearson Education Ltd ., London

Pearson Education Australia Pty . Ltd ., Sydney
Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education North Asia Ltd ., Hong Kon g
Pearson Education Canada, Inc ., Toronto
Pearson Educacion de Mexico, S .A . de C.V.
Pearson Education—Japan, Toky o
Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte . Ltd .
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
 Contents

Preface to Second Edition ix

Preface to First Edition xi

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
1 .1 Historical Developments 1
1 .2 Pavement Types 8
1 .3 Road Tests 19
1 .4 Design Factors 26
1 .5 Highway Pavements, Airport Pavements, and Railroad Trackbeds 37
Summary 41
Problems and Questions 43

CHAPTER 2 Stresses and Strains in Flexible Pavements 45

2 .1 Homogeneous Mass 45
2 .2 Layered Systems 57
2 .3 Viscoelastic Solutions 76
Summary 89
Problems 90

CHAPTER 3 KENLAYER Computer Program 94

3 .1 Theoretical Developments 94
3 .2 Program Description 10 6
3 .3 Comparison with Available Solutions 10 9
3 .4 Sensitivity Analysis 13 0
Summary 14 1
Problems 143

CHAPTER 4 Stresses and Deflections in Rigid Pavements 147

4 .1 Stresses Due to Curling 14 7
4 .2 Stresses and Deflections Due to Loading 153

v
vi Contents

4 .3 Stresses Due to Frictio n

4 .4 Design of Dowels and Joint s
Summary
Problem s

CHAPTER 5 KENSLABS Computer Progra m

5 .1 Theoretical Developments
5 .2 Program Descriptio n
5 .3 Comparison with Available Solution s
5 .4 Sensitivity Analysi s
Summar y
Problem s

CHAPTER 6 Traffic Loading and Volume

6 .1 Design Procedure s
6 .2 Equivalent Single-Wheel Loa d
6 .3 Equivalent Axle Load Facto r
6 .4 Traffic Analysis
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 7 Material Characterizatio n

7 .1 Resilient Modulu s
7 .2 Dynamic Modulus of Bituminous Mixture s
7 .3 Fatigue Characteristics
7 .4 Permanent Deformation Parameter s
7 .5 Other Propertie s
Summary
Problem s

CHAPTER 8 Drainage Desig n

8 .1 General Consideratio n
8 .2 Drainage Material s
8 .3 Design Procedure s
Summary
Problems

CHAPTER 9 Pavement Performanc e

9 .1 Distress
9 .2 Serviceability
9 .3 Surface Friction
 Contents vi i

9 .4 Nondestructive Deflection Testing 41 0

9.5 Pavement Performance , 42 4
Summary 436
Problems 43 8

CHAPTER 10 Reliability 441

10 .1 Statistical Concepts 441

10.2 Probabilistic Methods 45 1
10.3 Variability 460
10 .4 Rosenblueth Method 466
Summary 469
Problems 470

CHAPTER 11 Flexible Pavement Design 472

11 .1 Calibrated Mechanistic Design Procedure 47 2

11 .2 Asphalt Institute Method 487
11 .3 AASHTO Method 50 5
11 .4 Design of Flexible Pavement Shoulders 52 2
Summary 52 8
Problems 53 0

CHAPTER 12 Rigid Pavement Design 53 3

12 .1 Calibrated Mechanistic Design Procedure 53 3

12 .2 Portland Cement Association Method 545
12 .3 AASHTO Method 56 8
12.4 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavements 583
12 .5 Design of Rigid Pavement Shoulders 592
Summary 596
Problems 59 8

CHAPTER 13 Design of Overlays 600

13 .1 Types of Overlays 60 0
13 .2 Design Methodologies 60 5
13 .3 Asphalt Institute Method 60 8
13 .4 Portland Cement Association Method 62 0
13 .5 AASHTO Method 62 7
Summary 65 0
Problems 65 2

APPENDIX A Theory of Viscoelasticity 655

A .1 Differential Operators 65 5
A .2 Elastic—Viscoelastic Correspondence Principle 657
viii Contents

A .3 Method of Successive Residuals 662

A .4 Complex Modulus 66 6

APPENDIX B Theory of Elastic Layer Systems 67 1

B .1 Differential Equations 67 1
B .2 Circular Loaded Area 67 3
B .3 Boundary and Continuity Conditions 67 4
B .4 Extension to Concentrated Load 67 6

APPENDIX C KENPAVE Software 67 7

C .1 Software Installation 67 7
C .2 Main Screen 67 8
C .3 LAYERINP 67 9
C .4 SLABSINP 68 1

APPENDIX D An Introduction to Superpave 68 2

D.1 Asphalt Binder Grading System 68 2
D .2 Aggregates in HMA 68 4
D .3 Asphalt Mix Design 68 9
Summary 692
Problems 693

APPENDIX E Pavement Management Systems 694

E .1 PMS Activity Levels 694
E .2 Network-Level Elements 69 5
E .3 Project-Level Elements 700
E.4 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 703
E .5 PMS Data and Software 71 1
E .6 Infrastructure and Asset Management 71 3
E .7 Pavement Preservation 71 4
Summary 71 4
Problems 71 4

APPENDIX F A Preview of 2002 Design Guide 716

F.1 General Features 71 6
E2 Design inputs 717
F.3 Distress Prediction Models 722
Summary 727

APPENDIX G List of Symbols 728

APPENDIX H References 74 1
Author Index 76 1
Subject Index 767
Preface to Second Editio n

The first edition of Pavement Analysis and Design was published in 1993 . The wide -
spread adoption of this book by so many colleges as an undergraduate or graduate tex t
has encouraged me to write this second edition . A major event during the past decade
was the completion of the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), which led t o
the development of the highly publicized 2002 Pavement Design Guide . However, at
the time of this writing, the final draft of the 2002 Guide is still not available . It will
likely be a few more years before the Guide is approved and implemented by th e
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) . Fo r
this reason, only a brief preview of the 2002 Pavement Design Guide is presented, in a n
appendix .
Other than those improvements in the computer programs that necessitat e
changes in the text, not much is changed in the theoretical part of this book . Although
new procedures were developed by SHRP for material characterization and pavemen t
evaluation, these procedures, such as Superpave, are still in the developmental stag e
and will be subject to change as more experience is gained in their use . In this secon d
edition, Superpave is presented in an appendix . To extend the usefulness of the book, a
new appendix on Pavement Management System is added . It is hoped that a more ex -
tensive revision will be made in the third edition, after the 2002 Pavement Desig n
Guide is fully implemented and all the testing and evaluation procedures are finalized .
Major changes made in this edition are the following :

1. The floppy disk containing the four DOS programs is replaced by a CD contain-
ing a Windows program called KENPAVE, which combines the original KEN-
LAYER, LAYERINP, KENSLABS, and SLABSINP into a single package ,
together with the addition of some computer graphics . The software was writte n
in Microsoft Visual Basic 6 .0 and can be run on any computer with Windows 9 5
or higher. Detailed instructions on the use of KENPAVE can be found in th e
software program .
2. Section 13 .5 on the AASHTO method of overlay design has been totally revised .
The 1986 AASHTO Design Guide was used in the first edition . The guide was re -
vised in 1993 with practically no change in the design of new pavements, but th e
design of overlay was completely rewritten .
3. New developments and information from the literature have been added to kee p
the book current . A new method based on the Mohr—Coulomb failure criterio n

ix
x Preface to the Second Editio n

has been added in KENLAYER for nonlinear analysis, and new comparisons ar e
made between KENLAYER and the latest Windows version of MICH-PAVE .
4. Three new appendices have been added : Appendix D—An Introduction to Su-
perpave ; Appendix E—Pavement Management Systems ; and Appendix F—A
Preview of 2002 Design Guide . Appendix C is combined with Appendix B ; a ne w
Appendix C contains a brief description of KENPAVE .
5. To provide room for the above additions, Sections 3 .4 .3 (on contained rock as-
phalt mats) and 10 .5 (on probabilistic computer programs) have been deleted .
Also deleted from the appendices are the description of the input programs an d
the programming details of KENLAYER and KENSLABS, such as subroutine s
and flowcharts . The description of input and output parameters in Chapters 3
and 5 and the illustrative examples in the appendices also have been removed ,
because they can now be found in the software program .

I wish to acknowledge gratefully the contribution of my colleague, Dr . Kamyar C .

Mahboub, who wrote the appendices on Superpave and Pavement Management Sys-
tems . These new additions broaden the scope of this book and make it more suitabl e
for a wider audience . I also want to offer my heartfelt thanks to AASHTO, the Trans -
portation Research Board, the Federal Highway Administration, the Asphalt Institute ,
the Portland Cement Associations, and many others who have permitted the use of th e
information they developed . Finally, I would like to thank my wife Jane for her suppor t
in the use of our retirement time on this book.
YANG H . HUANG, Sc. D., P. E .
Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineerin g
University of Kentucky
 Preface to First Editio n

During the past two decades, I have been teaching a course on pavement analysis an d
design to both seniors and graduate students at the University of Kentucky . I had diffi-
culty finding a suitable textbook for the course because very few are available . There
are at least two reasons that a professor does not like to write a textbook on pavemen t
analysis and design . First, the subject is very broad . It covers both highway and airport
pavements and involves analysis, design, performance, evaluation, maintenance, reha -
bilitation, and management . It is difficult, if not impossible, to cover all these topics i n
sufficient detail to serve as a textbook with enough illustrative examples and home -
work problems for the students . Second, empirical methods have been used most fre-
quently for pavement analysis and design, and a book based on empirical procedure s
becomes out of date within a short time . No one is willing to write a book with such a
short life . Because of the above difficulties, I have written this book as an alternative . I
have limited the content to the structural analysis and design of highway pavement s
and covered essentially the mechanistic—empirical design procedures rather than the
purely empirical methods .
To facilitate the teaching of mechanistic—empirical methods, I have included tw o
computer programs that I developed for pavement analysis and design . These pro -
grams have been used by my students for more than ten years and have been constant -
ly updated and improved . They are original and contain salient features not availabl e
elsewhere . For example, the KENLAYER program for flexible pavements can be ap-
plied to a multilayered system under stationary or moving multiple wheel loads wit h
each layer being either linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, or viscoelastic . The KENSLAB S
program for rigid pavements can be applied to multiple slabs fully or partially support -
ed on a liquid, solid, or layered foundation with moment or shear transfer across th e
joints . Both programs can perform damage analysis by dividing a year into a number o f
periods, each having a different set of material properties and subjected to varyin g
repetitions of different axle loads . These programs were originally written for an IB M
mainframe, but were later adapted to an IBM-PC and can be run by using the dis k
provided with this book .
In addition to the documentation of the computer programs, this book present s
the theory of pavement design and reviews the methods developed by several organi-
zations, such as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Offi -
cials (AASHTO), the Asphalt Institute (AI), and the Portland Cement Associatio n
(PCA) . Because most of the advanced theory and detailed information are presente d

xi
xii Preface to the First Editio n

in the appendices, the book can be used as a text either for an undergraduate cours e
(by skipping the appendices) or for an advanced or graduate course (by includin g
them) . Although this book covers only the analysis and design of highway pavements ,
the same principles can be applied to airport pavements and railroad trackbeds .
This book is divided into 13 chapters . Chapter 1 introduces the historical devel -
opment of pavement design, the major road tests, the various design factors, and th e
differences in design concepts among highway pavements, airport pavements, and rail -
road trackbeds . Chapter 2 discusses stresses and strains in flexible pavements, includ -
ing the analysis of homogeneous mass and layered systems composed of linear elastic ,
nonlinear elastic, and linear viscoelastic materials . Simplified charts and tables for de -
termining stresses and strains are also presented . Chapter 3 presents the KENLAYER
computer program, based on Burmister 's layered theory, including theoretical devel-
opments, program description, comparison with available solutions, and sensitivit y
analysis on the effect of various factors on pavement responses . Chapter 4 discusse s
stresses and deflections in rigid pavements due to curling, loading, and friction, plus th e
design of dowels and joints . Influence charts for determining stresses and deflection s
are also presented . Chapter 5 presents the KENSLABS computer program, based o n
the finite-element method, including theoretical developments, program description ,
comparison with available solutions, and sensitivity analysis . Chapter 6 discusses th e
concept of equivalent single-wheel and single-axle loads and the prediction of traffic .
Chapter 7 describes the material characterization for mechanistic—empirical method s
of pavement design, including the determination of resilient modulus, of fatigue an d
permanent deformation properties, and of the modulus of subgrade reaction . Their
correlations with other empirical tests are also presented . Chapter 8 outlines th e
subdrainage design, including general principles, drainage materials, and design proce -
dures . Chapter 9 discusses pavement performance, including distress, serviceability ,
skid resistance, nondestructive testing, and the evaluation of pavement performance .
Chapter 10 illustrates the reliability concept of pavement design in which the variabili -
ties of traffic, material, and geometric parameters are all taken into consideration . A
simple and powerful probabilistic procedure, originally developed by Rosenblueth, i s
described, and two probabilistic computer programs—VESYS (for flexible pave-
ments) and PMRPD (for rigid pavements)—are discussed . Chapter 11 outlines an ide -
alistic mechanistic method of flexible pavement design and presents in detail th e
Asphalt Institute method and the AASHTO method, plus the design of flexible pave-
ment shoulders . Chapter 12 outlines an idealistic mechanistic method of rigid pave-
ment design and presents in detail the Portland Cement Association method and th e
AASHTO method . The design of continuous reinforced concrete pavements and rigid
pavement shoulders is also included . Chapter 13 outlines methods of design of overlay s
on both flexible and rigid pavements, including the AASHTO, the Al, and the PCA
procedures. More advanced theory and detailed information related to some of th e
chapters, plus a list of symbols and references, are included in the appendices .
Other than the empirical AASHTO methods used by many state highway de-
partments, this book emphasizes principally the mechanistic-empirical method of de -
sign . With the availability of personal computers and of sophisticated methods o f
material testing, the trend toward mechanistic—empirical methods is quite apparent . It
is believed that a book based on mechanistic—empirical methods is more interesting
 Preface to the First Edition xii i

and challenging than one based on empirical methods . This book, with the accompany -
ing computer programs and the large number of illustrative examples, will serve as a
classroom text and useful reference for people interested in learning about the struc-
tural analysis and design of highway pavements .
Although considerable portions of the materials presented in this book were de-
veloped by myself through years of research, teaching, and engineering practice, muc h
information was obtained from the published literature . Grateful acknowledgment is
offered to AASHTO, the Asphalt Institute, the Federal Highway Administration, th e
Portland Cement Association, the Transportation Research Board, and many other or-
ganizations and individuals that have permitted me to use the information they devel-
oped. The many helpful comments by James Lai, Professor of Civil Engineering ,
Georgia Institute of Technology, are highly appreciated .

YANG H . HUANG, Sc. D., P. E .

Professor of Civil Engineerin g
University of Kentucky
 Introductio n

1 .1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT S

Although pavement design has gradually evolved from art to science, empiricism stil l
plays an important role even up to the present day . Prior to the early 1920s, the thick -
ness of pavement was based purely on experience . The same thickness was used for a
section of highway even though widely different soils were encountered . As experience
was gained throughout the years, various methods were developed by different agencie s
for determining the thickness of pavement required . It is neither feasible nor desirable t o
document all the methods that have been used so far . Only a few typical methods will
be cited to indicate the trend .
Some technical terms will be used in this introductory and review chapter . It is pre -
sumed that the students using this book as a text are seniors or graduate students wh o
have taken courses in transportation engineering, civil engineering materials, and soi l
mechanics and are familiar with these terms . In case this is not true, these terms can b e
ignored for the time being, because most are explained and clarified in later chapters .

1 1 .1 Flexible Pavement s
Flexible pavements are constructed of bituminous and granular materials . The firs t
asphalt roadway in the United States was constructed in 1870 at Newark, New Jersey .
The first sheet-asphalt pavement, which is a hot mixture of asphalt cement with clean ,
angular, graded sand and mineral filler, was laid in 1876 on Pennsylvania Avenue i n
Washington, D .C., with imported asphalt from Trinidad Lake . As of 2001 (FHWA ,
2001), there are about 2 .5 million miles of paved roads in the United States, of whic h
94% are asphalt surfaced .

Design Methods Methods of flexible pavement design can be classified into five
categories : empirical method with or without a soil strength test, limiting shear failur e
method, limiting deflection method, regression method based on pavement perfor-
mance or road test, and mechanistic–empirical method .

1
2 Chapter 1 Introductio n

Empirical Methods The use of the empirical method without a strength tes t
dates back to the development of the Public Roads (PR) soil classification system
(Hogentogler and Terzaghi, 1929), in which the subgrade was classified as uniform fro m
A-1 to A-8 and nonuniform from B-1 to B-3 . The PR system was later modified by the
Highway Research Board (HRB, 1945), in which soils were grouped from A-1 to A- 7
and a group index was added to differentiate the soil within each group . Steele (1945 )
discussed the application of HRB classification and group index in estimating the sub -
base and total pavement thickness without a strength test . The empirical method with a
strength test was first used by the California Highway Department in 1929 (Porter ,
1950) . The thickness of pavements was related to the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) ,
defined as the penetration resistance of a subgrade soil relative to a standard crushe d
rock . The CBR method of design was studied extensively by the U .S. Corps of Engineers
during World War II and became a very popular method after the war .
The disadvantage of an empirical method is that it can be applied only to a give n
set of environmental, material, and loading conditions . If these conditions are changed ,
the design is no longer valid, and a new method must be developed through trial an d
error to be conformant to the new conditions .

Limiting Shear Failure Methods The limiting shear failure method is used t o
determine the thickness of pavements so that shear failures will not occur . The major
properties of pavement components and subgrade soils to be considered are their co-
hesion and angle of internal friction . Barber (1946) applied Terzaghi's bearing capacity
formula (Terzaghi, 1943) to determine pavement thickness . McLeod (1953) advocate d
the use of logarithmic spirals to determine the bearing capacity of pavements. These
methods were reviewed by Yoder (1959) in his book Principles of Pavement Design ,
but were not even mentioned in the second edition (Yoder and Witczak, 1975) . This is
not surprising because, with the ever increasing speed and volume of traffic, pavement s
should be designed for riding comfort rather than for barely preventing shear failures .

Limiting Deflection Methods The limiting deflection method is used to determin e

the thickness of pavements so that the vertical deflection will not exceed the allowabl e
limit . The Kansas State Highway Commission (1947) modified Boussinesq's equatio n
(Boussinesq, 1885) and limited the deflection of subgrade to 0 .1 in. (2 .54 mm) . The U.S.
Navy (1953) applied Burmister's two-layer theory (Burmister, 1943) and limited the sur -
face deflection to 0 .25 in . (6 .35 mm) . The use of deflection as a design criterion has the ap -
parent advantage that it can be easily measured in the field . Unfortunately, pavemen t
failures are caused by excessive stresses and strains instead of deflections.

Regression Methods Based on Pavement Performance or Road Tests A good ex-

ample of the use of regression equations for pavement design is the AASHTO metho d
based on the results of road tests . The disadvantage of the method is that the desig n
equations can be applied only to the conditions at the road test site . For conditions other
than those under which the equations were developed, extensive modifications based o n
theory or experience are needed . Regression equations can also be developed fro m
the performance of existing pavements, such as those used in the pavement evaluatio n
systems COPES (Darter et al., 1985) and EXPEAR (Hall et aL,1989) . Unlike pavements
 1 .1 Historical Developments 3

subjected to road tests, the materials and construction of these pavements were no t
well controlled, so a wide scatter of data and a large standard error are expected . Al -
though these equations can illustrate the effect of various factors on pavemen t
performance, their usefulness in pavement design is limited because of the man y
uncertainties involved .

Mechanistic–Empirical Methods The mechanistic–empirical method of desig n

is based on the mechanics of materials that relates an input, such as a wheel load, to a n
output or pavement response, such as stress or strain . The response values are used t o
predict distress from laboratory-test and field-performance data . Dependence o n
observed performance is necessary because theory alone has not proven sufficient t o
design pavements realistically .
Kerkhoven and Dormon (1953) first suggested the use of vertical compressiv e
strain on the surface of subgrade as a failure criterion to reduce permanent deforma -
tion : Saal and Pell (1960) recommended the use of horizontal tensile strain at th e
bottom of asphalt layer to minimize fatigue cracking, as shown in Figure 1 .1 . The use o f
the above concepts for pavement design was first presented in the United States b y
Dormon and Metcalf (1965) .
The use of vertical compressive strain to control permanent deformation is base d
on the fact that plastic strains are proportional to elastic strains in paving materials .
Thus, by limiting the elastic strains on the subgrade, the elastic strains in other compo -
nents above the subgrade will also be controlled ; hence, the magnitude of permanen t
deformation on the pavement surface will be controlled in turn . These two criteri a
have since been adopted by Shell Petroleum International (Claussen et al., 1977) an d
by the Asphalt Institute (Shook et al ., 1982) in their mechanistic–empirical methods o f
design . The advantages of mechanistic methods are the improvement in the reliabilit y
of a design, the ability to predict the types of distress, and the feasibility to extrapolat e
from limited field and laboratory data .
The term "hot mix asphalt" in Figure 1 .1 is synonymous with the commonly use d
"asphalt concrete ." It is an asphalt aggregate mixture produced at a batch or dru m
mixing facility that must he mixed, spread, and compacted at an elevated temperature .
To avoid the confusion between portland cement concrete (PCC) and asphalt concrete
(AC) . the term hot mix concrete (HMA) will be used frequently throughout this boo k
in place of asphalt concrete .

FIGURE 1 . 1

+ Tensile and compressive strains i n

Suberade
flexible pavements .
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
the word “Abit,” although they themselves are slaves, and will be so
while they live, though clad in the soldier’s smock frock, for the
Turkish soldiery have not yet qualified themselves for an honourable
condition.
It shews a want of order, nautical policy, and tact, on the part of
the commanders, to allow the poor inhabitants of the left shore to be
injured. They are said for some days past to belong to the nation of
the Nuèhrs. Suliman Kashef has made over some of his own crew to
us, to assist in rowing our vessel; but Feïzulla plays tauola (tavola),
or backgammon, with a Turk, and thinks, when he does not hear the
stroke of the oar, that we are sailing. I had collected some pretty
plants near those villages, and found wild cucumbers, without
prickles, as well as a kind of aloe, seeming here to thrive on marshy
soil. About five o’clock we had to be towed a short distance; then we
took a little to our oars, and at sun-set joined the other ships in the
east. The river has a depth of three fathoms and about three-
quarters of a mile rapidity in the intersection. I appeal to Suliman
Kashef to prevent the taking away and hewing up of sürtuks. He
himself confesses that the Icthyophagi dwelling here in the reeds,
being entirely cut off from the rest of the world, would be lost, as it
were, without their fishing-boats, since they can neither swim nor
wade through the marshes; he promises therefore to forbid it.
19th December.—We had cast anchor in the middle of the
stream, and the right shore was raised above the grass, to the
distance of a quarter of an hour; it was quite bare, notwithstanding its
row of palm-trees. It is a dead calm, and we do not put ourselves in
motion till half-past seven o’clock, assisting the slackened sails by
rowing. We bend immediately to the W., and I see before me, to my
astonishment, the sixteen palms again standing and the row of
palms just mentioned behind us, as well as the vessels preceding us
on the left towards the E. Near the palms of the right shore, we
remarked not a family, but a small army of elephants, moving slowly
here and there under the trees, apparently for the purpose of tasting
the dhellèb-fruit. This is not yet grown to its full size, nor ripe; but
perhaps they will shake it down by the weight of their body, as I have
seen them in Taka, do with the doum-palms. Two elephants were
previously shewn me in the country, where we saw the giraffes and
ostriches, appearing in the far distance like hills, until they began to
move.
At half-past eight o’clock, S.E. by E., north-east wind, but faint,
and only one mile and a half course. In the space of half an hour, we
shall be advancing to the south, where the other ships are already.
The serpentine winding of the Nile would have a beautiful
appearance from an air-balloon, striving, as it does, to break a road
through the reeds in all directions.
The steersman would often be puzzled what direction to take if
we did not push against the stream, which requires labour and
exertion. If it were otherwise, they would let themselves drift with
“Allah Kerim,” and most certainly would fall every moment with the
high water into unknown paths among the reeds, and pass several
islands by force, or remain sticking therein.
At half-past nine o’clock we proceed westwards, in order to go
again southwards after a quarter of an hour, as we see by the
vessels sailing before us. At eleven o’clock to S.W. two miles and a
quarter, and at twelve o’clock only one mile and a quarter. At one
o’clock the wind has almost entirely died away, when we again turn
towards the south. The sixteen palms are still visible behind us, and
we must have advanced in little curves, as we see by the vessels
behind us, during my short sleep, caused by the nightly epileptic fits
of Feïzulla Capitan. Wonderful to relate, we have sailed by them, the
captain having roused himself, for a short time, from his apathy.
Bushes of high reeds, and little forests of ambaks in Nile grass;
before us a long group of palms, which, as Fadl at the mast-head
thinks, belongs to the right shore.
From south we make a small bend towards east, and turn a little
corner of the left shore of reeds to S.W., where we again derive
some advantage from the nearly exhausted wind. I hear from the
mast that the left shore winds back to south, and that the right again
approaches the river in a semicircle.
 For some days past the stream has appeared whitish or clouded
to the superficial observer. Viewing it however, through the glass, we
find it quite clear. It is also well tasted, which was not the case
throughout the marshy lakes. If we find the river, having here a
breadth of five hundred paces, and a depth of from three to four
fathoms, we continue to ask the question, from whence does this
enormous mass of water come?
We have already passed the limits wherein the Mountains of the
Moon have been placed. It would almost seem the river is
accumulated in a cauldron-shaped valley, the declivities of which
encroach with long arms on the African world, and from which the
discharge after the periodical rains would be also only periodical.
Unless it has an immeasurable tributary stream as an unfailing
source from a south-westerly ramification of the Abyssinian high
lands, because the level ground, notwithstanding its tropical
vegetation, has too little power of attraction to justify such an
enormous power of throwing out water by the instrumentality of a
lake, under the absorbing African sun.
The breadth of the current amounts generally here to about five
hundred paces; its reed-lakes are always at the side. At half-past two
o’clock we move slowly S.S.E. with the north wind, which has nearly
died away, and set to work with the oars. We are glad that it is a
north wind, thinking that it may become constant before the end of
this month. Four o’clock. What Fadl said three hours ago is
confirmed even now, inasmuch as I see from the deck the right shore
more than a quarter of an hour distant, though I am not able from the
cabin to look over the reeds. The palms stand here in graceful rows,
and satisfy the wandering eye in search of something to rest upon;
an isolated dhellèb is also seen far up the river. We sail W. by S.,
and a skirt of trees with some dhellèbs behind approaches us, but is
lost soon again in the distance to S.W. There is nothing to be
distinguished on the left shore. Ant-hills are visible in the reeds,
among which, in spite of their fresh green, there are dry spots.
 On the right shore we noticed a giraffe and twenty elephants, the
latter teazed in an impudently friendly manner by white birds, against
whom they tossed up their trunks: their tormentors, however, always
returned to their heads and high backs, in order to pick the ticks out
of their thick skins, like the crows on the pigs in Greece. They appear
to me to be the very same birds we saw in Egypt perched on cows
and camels. When the last-named animals have old wounds on their
backs, they are visited by birds of prey. I was never allowed to shoot
them, because the Arabs believe that they pick out only the tainted
flesh, and even contribute to heal the wounds, when the unmerciful
cauterization of these people proves ineffectual. Mariàn shewed me
some trees, of singular shape, having a corolla like that of a cactus.
They are called Shudder el Simm, or poison-trees. On the left bank
of the river I saw fourteen miserable tokuls upon the partly dried up
morass, projecting between the reeds, and various iron pots lying
about. They had the usual pointed roof of straw or halfa; the lower
wall of reeds was plastered over with morass. Judging from this
plaster, which had fallen off three feet high from the earth, the water
had only risen here four feet, reckoning the height of the island at a
foot. This, the highest water-line, had not been able to carry away an
old thatched roof of some four feet high, and six feet diameter.
Beyond these fishing-huts, spread far and wide in the water, is
reed grass, overtopped like a bush by high rushes. Now I find it
explained why the White Stream on the efflux of these slime-lakes,
wherein thousands of animals miserably die, stands in such bad
repute in Khartùm, because we found ourselves a short time ago,
when in a tributary arm of the river, in a nonplus,—the water being
really undrinkable. A microscope might generally give interesting
results in these places. The lakes must not be considered as similar
to the slime-lakes of the Blue Nile, Rhine, and Rhone.
Sunset, six o’clock.—From the mast the right shore is seen
retreating to the distance of an hour, and approaches again before
us, whilst the left bank comes near us for a moment, so that a round
basin with a wide mouth is created. We hoist sails, and row to S.E.
by S.
 It is evident that the Nile, which we traverse, in spite of all its
circular windings, can never go out of the path of that old shore so
often denoted. It is certain that these windings enclose the gigantic
bed of the stream in vast curved lines; for the primitive stream could
not be arrested by a paltry opposition, as the present one is, even by
the reeds. If a journey by land were practicable on the old border of
the Nile, the road would be far shorter. The thermometer has now
got up to 25°. We stay behind during the night, because the crew will
not work any more. Feïzulla Capitan retreats ashamed into the cabin
and says not a word.
20th December.—Even before daybreak I went out of the cabin
to watch the weather; but the mist which melted away yesterday
morning at the rising-sun, did not make its appearance.
Nevertheless, I watched for the third time the dawn of morning, and
found I could read a printed book three-quarters of an hour before
sunrise. The morning dawn is, therefore, not so very short as is
generally believed. I had previously remarked this also in Khartùm.
We had 26° Reaumur, yesterday afternoon, in spite of the dead calm
only 25°. The fall of dew was considerable, and wetted my guns
even through the window, which I had scarcely opened. The
hippopotami put their heads above water, as if to consider the
appearance of our ships.
Immediately after the sunrise a gentle wind arose, directly
increasing, however, to a strong breeze, and we sailed from the
north, S.W.; but soon rounded a sharp corner of the reeds on the
right shore towards E. A group of high rushes of twenty feet high
above the water was entwined picturesquely with the blooming
convolvulus, which also floated in long tendrils with numerous
flowers upon the water, intersected, likewise, by high aquatic herbs
and low plants. The water hurries partly in cheerful flowing rivulets
through this group, in order to seek the nearest channel. The left
shore surrounds us at a distance of half an hour or an hour, in a
beautiful arch, with palm clumps and isolated trees, from N. to S. by
E.
 Our course amounts to two miles and a half, and the rapidity of
the river here is generally half a mile. Nine o’clock.—Just as I lift up
my eyes, we go again from S.W. to E. by S., and immediately to
S.W., where we see some strong trees before us. Half-past nine
o’clock, S., then S.W., subsequently S., and then S.E., with four
miles’ course.
Once more we see, after a lapse of a long time, a certain number
of people, said to form a considerable nation, under the name of
Kèks. The little village yonder contains only thirteen wretched tokuls;
the pointed roofs are low, and, like the walls, of straw. Among the
trees there are some which branch out vigorously, and have a thick
green foliage; they are said also to be found in upper Kordofàn or
Nuba, where, according to Mariàn, they are called Tihls. Their fruit is
long and large, like the pumpkin, and edible. Possibly a Nuba negro
may think them relishing; but subsequently, when we found a
number of such trees, called by the Arabs elephant-trees, I found the
unripe fruit not eatable. The Arabs also, who themselves eat locusts,
although not from choice, never eat this fruit even when ripe.
Isolated poison-trees also stand round about there. A second village
lay back in the reeds. The people were of a livid colour, and naked;
they smear themselves, as the Shilluks are said partly to do, with
Nile slime, as a protection against the sting of gnats.
It was affecting to see how these poor creatures raised both
hands high in the air, and let them slowly fall, by way of greeting. A
woman likewise, naked to the girdle, greeted us, placing her elbows
somewhat close to her body, and made with her hands, the flat side
upwards, the motion of saluting usual also with us. She had an ivory
ring round her head, and another round the neck; which last must
have been either ingeniously put together, or slipped over her head
in her youth. The men wore ivory rings around one arm. A man
turned towards his hut, as if inviting us in; another stood alone, lifted
his hands, and jumped round in a circle upon one spot.
 DOUM-PALMS. DHELLEB-PALMS. BAOBABS. BAOBABS.
A VILLAGE OF THE SHILLUKS, ON THE LEFT SHORE OF THE NILE.
25TH MARCH, 1841.

Our Dinkas (whose language is allied to that of the Nuèhres and

Keks), said that they wanted durra from us, and told us that their
cows were far away, and would not return till evening. (Durra is
called in Bellet-Sudàn, esh, which denotes bread in Egypt, and
plainly indicates to the primeval bread-corn of the Egyptians found
still in the old tombs; but it is also here used for bread in the Egyptian
manner, whilst the pancake-bread is called kisra.) Our Dinkas, as
well as Mariàn, asserted in the most positive manner that these Kèks
kill no animal, but only live on grains of seed and milk. I could
distinguish no hair on their heads, and heard that they coat it with
clay, and let it dry in the sun. I greeted them with my hand, and two
of them repeatedly jumped in the air, and gave me to understand
that they recognised my salute. These must be the real happy
Ethiopians, for they seem to lead a blameless life, and they do not
even have festivals, like the Homeric ones. I could not ascertain, with
certainty, whether this sparing of animal life extends also to game
and fish; it was generally asserted, however, that they eat cattle that
die a natural death. The latter also is partly done in the land of
Sudàn, but not by the genuine Arabs; it is even contrary to the
Koràn, to eat a beast struck by a bullet, unless its throat has been
cut whilst it yet lived, to let out the blood: this is scouted also by the
Hebrews.
At Khartùm, I saw, one morning, quite early, two dead camels
lying on a public square; the men were cutting off large pieces to
roast, and the dogs stood mournfully around. I myself, with Drs.
Fisher and Pruner, helped to consume, in Kàhira, a roasted portion
of Clot Bey’s beautiful giraffe, which had eaten too much bersim
(white clover): the meat is very tender, and of tolerably fine grain; the
tongue appeared to me a real delicacy. I could never acquire a taste,
however, for the course fibrous flesh of camels, even when they
were young. A German cook might, however, know how to make it
palatable by a suitable sauce. We ourselves have dressed very
tolerable sauerbraten[6] from the tough beef in Khartùm.
Half past ten o’clock. We row round a corner N.E. by N., and are
obliged, owing to the north wind, which is against us in this short
passage, to make use of the sandal as a leader, in order to drag
after us the Kaiàss. We wind then S.S.W.: the wind has freshened,
and we make four miles. At noon a short track to the S.E., but only
for a short time, and we halt on the reeds, opposite to the right
shore. Thibaut visited and invited me to a Burma of merissa, which
he had prepared from Abrè. This Abrè is a very fine kind of bread; it
is baked on the usual pan (Docka), by pouring liquid dough of durra
meal on it, and immediately scraping it down with a knife; to free it
from the clay or iron-pan, some butter is put over it now and then. If
a handful of these broken wafers are thrown into a gara, with water,
they give a wonderful coolness to what they float in, and a pleasant
acid taste. On this account it is the usual drink in the land of Sudàn,
and a welcome draught to the thirsty traveller.
Thibaut had made a large Burma of water in a state of
fermentation with this fine bread, and let it work for three days, till the
bread part had sunk to the bottom. This merissa must, however, be
quickly drank, or else it becomes sour. Naturally enough, it was far
better than that prepared in the usual way from warm bread, and
withal uncommonly strong and intoxicating. Even the finer kind of
merissa, called in Sennaar Billbill, is inferior to it. Abrè Nareïn, as the
corpulent Sheikh Defalla prepared it for us during the campaign in
Taka, and as it is drank by the kings of Sennaar, is only superior to it.
This liquor is like beer, and twice put on the fire (Nar), whereby it
acquires its name Abrè Nareïn.
Thibaut’s Reïs (steersman) exhibited the first proofs of the
intoxicating effects of this merissa, and was persuaded to delegate
the task of steering the ship to the former; but Thibaut, who had
begun even earlier to test its strength, was still less capable of
commanding his vessel. The wind had thrown us, in a trice, towards
the other side of the little lake, which forms part of the river. I had
previously remarked the dazzling contrast which the water of the
basin made, through its dark-blue colour, to our course. We think
that we discern in the three segments of that water, three mouths of
a river, separated by the reeds. Beyond this, we also see a real
water track, coming from S.S.E., which may be a river of less
importance, but we could not approach close enough to discover
this. It was only with a great deal of difficulty that we got loose again
from the reeds, and came into the stream.
We saw Selim Capitan, somewhat behind this little lake, halting
at a village; and a man, who was soon after followed by four women,
wading through the water and going on board. This village, on the
left shore, was called Baiderol, and its Sheikh, Ajà. They gave
presents to these people, but could not learn from them the name of
the great lake; and were soon obliged to ship off, for all the tribe
poured down to get presents of glass beads. These people belonged
to the nation of the Kèks, who are always at war with the Nuèhrs. I
remarked here a new construction of tokuls; as usual, of reeds and
straw, but with flat, cupola-shaped roofs. In the former expedition,
the Turks came here also to Shàmata (contention-war) with the
natives, because the latter had incautiously fired arrows in the air,
which the Turks looked upon as a declaration of war, and therefore
shot down several people.
 Thibaut read me the description he has given of Arnaud in his
journal; and I found in the course of conversation, that we had, in
1822, been together at Philhellenes, in Greece. We lodged close to
one another in Tripolizza, when the Greek heroes (who at that time
very modestly called themselves Romanians, and were
unacquainted with the name of Hellenes) began suddenly to murder,
in a base manner, at the Bazaar, fifty-four unarmed Turkish
prisoners, who for some time had managed to prolong their wretched
existence in the city. We Franks saved three of the wounded Turks in
our house, and would not give them up, though the blood-thirsty
people collected before the door. On this occasion, Dr. Dumont
(familiar with the modern Greek language), and the brave Captain
Daumerque, beloved by us all, (subsequently gloriously known in the
Egyptian army by the name of Khalim Agà,) distinguished
themselves in the manner most honourable to mankind in general,
and man in particular.
We remembered very well, that in the everlasting quarrels which
took place, the word “Greek” surpassed all other insults, and was
inevitably followed by a duel, without any other reparation of the
injured honour ever being thought of.
Without the knowledge of my parents, who fancied that I would
exchange Bonn for another university, I had travelled with my friend,
the now Professor Dieffenbach, of Berlin, to Marseilles. George
Thibaut had done the same thing, and thrown up his clerkship in
Paris. I found my books, the Pandects of Mackeldey, with the
Archbishop of Argos, turned into cartridges, in order that I might beat
the Turks blue with the Roman Corpus juris civilis, &c. It was a
dangerous and adventurous undertaking. Thibaut went with the other
Frenchmen and Italians to Egypt, to offer the Basha his services. I
learnt eventually to find out the fellows, who are even now figuring
away as robbers, and returned from Smyrna to my dear native land,
like an undeceived Phillhellene who had known, however, how to
distinguish the unworthy cause of these Synclides. Ten years
afterwards I again found the old people in celebrated Hellas, only
better laced up and combed, in high Turkish caps.
 The river makes from this basin a strong bend to N.N.E.; we had
sometimes, therefore, to use oars, sometimes the towing-rope. The
breadth of the river, including the reeds, is from one hundred and fifty
to two hundred paces. The rapidity of the current below that little lake
is one mile; it decreases, however, to half a mile in the basin, and
amounts now to one mile and a half. Our course was very
troublesome, slow, and so irregular, that it would be difficult to
calculate the length of this short passage. We sailed then a short
tract to the S.W., then S. and E., rowed N.W., and after sunset to the
north, without having advanced further to the south. The latitude is 7°
48′, and the longitude 27° 41′ east of Paris.
21st December.—I passed the night on board Thibaut’s vessel,
for mine had remained behind. This morning we worked towards the
east. We found in the little lake of yesterday such beautiful clear
water as only the Blue Nile displays at low ebb. Its dark water is kept
back in a sharp cut by the current of the still high Nile. It may be
inferred that the goodness of it arises from a neighbouring spring-
lake, or from a mountain-river, the blue water of which may flow,
even in other places, imperceptibly through the reeds to the Nile: this
is the case also with the Gazelle River. It was a pity that, when we
drank of the beautiful water, the village of Baiderol lay behind us. My
vessel will not even yet work up; I visit, therefore, the Frenchmen, to
inspect the hygrometer. It was about eight o’clock, and the
hygrometer shewed 70°: at night, however, it had got up to 75°, and
usually went back at noon to 20°: which may be taken as the
average in these lakes. For a long time there have been only very
few streaky clouds in the horizon, which were scarcely to be
distinguished from the firmament.
I saw yesterday evening the first shooting-stars; but none had
been remarked by any of the rest. At ten o’clock I jumped on Selim-
Capitan’s vessel, who had invited me by dumb show whilst I was
with Thibaut, during the dead calm. We sail with the north wind S.E.,
but the pleasure was soon at an end. Yet no! Selim-Capitan did me
the favour of sailing east by north with the north wind; but the oars,
however, were obliged to be used to assist us, in order to prevent
our running ashore. This manœuvre succeeded; and the others, who
had reefed their sails, followed the example. It lasted, however, only
a short time, for a strong S.E. wind getting up, threw us on the left
shore of the reeds on the right hand.
Selim-Capitan shews far more energy and attention than I should
have given him credit for, comprehends everything very quickly, and,
with the exception of his Greco-Turkish faults, which I will touch upon
afterwards, his character has been entirely mistaken. We reckon our
number of miles from yesterday at noon till to-day at the same time,
to be fifteen; and find, after the necessary reduction, that we have
advanced only two miles in direct line towards S. The land retreats
on all sides. From the deck I still discover the dark vigorous trees of
yesterday, called by Mariàn Tihl, and otherwise named Shudder el
Fill (elephant-tree), the large fruit of which is said to be welcome food
to elephants. At noon we towed southwards—a very troublesome
labour, for there are sloughs and gohrs on every side in the reeds,
which the crew must swim through in order to get firmer ground for a
short time. Even this presents many difficulties, owing to the reeds
and their great unevenness. Nevertheless, the food of the crew is not
so bad as in Khartùm, although for several days we have been in
want of meat; thus they are not very much spoiled from their birth
upwards. The N.E. wind, which was slack at mid-day, freshens at
three o’clock; we sail E.S.E., and in five minutes again S.W by S.,
and make three miles. But already again we see the river going
eastward, and we follow it, really S.E. and E.S.E., and then E. within
a short time, for it makes eternal bends here, of two hundred paces,
or less, in breadth.
Four o’clock.—To S.; ten minutes after, to W. We see towards the
south, on the right shore, from aloft, a small land-lake, the white
basin of which denotes some depth, and appears not to be fed by
the main stream. We observe in the back ground, two villages, with
dhellèbs and other trees, and in the distance other villages upon a
bare whitish shore, skirted with some trees. The vessels coming
after us reach to our right side, where the left shore ought to lie, a
good gun-shot distance from the reeds—and, O illusion and fancy!—
the old shore on the right, with its villages and trees, is Sherk (East)
—that is, the right shore of the river.—Five o’clock, from S.W. to S.
We make only half a mile, whilst the current is not more rapid. At
sunset we remark a number of birds, mostly long-shanks, moving in
two divisions near one another from west to east, and perhaps
repairing to the already more exposed sources of the Nile.
Thermometer 17°, 25°—27°, and 22°, at the three different times of
the day. The river three fathoms in depth.
22nd December.—I remained last night on board Selim Capitan’s
vessel. From S.E., which direction we reached yesterday evening,
we now went with a faint north wind to east, and our course had one
mile and a half in rapidity. At last I saw on the low ground in the
south, a village, with a large tree, apparently a baobàb, and further
on the old right shore, with palms and other trees; when,—at half-
past eight o’clock,—no more was to be seen of the left shore. At half-
past nine o’clock we went to the right shore to fetch wood. The crew
landed under a suitable guard, with axes, for we remarked a village
in the neighbourhood, and feared the old acquaintance of this
people. There were, moreover, no regular trees to be seen here, but
only stunted and decayed trunks, standing on or near the countless
ant-hills. These serve the natives as watch-towers, as we had
already seen, but no person appeared on them. The stumps were
said to be torn and disfigured by the elephants; indeed we saw
several deep impressions made by the feet of these colossi, for the
river had flowed off from hence some time.
The wind has gone round to E., and is very favourable;
whereupon we sail also at half-past ten o’clock from this place S.E.
towards S., but soon draw to the E. and row; then sail to N.E., and
assist with the oars. At noon, owing to the dead calm, we are towed
in a south-easterly direction, and at three o’clock we make use
slightly of our sails to S.W. by S., and soon afterwards S.E. by S. On
the left shore, a long row of isolated trees is visible, also groups of
trees themselves, among which, afar off, are distinguished dhellèb-
palms. They mark, indeed, as usual, the real old shore, for they do
not thrive in the morass, but frequently also they may denote, like
other trees, the ephemeral margin of the river. The dhellèb-palms
come nearer before us in a wide bend, which, however, may be only
so in appearance. The reeds are already on dry ground, and a lower
border of the same forms the momentary limits of the river. We
remark also here on the right shore of the reeds, where we halt
about five o’clock, in a southerly direction, several deep foot-prints of
elephants, who have trod down and eaten away every thing, so that
only single bushes of high rushes remain. Ant-hills, of eight to ten
feet high, rise indeed around, but neither tree nor house—a real
elephant pasture-ground.
I went on board Suliman Kashef’s ship, and found there my
Feïzulla Capitan again, but in such a state of intoxication, that he
fancied I was lost from his ship. He regretted me, and I played also
this time again the “achùl el bennàt,” and carried him safely home. It
is a wonder that his crew, who have worked themselves tired the
whole day, and with whom he is always joking in his Turkish
drunkenness, do not thoroughly lose their patience and respect.
23rd December.—Instead of sailing at daybreak with the
favourable wind, one vessel went after the other to the left shore, but
we soon heard that the vessel of the commander, Selim Capitan,
was full of water, having drawn so much during the night, that if the
morning had not brought this circumstance to light, it would inevitably
have sunk. Biscuit, durra, wheat, and all the other provisions were
taken out, and dried on the sails spread on the shore. Sale made a
capital shooting excursion, and is very proud of it: he requests his
comrades not to shoot any more, for they only throw away powder.
The birds are generally the very same as those we found in Taka. I
shall return to this subject hereafter.
We could plainly remark near the numberless ant-hills, of eight to
ten feet high, and thirty to thirty-six paces in circumference, by the
difference of the same vegetation, how far the water has washed
over these hills, and how inconsiderably it has reached up to the
same, although the whole earth, in which there are many foot-prints,
and marks of elephants, rose itself only two feet above the present
surface of water. Even here, therefore, where a lake must always
disclose itself when the water is at its greatest height, the ascent of
the river is only slight, owing to its overflowing in an immeasurable
space. In a more extended excursion, I lighted upon a low green plot
of ground with water, and as I had remarked from the deck and
mast-head, these verdant tracks are found again in the half-dug
elephant-pasture. They may be old beds of the Nile, choked up by
reeds and slime.
Wild cucumbers were very frequently met with here, and with
their yellow flowers, often take the high rushes on the water into their
friendly embrace. The under stratum of the ground is formed here
also, as elsewhere, by blue clay, mixed with a little sand, whereon a
covering of humus lies, the vegetable parts of which are visible in
masses, less from their being decomposed by the atmosphere, than
from being worked up by the feet of animals. Hygrometer, at eight
o’clock, eighty degrees.
24th December.—After everything had been dried and packed up
again yesterday, we make, towards the evening, a very short track,
in order to secure ourselves somewhat more from the gnats, which
have, on the whole, decreased, and we cast anchor. Our clock, put
at six at sunset, shewed also six o’clock, when the sun rose S.E. by
E. The trombetta (drummers) beat a reveillée at the first tinge of
dawn; that is here an hour and a quarter before the sun; yet I could
not read for the first half hour.
The whole sky has been clouded since we left the country of the
Shilluks; and although they are not our heavy white clouds, the sun
cannot penetrate through them. A mist, in appearance like a coast
cut off from the horizon, surrounded us on all sides, without visibly
extending itself in our neighbourhood. This layer of mist, however,
was open from S. to S.W., where the river probably flows, with which
the mist nearest to us melted away before daybreak, as I have so
often remarked on the Rhine. The hazy streak of the rising sun is
splendidly irradiated from E. to S., and therefore deludes us to
believe that it is a broad luminous stream, or white lake, contrasted
with the dark edge of the sky. I had remarked, the evening before
last, a similar misty veil to the east, and, as I expected, there were
light mists yesterday morning, before sunrise, on the river, and
slowly floating down with it.
We went this morning E.S.E., and at seven o’clock S.W., without
having got ahead, for the very feint north wind had not yet made up
its mind. One of our vessels sails towards E. in the grass, and
appears to have struck into another road, in order to cut us off.
Isolated dhellèb-palms on the right shore, and towards N.E. a whole
group of them; whilst on the left shore a great wood is visible,
drawing into the land, as I hear, from the west. Before this forest
shady Tihl-trees, with broad branches, in our neighbourhood; the
right shore retreats again here, with its blooming ambak-thicket.
The lakes seem, in some measure, to be at an end; but the
gigantic bed of the stream remains, although the old high shores are
not, perhaps, to be discovered, for we cannot approach the real dry
ground, as the river does not extend so far. This must, however,
have been an extensive margin of the river, separated from it,
between which, towards the sides, the water flows and ripples in
small rivulets, like a meadow under water. It is said that there are no
more doum-palms here, although I would take some trees in the
distance for them, having, it is true, a stunted appearance compared
with those in Taka, but similar to those commonly found on the White
River.
Half-past eight o’clock. To S.E. by S.; then an easterly direction,
with the usual deviations, and at last S. From the mast is seen, near
the before-named shady elephant-trees, a whole herd of these
lovers of their fruit,—the white birds on their massive backs, whom
they are trying to drive away with their trunks.
About ten o’clock S.E. by E. and S.E. I think I see on the right
shore, a small river, discharging itself in the reeds, for the colour in
the little basin is different from that of our water. Immediately
afterwards, a small village, composed of low, wretched tokuls. A dog
looked at us, but did not bark, much as he was teased; he was a
large-boned greyhound, such as are seen generally in Taka and
Sennaar. This fishermen’s village stands some three feet above the
water, and we see by the fresh repairing of the huts with Nile slime,
that the river must have washed against this place. Four sails go on
the right, at a regular distance W., in the reeds, whilst the vessels
sailing a-head in S.E., also look over the reeds, and move towards
the E. The ambak-wood continues almost uninterruptedly on our left.
About eleven o’clock, from S.W., is an extensive bend to the E., and
afterwards to N.E., as it appears from the other vessels. On the right
stands an enclosed dhellèb-palm, quite solitary in the wide green
lake; and yet it delights the eye as a resting-point, like the sails far
and near.
From the undulating eastern direction, swerving to the N.E.,
where the towing-path is now made through the reeds, we wheel,
according to the dear old custom, towards S., in which direction we
halt at noon on the right shore, to wait for the other vessels. The
north-wind having become stronger since half-past eight o’clock,
promises to be favourable for the two windings we see before us.
We see over those vessels, towards S.E., clouds of smoke arise in
the forest, about half an hour distant, as we did yesterday and the
day before. Over the green-flat, to the E., from which bushes of high
rushes and ant-hills rise, several dhellèb-palms.
At three o’clock we set sail towards W.S.W., yet soon again
S.S.W., and at four o’clock S.E. by S.
One mile rapidity. Five o’clock. To W. On the right thirteen tokuls,
which, like the four on the opposite side, near our landing-place, are
partly new, partly restored, for the high-water rises above these new
shores. There are neither human beings nor anything else living to
be seen near the poor, badly built huts. The river navigated by us
has here a breadth of some four hundred paces. To the N. we at last
observed the vessels which had remained behind, and from yonder
the Haba shews itself, with groups of trees jutting out in a circle to
some distance; in N.W. smoke ascends in different places: as on the
left, to the E., in the far distance over the trees, although no villages
can be seen even from the mast.
These pillars of smoke are considered by the crew not as aerial
angels of peace and friendship, but rather as a general signal
against us. It seems more probable to me, however, judging from
analogy with the people, dwelling in Taka, that this kindling of high
grasses and pines is done by the tribes of the place to free their
territory from insects, snakes, and other noxious animals, or to give
air and nourishment to the sprouting grass, in order to make it fit for
pasture. In these forest-burnings we must seek for the cause of the
bad and stunted condition of the wood.
I thought that the river made a bend to the S., because I saw
water there; but they tell me from the mast, that this water is a broad
gohr, or Birke, (land-lake). It shews itself a gun-shot distance from
the river, and quite parallel to it from E. to W., and is, at this moment,
only divided from it by the reeds under water, and an ambak-thicket.
A water-course meandered through the rushes to the eastern end of
the lake. The crew affirmed that the lake receives its water from the
river by this road (sikka): this, indeed, is not impossible, but it is
improbable, for the river must propel its current against the water
from W. to E. I believe rather that the lake feeds itself from S.W.,
where incisions are remarked in the reeds, and behind, a long and
broad marsh-land. The lake and the river have now an equal level,
and there is neither an influx nor outflux to be seen in the so-called
little water-road. If it be not an outlet of the lake, discharging its
higher surface of water through the reeds, it is a road for crocodiles
and river-buffaloes. The broken rushes and the scattered borders of
the lower vegetation, &c. make me believe the latter supposition. I
have also remarked, at this moment, a large hippopotamus
wallowing about there.
There can scarcely be a doubt that this waterpath serves the
fishing-boats as a channel. The lake is from E. to W. about an hour
long. There may be numbers of such collective lakes and tributaries
which the reeds hide from us; for these waters, when the Nile is at its
height, do not rush into it, and cannot force a road through the
luxuriant and strongly articulated world of plants. These plants
perhaps allow a conjunction of water; but no open tributary stream
for the rise and fall of the waters takes place at the same time. Fadl
tells me that the lake is only twice as broad as the Nile, which is here
three hundred paces; and the head of the lake is said to draw
towards the south, thereby shewing itself to be an old bed of the
river.
No large fish are found here; for if there were any we must have
heard them at times in the evening splashing up; that is, supposing
they were very abundant in these lakes. However, in the land of the
Shilluks several fish of uncommon size, such as are seen in the
markets at Kàhira and Khartùm, floated towards us, dead. The crew
eat them, although they stank. Standing at the helm, above the
cabin, I noticed, before sun-set, seven elephants, with two young
ones, feeding on the right in the reed-grass, and, for this once,
unmolested by their feathered friends. We halt on account of the
faint breeze, towards the west, in order to wait for the vessels, the
sun going down before us and throwing all its charms on the limitless
watery expanse. Throughout the whole day it had never shone
through those misty veils, which appeared so lightly floating.
Feïzulla Capitan has found a new consolation, by establishing a
small brandy distillery. For this purpose he used dates, a great
quantity of which fruit we carried with us. One burma forms the
boiler, and another, with a reed in it, the head of the still. As,
however, he only once draws off this araki, there remain too many
lees in it to be pleasant; but this does not offend the taste and smell
of the bold captain. The thermometer before sunrise 19°, from noon
to afternoon 25-26°; after sunset 24°. The hygrometer had fallen
from 80° to 30°.
 CHAPTER VIII.
ARNAUD’S IGNORANCE AND SELIM CAPITAN’S CUNNING. — HATRED OF
THE THREE FRENCHMEN TO EACH OTHER. — THE ENDERÀB TREE. —
THE POISON TREE HARMLESS. — REMARKS ON THE LAKES IN
CONNEXION WITH THE WHITE NILE. — THE WOOD OF THE AMBAK TREE.
— FONDNESS OF THE ARABS FOR NICK-NAMES. — THE AUTHOR
DEFENDED FROM GNATS BY A CAT. — INTERVIEW WITH A KÈK. —
HUSSEÏN AGA’S DRINKING BOUTS WITH FEÏZULLA CAPITAN. —
DESCRIPTION OF A SUN-RISE. — VISIT OF THE KÈKS. — SOLIMAN
KASHEF AND THE LOOKING-GLASS.

25th December.—We are still waiting for the Kawàss and

Sandal. A man had been given to each of these ships to assist them;
but we have gained nothing by it; and therefore Selim Capitan
intends to tow both of them. Thibaut and I visited the invalid,
Sabatier, who scarcely knew how to keep himself from laughing
when Selim-Capitan took upon himself to give lessons anew to the
learned Arnaud, who very boldly asserted in our presence, that the
“altitudine” and “amplitudine” of the sun were one and the same
thing. As we then well understood, Selim Capitan wants Arnaud and
he to agree in their calculations, and grudges no instruction to the
latter for that purpose. He tells us, that such a coincidence with the
French engineer is the more necessary, because the Viceroy would
sooner credit the reckonings of a scientific Frenchman than of a
Turk, who had never seen Frankestàn. According to Sabatier,
Arnaud has not made yet a single calculation, because he is not
capable of doing so, but loads his back with these burdens,
notwithstanding Sabatier’s feverish state of health. Unfortunately,
this appears to be exactly the case, for Arnaud always agrees with
Selim-Capitan, who is exceedingly reserved in speech; and therefore
it is really fortunate that the Turk, being a naval officer, understands
something at least of these matters.
The three French gentlemen mutually conceal their journals, in
which one abuses the other; but they each fetch them out from their
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