VIRTUE ETHICS- philosophy developed by Aristotle and constitute the good inner character of a person.

Virtue is a
other ancient Greeks. It is the quest to understand and live unique form of value because it is limited to the quality of bc. virtue is a stable
hbit, if act was only
done 1 time it is not
a life of moral character. human character and does not even include the individual considered virtuous
person

human acts. Therefore, we will not refer to non-human

beings or things as virtuous.
For him, the purpose of a human life is to live according to
reason. This leads to ‘happiness’ in the sense of human
flourishing. This flourishing is achieved by the habitual “vices” are undesirable qualities. People who have a vice
practice of moral and intellectual virtues. have developed an undesirable habit. Examples of vice are
lies, cheating, selfishness, retaliation, jealousy, and more.

Virtue theorists believe that actions are manifestation of

- Excellence of
character For Aristotle, the excellences(virtues) are of two types.
inner qualities. Good people do good acts because they
- Traits help people to
Moral virtue is an excellence of character, a ‘mean’ between
have good character; bad people do bad acts because they
act and doing what is
good
two vices. In a healthcare setting what virtues would we like
have bad character.
- Developed through
habit & practice
doctors, nurses, to possess - self-control, truthfulness,
generosity, compassion, discernment, integrity.

This character-based approach to morality assumes that we

acquire virtue through practice. By practicing being honest,
Second type is Intellectual virtues, constitute a preference
- Excellence of Mind brave, just, generous, a person develops an honorable and
for truth over falsehood and for clarity over muddle
moral character. According to Aristotle, by honing virtuous
- Quality of mind, traits
helps us pursue truth
& obtain knowledge
(disorganized), both in pure reason and in practical affairs.
- Developed through habits, people will likely make the right choice when faced
experience & learnings
Both moral and intellectual virtues are the expression of
with ethical challenges.
reason.

- Utilitarians, would endorse killing the Joker. By

“Virtues” are the good qualities of humankind and stable
taking this one life, Batman could save multitudes.
habits that shape our character, guide us to do good. They
consequentialist and deontological ethical systems do the right thing even though it is not
in one's own interests (do it for the greater good or out of duty).

virtue ethics, does the right thing because it is own interest. Part of training in practical
virtue ethics is to come to see the coincidence of one's enlightened self-interest and the
practice of the virtues, so that one is virtuous willingly, gladly, and enthusiastically
because one knows that being virtuous is the best thing one can do with oneself.
 7 Goods:

- LIFE
- REPRODUCTION
- EDUCATION
- SEEK GOD
- LIVE IN SOCIETY
- AVOID OFFENSE
- SHUN IGNORANCE

- Deontologists, would reject killing the Joker simply being created in the image and likeness of God, human
because it’s wrong to kill. beings will always be geared towards goodness.

- Virtue ethicist “would highlight the character of the

person who kills the Joker. Does Batman want to be St Thomas Aquinas’s moral philosophy sees the basic moral
the kind of person who takes his enemies’ lives?” norms (the golden rule and the wrongness of stealing,
No, in fact, he doesn’t. murder) as fixed and unchangeable, although they can be
applied differently to different cultural situations.
Virtue ethics- measure actions against some given set of
virtues, with the goal being to be a virtuous person
(eudaimonia).
Human laws are set up to promote good and must accord
with natural law. The first precept (rule/principle) of natural
- Humans are born law is that good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be
with moral
c o m p a s s NATURAL LAW ETHICS- based on the Aristotelian principle
(discernment) that avoided. We can know what is good by investigating our
guides
behavior and
our
that everything in the world, is organized in a teleological
differentiates right natural inclination (urge to act).
from wrong.
fashion, everything has a purpose. This creates difficulty in
the acceptance of the Natural Law Ethics of St. Thomas for
those who do not believe in God.
DEONTOLOGY (Duty based ethics)- ethical theory that
uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Kant believed
that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as
The ethics of St. Thomas is also based on the principle of
“Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.” It just requires that
synderesis (signifying the principle in the moral
people follow the rules and do their duty. This approach
consciousness of every person which directs the agent to
tends to fit well with our natural intuition about what is or
good and restrains him from evil) and conscience.
isn’t ethical.

According to St. Thomas, this conscience is natural in a

human being who was created in the image of God. Thus,
absolute faith and hope in humanity, is one of the cores of break into any software system without permission.
Kantian morality. And, it’s a form of lying and cheating. Deontology
advises not to violate this rule. However, in letting the
Categorical imperative- command to perform actions that
missile launch, thousands of people will die.
are necessary, for the sake of duty.

Hypothetical imperative- command actions to receive

reward. not moral or immoral in nature Universalism Formulations:

1. Formula of the universal law of nature: act only

according to that maxim.
Maxims- personal rule or general principle that underlies a
2. Humanity formula: act in a way you treat humanity.
action. As rational beings, we don’t just act randomly; we
3. Autonomy formula: safeguards capacity of the
devise certain rules that tell us what to do in different
person’s ability to make rules and choices for
circumstances.
themselves. This signifies that the ultimate choice
will always lie at the person.
4. Kingdom of ends formula: human being as a part of
Unlike consequentialism, judges' actions by their results,
a world community
deontology doesn’t require weighing the costs and benefits
of a situation. This avoids subjectivity and uncertainty
because you only have to follow set rules. But disregarding Deontology & Virtue Ethics- Both focused on the action
the possible consequences of our actions when itself rather than the outcomes, and ask whether the action
determining what is right and what is wrong. is justifiable in its intent.

- example, you’re a software engineer and learn a UTILITARIANISM- determines right from wrong by focusing
nuclear missile is about to launch that might start a on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Based on the
war. You can hack the network and cancel the launch, Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP) Produce the greatest
but it’s against your professional code of ethics to good for the greatest number. It is also the most common
approach to moral reasoning used in business which Consequentialist- rightness/wrongness of an act is
accounts for costs and benefits. determined by the goodness/badness of the results that
follow from it.

However, because we cannot predict the future, it’s difficult

to know with certainty whether the consequences of our Felicific/Utility- only thing that is good is some specific type
actions will be good or bad. This is one of the limitations of of state (pleasure, happiness, welfare).
utilitarianism. Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for
values such as justice and individual rights.
Quantitative Utilitarianism (JEREMY BENTHAM)- employs
a sub-principle: maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Its
- example, four people whose lives depend upon objective is to maximize overall human happiness.
receiving organ transplants: a heart, lungs, a kidney,
- Felicific Calculus: gives parameters which can be
and a liver. If a healthy person wanders into the
given numerical grades and total for overall
hospital, his organs could be harvested to save four
“happiness score.”
lives at the expense of one life. This would arguably
produce the greatest good for the greatest number.
But few would consider it an acceptable course of
Qualitative Utilitarianism (John Stuart Mill)- difference
action, let alone the most ethical one.
between Higher (Intellectual) and Lower (Physical)
pleasures as a criterion for choosing the action with the
most utility. Mill argued that choosing a higher pleasure over
Although utilitarianism is arguably the most reason-based
a lower one maximizes happiness.
approach to determining right and wrong, it has obvious
limitations.

Act utilitarianism- focuses on the utility (benefit) of

specific acts (short term happiness).
2 MAIN FEATURES OF UTILITARIANISM:
Rule utilitarianism- focuses on rules that promote greater - Principle of Equal Liberty: each person has an equal
happiness (long term). right to the most extensive basic liberty (freedom)
compatible with a similar liberty for others.
- The Difference Principle: social and economic
JOHN RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE- every individual has inequalities are only if they result in compensating
equal right to basic liberties, and that they should have the benefits, particularly for the least advantage in
right to opportunities and equal chance as other individuals society.
of similar ability.
This operational procedure produces Rawls’ formal
definition of “justice as fairness.”

Veil of ignorance - A thought experiment; eliminates

personal features; imagine yourself in a conscious state
before being born. when people know nothing about their
future. They have no knowledge of their social status,
intelligence, gender, race, etc.

Original Position - position of equality; what sort of society

would you choose to be born into?; joint rationality

In an original position behind the veil of ignorance

individuals on an equal footing with one another ensure that
they will arrive at judgments from a suitably impartial point
of view. What would we expect rational persons in an
original position behind a veil of ignorance to agree on Rawls
argues that rational persons would reject utilitarianism.
Rawls believes they would agree on two principles.
Think yourself back to the original position and put yourself economic inequalities must be such that everyone has a fair
behind the veil of ignorance. Ask yourself whether a and equal opportunity to obtain them.
proposed rule for distributing benefits and burdens is
acceptable to you. If not, then it cannot be fair, and therefore
it cannot be just – so, the rule must be rejected. Holding positions of authority and offices of command open
is clear enough.
Justice = satisfying two general principles:
- example, no hereditary positions.
- No exclusions based on gender, race, etc.
This principle guarantees as much liberty as possible to - No “tests” based on wealth or property.
individuals. As long as my freedom does not hinder the
Arranging social and economic inequities so that everyone
fundamental liberty of others, I should be free to act as I
benefits from it. However, Rawls provides the framework for
choose.
thinking about this – original position and veil of ignorance.
- Political liberty (right to vote and be eligible for public
office).
- Freedom of speech and assembly. “This original position… is understood as a purely
- Liberty of conscience and freedom of thought. hypothetical situation characterized so as to lead to a
- Freedom regarding your own person. certain conception of justice. Among the essential features
- Right to hold personal property. of this situation is that no one knows his place in society, his
- Freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure as these class position or social status, nor does any one know his
are understood under the rule of law. fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his
intelligence, strength, and the like. I shall even assume that
the parties do not know their conceptions of the good or
Rawls’ second principle: their special psychological propensities. The principles of
justice are chosen behind a veil of ignorance. ” — John
We can have economic and class differences if even the
Rawls, A Theory of Justice
worst off in society benefit in some way. Social and