Latin to GCSE

Part 1

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 ALSO AVAIL ABLE FROM BLOOMSBURY

Essential GCSE Latin, John Taylor

Greek to GCSE: Part 1, John Taylor
Greek to GCSE: Part 2, John Taylor
Greek Beyond GCSE, John Taylor
Latin Beyond GCSE, John Taylor
Latin Language Tests for Levels 1, 2 and GCSE, Ashley Carter
Latin Momentum Tests for GCSE, Ashley Carter
Latin Stories: A GCSE Reader, Henry Cullen, Michael Dormandy and John Taylor
Latin to GCSE: Part 2, Henry Cullen and John Taylor

Supplementary resources for Latin to GCSE: Parts 1 and 2 can be found at

[Link]/Cullen-Taylor-Latin-to-GCSE

Please type the URL into your web browser and follow the instructions to access
the Companion Website. If you experience any problems, please contact
Bloomsbury at academicwebsite@[Link]

This resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification OCR GCSE (9-1)
Latin (J282). In order to gain OCR endorsement, this resource has undergone
an independent quality check. Any references to assessment and/or assessment
preparation are the publisher’s interpretation of the specification requirements
and are not endorsed by OCR. OCR recommends that a range of teaching and
learning resources are used in preparing learners for assessment. OCR has not
paid for the production of this resource, nor does OCR receive any royalties
from its sale. For more information about the endorsement process, please visit
the OCR website, [Link].

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 Latin to GCSE:
Part 1
By
Henry Cullen
John Taylor

Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

LON DON • OX F O R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

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 Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

London New York
WC 1B 3DP NY 10018
UK USA

[Link]

BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published 2016

© Henry Cullen and John Taylor, 2016

Henry Cullen and John Taylor have asserted

their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be
identified as Authors of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on

or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can
be accepted by Bloomsbury or the authors.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN : PB : 978-1-78093-440-2
ePub: 978-1-47428-562-9
ePDF : 978-1-47428-563-6

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

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 CONTENTS

List of illustrations ix
Preface x
Vocabulary and glossing xii
Note on English to Latin material xiii
Abbreviations xiv
Maps xvi

Chapter One 1
The Latin alphabet 1
Capital letters 1
Punctuation 1
Pronunciation 2
Latin in English 2
Abbreviations and phrases 4
Inflection (1): word order and endings 5
Inflection (2): modern languages 6
Verbs: person endings 7
Present tense: porto 8
Nouns: declension, gender, case 11
First and second declension nominative and accusative singular 11
‘the’ or ‘a’? 12
Supplying a possessive adjective (my, your, etc.) 13
Word order: how to tackle a Latin sentence 13
First and second declension nominative and accusative plural 18
Five important words 20
The verb to be: sum 22
Prepositions (1): with the accusative 23
Summary of Chapter One grammar 25
Chapter One vocabulary 26

Chapter Two 27
Nouns: more cases 27
Genitive case 27
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vi CONTENTS

Dative case 29
Ablative case 31
Prepositions (2): with the ablative 32
Noun cases: a summary 34
Second declension: vir, puer, liber 35
Second declension neuter 36
Background: the Trojan War 39
The birth of Paris 41
Second conjugation verbs 42
Third conjugation verbs 44
The Judgement of Paris 46
Fourth conjugation verbs 48
The infinitive 49
Principal parts (1) 50
To, from and in cities 52
The wrath of Achilles and the deaths of heroes 53
Time expressions (1): ‘time how long’ 54
The Trojan Horse and the fall of Troy 55
Summary of Chapter Two grammar 57
Chapter Two vocabulary 58

Chapter Three 60
Verbs: imperfect tense 60
Translating the imperfect tense 63
Imperfect tense of sum 64
The verb I can: possum 65
Ten new verbs 68
Background: Aeneas and the origins of Rome 70
Aeneas and Creusa 72
Adjectives (1): laetus -a -um 73
Using adjectives (1) 75
Using adjectives (2) 77
The journey begins 78
Gender and declension 79
Adjectives (2): miser and pulcher 80
The Trojans depart from Crete 81
Direct commands: the imperative 82
Vocative case 83
Two contrasting receptions 85
Time adverbs (1) 86
Scylla and Charybdis 87

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 CONTENTS vii

Summary of Chapter Three grammar 89

Chapter Three vocabulary 90

Chapter Four 91
Verbs: perfect tense 91
Perfect tense: first conjugation 92
Perfect tense: second, third, fourth conjugations 95
Principal parts (2) 102
Danger in Sicily (1) 103
Third declension nouns 104
Danger in Sicily (2) 110
Third declension neuter 111
Storm and Prophecy 114
Direct Questions 115
Dido and Aeneas (1) 117
Mixed conjugation verbs 119
Dido and Aeneas (2) 121
Time expressions (2): ‘time when’ 122
Dido and Aeneas (3) 123
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives (1): ego, tu, meus, tuus 124
Dido and Aeneas (4) 126
Summary of Chapter Four grammar 128
Chapter Four vocabulary 129

Chapter Five 130

Verbs: future tense 130
Future tense of sum and possum 134
Background: Aeneas and the Roman ‘future’ 135
The Sibyl and the Underworld 137
Ten new verbs (2) 139
Time adverbs (2) 141
Linking sentences: for, therefore, however 142
The eating of tables 143
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives (2): nos, vos, noster, vester 144
The future site of Rome 147
Adjectives (3): third declension 150
A final duel 154
Adverbs from adjectives 155
Background: From Aeneas to Romulus 158
Romulus and Remus 159
The foundation of Rome 160

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viii CONTENTS

Third person pronouns (1): is, ea, id 161

Third person pronouns (2): se 163
Third person possessives: eius and suus 165
The Sabine women 168
The ascension of Romulus 169
Summary of Chapter Five grammar 171
Chapter Five vocabulary 172

Chapter Six 174

Verbs: pluperfect tense 174
Background: the early kings of Rome 177
The reluctant ruler 178
Because and although: quod and quamquam 179
Numa, thunderbolts and fish 180
The relative pronoun and relative clauses: qui, quae, quod 181
The interrogative pronoun: quis?, quid? 185
Numerals 186
Servius Tullius: flaming child 189
Time expressions (3): ‘time within which’ 190
The verb I go: eo 192
Tarquinius seizes the throne 194
Prefixes and compounds (1) 195
Prefixes and compounds (2): new verbs 198
Prefixes and compounds (3) 200
Tarquinius Superbus buys some odd books 202
Tarquinius Superbus gives some advice 203
Time clauses: ubi and postquam 204
Tarquinius Superbus sends his sons to Delphi 206
The birth of the Roman Republic 207
Summary of Chapter Six grammar 209
Chapter Six vocabulary 210

English to Latin practice sentences 212

Reference grammar 216
Glossary of grammar terms 230
English to Latin vocabulary 232
Latin to English vocabulary 241
Index to Part 1 249

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 ILLUSTRATIONS

1.1 The extent of Roman rule at the height of the Empire. 3

1.2 Drawing of a coin depicting Julius Caesar with the title DICT[ATOR]
PERPETUO, issued after his assassination by the moneyer (mint director)
Lucius Mussidius Longus. 4
2.1 An illustration from an edition of Homer’s Iliad, showing the Judgement
of Paris. 46
2.2 Engraving depicting the Trojan Horse. 56
3.1 The famous ‘Prima Porta’ statue of Augustus. 71
3.2 Denarius coin issued by Julius Caesar showing Aeneas carrying his father
Anchises and the holy icons of Troy. 72
4.1 Etruscan vase portraying Odysseus blinding the Cyclops Polyphemus. 104
4.2 A manuscript illustration of Dido killing herself on the pyre. 127
5.1 A Roman marble relief showing Aeneas and Ascanius finding the sow with
thirty piglets. 147
5.2 Cattle drovers near the Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, 1890. 148
5.3 A bronze statue of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus. 159
6.1 Tullia drives her chariot over the body of her father. 197
6.2 Denarius issued in 54 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, descendant of the Brutus
in Exercises 6.37 and 6.38, depicting his ancestor as consul and surrounded
by lictors (bodyguards). 206

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 PREFACE

The authors have become increasingly aware of the need for a new Latin textbook
that takes students efficiently from scratch to GCSE , enabling them to begin reading
Latin as quickly as possible but without compromising on the fundamentals of
grammar. Many existing textbooks are excessively long and unwieldy, or pay
insufficient attention to grammar, or both. Others not aimed specifically at GCSE
introduce material that many students and teachers do not have time to cover. Many
teachers share these frustrations; we hope that this course provides a useful new
option.
Latin to GCSE aims to be both traditional and up-to-date. We do not apologise
for the fact that it takes grammar seriously: grammatical understanding is essential
for both progress in and enjoyment of Latin. It cannot simply be glossed over; nor
(regrettably) is it something that students absorb by osmosis. At the same time, the
needs of today’s students are borne constantly in mind. We have tried to focus on
things that students find difficult and that often cause mistakes at GCSE ; we
concentrate on the understanding of principles, in both accidence and syntax, so that
the need for rote learning is reduced. The stories have been selected both for the
intrinsic interest of their subject matter and for their importance in the Roman
history: amongst them are many old favourites, which students of Latin should not
reach GCSE without having covered.
We should like to thank Deborah Blake for the initial invitation to write the book,
and Alice Wright, Commissioning Editor for Classical Studies and Archaeology at
Bloomsbury, for her constant help and encouragement, and not least her patience.
The boys of Tonbridge School proved willing guinea-pigs for several early drafts of
Part 1, and our former colleagues there offered valuable feedback at several stages.
We are particularly grateful to Chris Burnand and Katy Waterfield who commented
in detail on a penultimate version of the text, to its considerable advantage. We also
wish to thank the several anonymous readers provided by Bloomsbury. The practice
papers in Chapter 12, in the style of the new GCSE (9-1) for examination in 2018
onwards, have been adapted from recent past papers by kind permission of OCR .
The book is directed primarily at the OCR GCSE , but we hope it may also be useful
to pupils studying for the WJEC examination, and more broadly to learners of Latin
of any age.
Henry Cullen would like in addition to thank Ed and Patte Sullivan. It was his
tutoring of them that provided the initial inspiration for this project; revising the
final sections of Part 1 at their home in Portland, Oregon, in August 2015 made for
satisfying ring composition.

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 PREFACE xi

We have read and commented on successive drafts of each other’s work, but
Henry Cullen remains responsible for Part 1 and John Taylor for Part 2.

An answer key and other supplementary resources are available at [Link].

com/Cullen-Taylor-Latin-to-GCSE
Henry Cullen
John Taylor
October 2015

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 VOCABUL ARY AND
GLOSSING

The chapter vocabularies for Part 1 and Part 2 cover the GCSE Defined Vocabulary
List. In passages, GCSE words are underlined and glossed in blue when they first
occur. The underlining is repeated for words that recur in the same passage: they
should then be learned. They can be checked in the chapter vocabularies, or in the
Latin-English vocabulary in the back of the book.
Non-GCSE words are underlined and glossed, again with the underlining
repeated. Proper names are normally underlined and glossed at their first occurrence
in a passage, but the underlining is not repeated.
In the glossed vocabulary underneath a passage, nouns are given with genitive
singular and gender. 2-1-2 adjectives are given with feminine and neuter endings.
Third declension adjectives are given with the neuter nominative singular if (like for
tristis) it is different from the masculine/feminine, or with the genitive singular if
(like for ingens) the neuter nominative singular is the same as the masculine/feminine.
Verbs are given with principal parts (present tense, infinitive, perfect tense) to the
extent that those principal parts are required to translate the form that appears in
the passage.

e.g. puella -ae f girl

laetus -a -um happy
tristis -e sad
ingens -entis huge
porto -are -avi I carry

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 NOTE ON ENGLISH TO
L ATIN MATERIAL

English to Latin sentences are included throughout the book to provide practice in
working that way round (once more an option at GCSE ) and because the authors
think that translating into Latin is invaluable for consolidating the language.
The requirements of the English to Latin section of the GCSE are explained after
Chapter Six on pages 212 –15 ; here you will find exam-style practice sentences.
Given the limited range of the vocabulary and syntax required for this section of
the exam, many of the English to Latin exercises in this book go well beyond what
candidates might find on an actual GCSE paper (they use, for example, wider
vocabulary or more complex accidence and syntax). Where this is the case you will
see the Stretch & Challenge (S&C) sign. Sometimes this sign appears part way
through an exercise; this indicates that the sentences from that point onwards go
beyond the requirements of the English to Latin section of the exam. We hope that
students will not be deterred from attempting those sections marked S&C.

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 ABBREVIATIONS

abl ablative

acc accusative

adj adjective

adv adverb

conj conjunction

dat dative

f feminine

fut future

gen genitive

imperat imperative

indecl indeclinable (does not change its endings)

inf infinitive

irreg irregular

lit literally

loc locative

m masculine

n neuter

nom nominative

num numeral

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 ABBREVIATIONS xv

pl plural

prep preposition

pron pronoun

qu question

refl reflexive

sg singular

tr translate

usu usually

voc vocative

1, 2, 3 first, second, third person; first, second, third etc. declension

1st, 2nd, 3rd first, second, third etc. conjugation

Note also two abbreviations of Latin expressions that are common in English, and
frequently used in the explanations of grammar in this book:

e.g. exempli gratia for (the sake of) example

i.e. id est that is (introducing further explanation)

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 The Ancient World with the route of Aeneas. Inset: the environs of Rome.

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 xvii

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The seven hills of Rome, showing its early stone walls and the location of the later
Circus Maximus.

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 Chapter One

THE LATIN ALPHABET

The Latin alphabet is the one that English still uses, with the following exceptions:
 No j i is used as two different letters, a vowel like our i and a
consonant with a y sound. English has often turned the consonant
form of i into a j. e.g. Iuppiter = Jupiter (king of the gods).

 No v u was also originally used as both a vowel and a consonant,

performing the roles of both u and v. Hence the word servus
(slave) was once (and still could be) written as seruus. Modern
convention however is to use separate u and v.

 No w there is no letter w (see below under ‘Pronunciation’).

There are therefore twenty-three letters in the Latin alphabet, though this book will
use twenty-four (including v); k, y and z are very rare.

CAPITAL LETTERS
Latin texts would originally have been written in capital letters; the lower case forms
that are familiar to us only started to be used in the Middle Ages.
By modern convention Latin (unlike English) does not use capital letters to begin
a sentence or direct speech. Capital letters are therefore only used for proper nouns
or adjectives, e.g. Iuppiter (Jupiter) or Romanus (Roman).
Most modern texts print capital u as U, though in some older texts and many
carved inscriptions you will see capital u written as V (e.g. SERVVS).

PUNCTUATION
Classical Roman authors made limited use of punctuation. Words or phrases were
sometimes separated by a punctum (point), hence the English term punctuation.
Paragraph breaks were also sometimes made. Some later Roman writers used a

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2 CHAPTER ONE

wider range of punctuation marks, including the comma, though many texts were
written with no punctuation at all. Modern versions of Latin texts are, however,
printed with the same range of punctuation marks that English uses.

PRONUNCIATION
This is an issue that has been much debated. Both during and after the Roman
Empire fashions changed over time and different pronunciations were used in
different places. It is best not to complicate matters too much. Key points are as
follows:
 Latin words are pronounced phonetically (as they are spelled) with every
letter sounded. There are no silent letters. e.g. the word nocte (at night) is
two syllables.
 One exception, however, is that certain pairs of consecutive vowels form
diphthongs, which are single syllables and make single sounds. Common
examples are -ae- (sounded like eye) and -au- (sounded like the ou in house),
e.g. the word portae (gates) is two syllables.
 In words of two syllables, the stress is normally on the first syllable.
 In words of three or more syllables, the stress is normally on either the
penultimate (next to last) syllable or the one before that. This is normal in
English too, so doesn’t require much conscious thought.
 c and g are always hard in Latin (as in English cat and get).
 i, when being used as a consonant, sounds like an English y, as in yet. e.g.
ianua (door) is pronounced ‘yanua’.
 Latin v (the consonant version of u) was pronounced w until the first century
ad , when a v sound started to take over. So the word servus (slave), for
example, would have been pronounced ser-wus in earlier times and ser-vus
later on. Choose to pronounce v as a w or as a v, as you wish.
 The vowels are long in some places and short in others, but there are only a
few places where this affects how a word should be translated, and we’ll
note them as we go along.

LATIN IN ENGLISH
The development of English has been heavily influenced by Latin. Almost 60 per
cent of English words come from Latin, either directly or via French. About 25 per
cent of English words have Germanic origins. The remaining English words come
from many sources, including Greek.

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 L ATIN IN ENGLISH 3

Figure 1.1 The extent of Roman rule at the height of the Empire.
Accessed via iStock, Copyright: PeterHermesFurian.

The high proportion of Latinate (Latin-derived) words in English means that

Latin vocabulary comes much more naturally than you might expect, even when you
are starting from scratch.
In order to demonstrate this, three lists of Latin words are below, arranged
alphabetically. The first column contains words that English has taken directly from
Latin; the second contains words that English has changed only slightly; the third
contains Latin words that are the roots of many English words: i.e. we source, or
derive, many English words (derivatives) from them. See how many you recognise or
can guess the meanings of.

Directly used Slight change Root word (gives derivatives)

audio ascendo aqua

bonus brevis bene
consul consumo credo
data defendo dominus
ego exspecto equus
forum flumen femina
gladiator gravis gratus
honor (USA) habito hortus
index invito intellego
labor (USA) legio locus
minimum maior mater

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4 CHAPTER ONE

Directly used Slight change Root word (gives derivatives)

nil navigo nox (noct-)

omnibus offero optimus
plus praemium pater
quasi quantus quaero
ratio respondeo rex (reg-)
senator saluto scribo (script-)
terminus taberna terra
ultra ultimus urbs
villa validus verbum

ABBREVIATIONS AND PHRASES

Many Latin phrases, often in abbreviated form, either are still in regular use in
English or have become well-known sayings. Note the following:

e.g. exempli gratia for the sake of example

etc. et cetera and the other things
N.B. Nota Bene note well
i.e. id est that is [to say. . .]
p.s. post scriptum something written later
a.m. ante meridiem before midday
p.m. post meridiem after midday

Figure 1.2 Drawing of a coin depicting Julius Caesar with the title DICT[ATOR]
PERPETUO, issued after his assassination by the moneyer (mint director) Lucius Mussidius
Longus. (Photo by: Photo12/UIG via Getty Images)

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 INFLECTION (1): WORD ORDER AND ENDINGS 5

veni, vidi, vici. I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar, a general)

carpe diem. Seize the day! (Horace, a poet)
cogito ergo sum. I think therefore I am. (Descartes, a philosopher)

INFLECTION (1): WORD ORDER

AND ENDINGS
Consider the following two English sentences:

1 The slave greets the woman.

2 The woman greets the slave.

The nouns in these examples swap roles between the two sentences: the slave is
doing the action in (1), but on the receiving end in (2) – and vice versa for woman.
The spelling of the nouns, though, remains the same. We can only work out the
meaning of each sentence from the word order.

In English, the meaning is shown by the word order.

Latin works differently. Unlike English, most of the information about a word’s role
in a Latin sentence comes from looking at the word’s ending. In Latin, the two
sentences would be:

1 servus feminam salutat. The slave greets the woman.

2 femina servum salutat. The woman greets the slave.

Note how the spelling of the nouns, servus (slave) and femina (woman), changes in
the two sentences, depending on whether the nouns are doing the action (the subject)
or suffering the action (the object).
In Latin, the verb (salutat in the above examples) tends to come at the end, but
this pattern can be broken. In the Latin sentences above, it just so happens that the
subject and the object come in the same order as in the English, but this doesn’t
always need to be the case. The first example could have been written in various
ways:

servus feminam salutat.

feminam servus salutat.
salutat servus feminam.

These different versions emphasise different words by putting them first (e.g. if
feminam comes first, the point is that it’s the woman being greeted rather than
anyone else). All the versions, however, essentially mean the same thing: the slave
greets the woman. The word endings tell us who is doing what in the sentence.
Whilst the Latin word order can sometimes resemble English word order, you cannot
rely on this.

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6 CHAPTER ONE

In Latin, the meaning is shown by the word endings.

These endings give the vital information required to translate the sentence correctly.
They change depending on what is happening in the sentence. The process by which
these endings change is called inflection. Latin relies upon this principle of inflection.

A noun’s ending tells us:

 the noun’s role in the sentence
 whether the noun is singular (i.e. just one) or plural (i.e. more than one).

A verb’s ending tells us:

 who is doing the action of the verb
 when the action is happening.

INFLECTION (2): MODERN LANGUAGES

English has largely abandoned the principle of inflection. Word endings only change
rarely. Here are a few examples where they still do:
 Plurals: English often adds -s or -es. Note exceptions like children, mice,
sheep, fish, women.
 Pronouns: e.g. I (subject) me (object) mine (possession)
he him his
she her hers
they them theirs
who whom whose
 Very irregular verbs, e.g. to be: I am
you (sg) are
he/she/it is etc.

Other European languages, by contrast, have retained much more inflection.

 Consider a regular French verb, aimer (to like), whose endings change a lot:

j’aime I like nous aimons we like

tu aimes you (sg) like vous aimez you (pl) like
il/elle aime he/she likes ils/elles aiment they like

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 VERBS: PERSON ENDINGS 7

 The word for the has different forms in several modern European languages,
whereas in English it stays the same:

French: le / la / les
Spanish: el / la / los / las
German: der / die / das (and other forms)

VERBS: PERSON ENDINGS

As noted above, Latin verbs change their endings according to who is doing the
action and when the action is happening.
This is different from English, which uses extra words before the verb to convey
the information: pronouns (I, you, he, etc.) reveal who is doing the action and words
like will, was, or had reveal when the action happens. Latin verb endings provide an
efficient way of getting this information across; Latin often only needs one word
where English needs two, three or even more.
The person is the grammatical name for the subject of the verb (i.e. who is doing
the action).
The person endings, which appear in several different tenses and are therefore
extremely important, are as follows:

sg 1 -o (sometimes -m) I
2 -s you (sg)
3 -t he/she/it

pl 1 -mus we
2 -tis you (pl)
3 -nt they

sg stands for singular and pl stands for plural.

1, 2 and 3 stand for first person, second person and third person.

There is a logic to the person order: the persons start with ‘I’ as the speaker and then
refer to someone increasingly far away:

1st person I myself or we ourselves

2nd person someone I/we are talking to (i.e. you sg or pl)
3rd person someone I/we are talking about (i.e. he, they)

A verb is often described as e.g. ‘first person plural’ (we) or ‘third person singular’
(he/she/it).

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8 CHAPTER ONE

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 which letters are in the Latin alphabet
 how Latin uses capital letters
 the principle of inflection and the importance of word endings
 the person endings (-o, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt)

PRESENT TENSE: porto

A Latin verb attaches these person endings onto its stem, usually inserting a vowel
between the stem and the person ending. The verb porto (carry) demonstrates one
common pattern.
When new grammatical forms are met, hyphens will initially be used to show you
where the stem (the part that stays the same) finishes and the ending begins.

carry

sg 1 port-o I carry or I am carrying

2 port-as you (sg) carry you (sg) are carrying
3 port-at he/she/it carries he/she/it is carrying

pl 1 port-amus we carry we are carrying

2 port-atis you (pl) carry you (pl) are carrying
3 port-ant they carry they are carrying

The whole verb is made up of the stem (port-), the letter -a- (in five bits out
of six), and the person ending (-o, -s, -t, etc.).

 There used to be an -a- in the first person singular, too: the verb began as
portao, but the -a- disappeared over time, leaving porto. Such changes are a
common feature in the development of any language.

When you meet the verb, the stem port- tells you that someone is carrying something.
You then need to look at the ending to work out who is doing the action:

port- carry
-as you (sg)
so: portas = you (sg) carry

port- carry
-ant they
so: portant = they carry

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 PRESENT TENSE: PORTO 9

Verbs like porto belong to the first conjugation. A conjugation is a family of verbs
formed in the same way. The term comes from the Latin verb coniugo (I bind together,
I yoke) and literally means the binding together of different verbs into a formal
grouping. Latin has four conjugations; we shall meet the other three in Chapter 2.

Here are ten more verbs that go like porto:

ambulo I walk
amo I love, I like
clamo I shout
laboro I work, I toil
navigo I sail
neco I kill
paro I prepare
pugno I fight
saluto I greet
voco I call

Exercise 1.1
Give an English derivative (a word which uses the Latin) from:
1. navigo
2. clamo
3. laboro
4. ambulo
5. voco

Exercise 1.2
Translate into English:
1. salutatis
2. portamus
3. parant
4. necat
5. ambulas
6. voco
7. clamamus
8. navigant
9. laboratis
10. pugnat

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10 CHAPTER ONE

Exercise 1.3
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same person, then
translate into English:
1. vocatis
2. laboramus
3. portat
4. navigo
5. amamus
6. necas
7. pugnatis
8. ambulant
9. saluto
10. paras

Exercise 1.4
Translate into Latin:
1. They greet.
2. We walk.
3. You (sg) are working.
4. We kill.
5. They are calling.
6. You (pl) carry.
7. She likes.
8. I prepare.
9. He shouts.
10. You (sg) sail.

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 1ST AND 2ND DECLENSION NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE SINGUL AR 11

NOUNS: DECLENSION, GENDER, CASE

Just as there are fixed patterns of verb endings (conjugations), so there are fixed
patterns of noun endings, which we call declensions. Initially we shall meet nouns in
the first and second declensions.
All Latin nouns have a gender, as in many modern European languages like
French, Spanish or German. This isn’t really a feature of modern English, though we
might say, about a ship, that she is sailing well. The great majority of Latin nouns are
either masculine or feminine, but some are neuter (literally ‘neither’).
Almost all nouns in the first declension are feminine.
Most nouns in the second declension are masculine, though some are neuter.
There are different endings for different noun cases. A case is the form of a noun
that shows the job it does in the sentence. Initially we shall meet two cases:

nominative used when the noun is the subject (doing the action).
The term nominative comes from the Latin verb nomino (I name):
this is the case used to name the subject of the sentence.

accusative used when the noun is the object (on the receiving end of the action).
The term accusative comes from the Latin verb accuso (I accuse):
we can think of the accusative case being used when something is
accused or targeted.

We say that nouns decline as they change their endings depending on case.
The term decline comes from the Latin declino (I bend away, I deviate): the
nominative is envisaged as being the default case, with other cases deviating from
this as the noun declines.
The term case comes from the Latin casus (a fall): the various other cases fall
away from the nominative as the noun declines.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION

NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR
Here are the nominative and accusative singular of the first two declensions:

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f(eminine) m(asculine)

sg nom puell-a domin-us

acc puell-am domin-um

Note the distinctive -m ending in the accusative of both declensions.

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12 CHAPTER ONE

Exercise 1.5
Identify the case of each noun, and translate into English:
1. puella laborat.
2. dominus clamat.
3. puellam voco.
4. dominum necatis.
5. dominus puellam salutat.

Exercise 1.6
Translate into Latin:
1. The girl is shouting.
2. You (sg) greet the girl.
3. The master is working.
4. We kill the master.
5. The girl calls the master.

‘THE’ OR ‘A’?
Unlike modern European languages (and classical Greek), Latin has no word for
‘the’ (the definite article).
When you see a noun, you need to decide whether it is appropriate to translate it
using the. It may be better to translate it using a/an (the indefinite article), or even to
use no word at all. You can often work this out from the context. Sometimes several
translations are equally valid. Use your judgement.

e.g. puellam amo.

I love the girl. or I love a girl.

Look again at the sentences in Exercise 1.5 (above). Are there any places where a/an
could be used instead of the?

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 SUPPLYING A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE (MY, YOUR, ETC.) 13

SUPPLYING A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE

(MY, YOUR, ETC.)
Latin does have words for my, your, our, his, her and their (possessive adjectives);
we shall meet these in later chapters.
Often however the possessive adjective is omitted if the identity of the possessor
is clear enough from the context.
We can supply a possessive when we translate into English, inserting the correct
adjective to fit the subject of the sentence. Use common sense.

e.g. dominum amo.

I like the master. or I like my master.

dominum amamus.
We love the master. or We love our master.

puella dominum amat.

The girl loves the master. or The girl loves her master.

WORD ORDER: HOW TO TACKLE

A LATIN SENTENCE
In Latin, as you will have spotted, the verb tends to come at the end. The subject,
if present, usually comes first. The object, if present, is normally sandwiched in
between.

e.g. puella dominum amat.

Word order: subject – object – verb

literally: The girl – the master – (she) loves.

so: The girl loves the master.

When translating look for things in this order: SUBJECT – VERB – OBJECT.
Following this will help you to work out the grammatical ‘shape’ of the sentence. No
matter how complicated the sentence seems, apply this order and it will become
clearer.
There is usually a noun present in a sentence as the subject, in the nominative
case. In this situation, the verb will naturally be third person.

e.g. dominus puellam vocat.

The master calls the girl.

If you cannot see a nominative noun at the start of the sentence:

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14 CHAPTER ONE

1 Look to see if the nominative noun comes later on:

e.g. pugnat dominus.

The master is fighting.

Here the verb (pugnat) comes first, for emphasis.

2 If there is no nominative noun at all, the subject must be contained within
the verb, so start with that. You usually need to go to the end to find the
verb.

You cannot start translating a sentence with an accusative.

If the sentence starts with an accusative, you know that something must be
happening to that noun. In this situation, you need to look at the rest of the
sentence to work out what is going on.

e.g. dominum vocas.

You (sg) call the master.

puellam amo.
I love the girl.

In these two examples there is no noun acting as the subject. The subject is
only revealed by the ending of the verb.

Exercise 1.7
Translate into English:
1. puellam vocamus.
2. puella dominum vocat.
3. ambulat dominus.
4. dominum puella necat.
5. dominus puellam portat.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the present tense of porto
 the meanings of the verbs listed on p9
 the nominative and accusative singular of puella and dominus
 the principles of Latin word order

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 WORD ORDER: HOW TO TACKLE A L ATIN SENTENCE 15

Here are eight first declension nouns that go like puella:

ancilla slave-girl, slave-woman

dea goddess
epistula letter
femina woman
insula island; block of flats*
pecunia money
Roma Rome
villa house, country villa

* insula usually means island; the other meaning is not as odd as it seems, since a
block of flats is thought of as being like an island within the sea of the city, with
streets all around.

Exercise 1.8
Identify the case of:
1. feminam
2. pecunia
3. ancilla
4. Romam
5. deam

Exercise 1.9
Identify the case of each noun, and translate into English:
1. deam amo.
2. ancilla epistulam portat.
3. laborat ancilla.
4. puella insulam amat.
5. villam amamus.
6. femina ancillam vocat.
7. Romam amat dea.
8. feminam salutatis.
9. puella dominum necat.
10. pecuniam portant.

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16 CHAPTER ONE

Exercise 1.10
Translate into Latin:
1. The woman greets the girl.
2. A slave-woman is shouting.
3. The master is carrying a letter.
4. We call the woman.
5. You (pl) carry the money.

Here are eight second declension nouns that go like dominus:

amicus friend
cibus food
deus god
equus horse
gladius sword
hortus garden
nuntius messenger
servus slave

Exercise 1.11
Give an English derivative from:
1. equus
2. insula
3. servus
4. hortus
5. villa
6. deus
7. dominus
8. gladius
9. femina
10. amicus

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 WORD ORDER: HOW TO TACKLE A L ATIN SENTENCE 17

Exercise 1.12
Identify the case of:
1. deum
2. cibus
3. hortum
4. gladium
5. servus

Exercise 1.13
Identify the case of each noun, and translate into English:
1. servus nuntium necat.
2. deum amamus.
3. equus dominum portat.
4. hortum amant.
5. epistulam nuntius portat.
6. amicus feminam amat.
7. paras gladium.
8. dominus servum vocat.
9. servus cibum parat.
10. nuntius puellam salutat.

Exercise 1.14
Translate into Latin:
1. The slave is carrying food.
2. You (pl) greet your* friend.
3. The messenger is shouting.
4. The slave-girl carries the money.
5. I am calling the slave.

* Remember that no word for your is required here: see p13.

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18 CHAPTER ONE

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION

NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE PLURAL
So far we have only met nouns in the singular (i.e. when there is just one of them).
There are different forms for the plural (i.e. when there are two or more of them).
The term number is used when talking about whether something is singular or
plural.
Here are the nominative and accusative plural forms of the first two declensions.
The singular forms are listed too, for revision:

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f m
sg nom puell-a domin-us
acc puell-am domin-um

pl nom puell-ae domin-i

acc puell-as domin-os
 Note how the first declension keeps the -a- in all four bits.
 Note how the accusative plural ends in -s in both declensions.

Exercise 1.15
Identify the number (singular/plural) and case of:
1. hortos
2. insulae
3. deam
4. pecunia
5. equi
6. deos
7. villas
8. gladium
9. amicos
10. Roma

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 1ST AND 2ND DECLENSION NOMINATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE PLURAL 19

Exercise 1.16
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same case. Then
translate into English:
1. equos
2. femina
3. dominos
4. servus
5. ancillam
6. dei
7. deam
8. puellas
9. epistulae
10. nuntium

Exercise 1.17
Give the Latin (paying attention to the number of each noun) for:

1. house (acc)
2. slave-women (nom)
3. letters (acc)
4. food (nom)
5. goddesses (nom)
6. islands (acc)
7. messenger (nom)
8. friends (nom)
9. women (acc)
10. sword (acc)

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20 CHAPTER ONE

Exercise 1.18
Translate into English:
1. servi cibum parant.
2. equi nuntios portant.
3. amicos salutamus.
4. dei Romam amant.
5. laborant ancillae.
6. dominos necamus.
7. nuntii epistulas portant.
8. servus gladios portat.
9. puellae pugnant.
10. hortos amatis.

Exercise 1.19
Translate into Latin:
1. I am carrying letters.
2. The friends kill the messengers.
3. You (pl) greet the women.
4. The slave-girls prepare the food.
5. The girls are shouting.

FIVE IMPORTANT WORDS

Here are two important conjunctions (joining words):

et and
sed but

Here are three important adverbs (words that describe or modify the verb):

non not (goes in front of the word which is being negated)

nunc now
semper always

nunc and semper often reinforce present tense verbs. When they are used it can be
more natural to translate a present tense as (e.g.) she is carrying rather than she
carries:

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 FIVE IMPORTANT WORDS 21

e.g. servus nunc laborat.

The slave is now working. or The slave now works.

ancillae semper pugnant.

The slave-girls are always fighting. or The slave-girls always fight.

Exercise 1.20
Translate into English:
1. villam et hortos amo.
2. ancilla nunc laborat.
3. cibum semper paramus.
4. nuntius ancillam amat sed ancilla nuntium non amat.
5. servus et ancilla semper laborant.*

* A combination of two or more singular subjects needs a plural verb.

Exercise 1.21
Translate into Latin:
1. The woman calls her* slaves and slave-girls.
2. You (sg) always prepare the food.
3. The master is now working.
4. We do not like the block of flats. S&C
5. I love the girl but the girl loves the messenger.

* Remember that no word for her is required here: see p13.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the list of first declension nouns on p15
 the list of second declension nouns on p16
 the nominative and accusative plural of puella and dominus
 the new conjunctions and adverbs on p20

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22 CHAPTER ONE

THE VERB TO BE: sum

In Latin, like in almost all modern European languages (including English), the verb
to be is irregular. This is not surprising: the more often a word is used, the more
likely it is that its form will be altered or corrupted when spoken or written.
Though irregular, this verb is so common that it will quickly become familiar. The
present tense is:

to be

sg 1 sum I am
2 es you (sg) are
3 est he/she/it is

pl 1 sumus we are
2 estis you (pl) are
3 sunt they are
The Latin verb sum demonstrates clear similarities with the verb to be in French
(être). This is unsurprising, given that French is a Romance language (i.e. it is a
descendant of Latin).

Latin French

sum je suis
es tu es
est il/elle est

sumus nous sommes

estis vous êtes*
sunt ils/elles sont

* The circumflex (ê) indicates that an -s- has dropped out: it was originally estes,
which bears an even closer resemblance to the Latin.

These similarities might help you recognise different bits of sum in Latin.
The verb to be is most commonly used to tell you what something is or what
something is like (using an adjective – see Chapter 3).
When we are told what something is, the new noun goes into the nominative case
and is called the complement. The nominative is used rather than the accusative
because the verb to be is telling us more about the same person rather than describing
something done to someone else.

e.g. nuntius sum. I am a messenger.

servi amici sunt. The slaves are friends.

If est or sunt appear at the start of a sentence, it is often best to translate them not
as he/she/it is or they are but there is or there are.

e.g. sunt dei. There are gods (or the gods exist).

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 PREPOSITIONS (1): WITH THE ACCUSATIVE 23

Exercise 1.22
Translate into English:
1. dominus sum; servi estis.
2. nuntius et servus amici sunt.
3. sunt dei, et dei Romam amant.
4. ancillae sumus; dominum non amamus.
5. puella ancilla est.

Exercise 1.23
Translate into Latin:
1. You (sg) are not a god.
2. The messenger is a slave.
3. The masters are friends.
4. There is a god.
5. The slave and the messenger are friends.

PREPOSITIONS (1): WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

Prepositions are words placed in front of nouns. They create phrases which provide
more detail about the action happening in a sentence. They can tell you:
 location e.g. in, on
 movement e.g. to, from, into, out of
 a state or circumstance e.g. with, without

All Latin prepositions require the noun to be in a particular case. Many prepositions
take a noun in the accusative case. Five examples are:

ad to, towards
circum around
contra against
in into
per through, along

Several of these express motion towards. This is a common role of the accusative – you
might think of someone targeting a particular place (compare I kick the ball and I walk
to the station as two different examples of a targeting action: both require an accusative
noun). These prepositions focus the meaning that the accusative case already has.

e.g. servi ad insulam navigant.

The slaves sail to the island.

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24 CHAPTER ONE

puella per villam ambulat.

The girl walks through the house.

Exercise 1.24
Translate into English:
1. per hortos ambulamus.
2. servi contra dominos semper pugnant.
3. amicus epistulam in villam portat.
4. ad insulas nunc navigamus.
5. nuntii circum insulam navigant.

Exercise 1.25
Translate into Latin:
1. The slave-women carry the money towards the house.
2. The girl is walking into the garden.
3. We do not fight against the gods.
4. I always sail around the islands. S&C
5. The messenger and the master walk through the house.

Exercise 1.26
Translate into English. Unless a new subject is introduced, assume that the
subject of the sentence is the same as the previous one:
1. ancillae sumus. semper laboramus. cibum paramus et epistulas portamus.
dominum non amamus.
2. nuntius ad insulam navigat. epistulam portat. in villam ambulat. nuntium
saluto. servos voco. servi cibum parant.
3. dominus servum non amat. servus contra dominum semper pugnat.
dominus servum vocat. servus in villam ambulat. dominus servum necat.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the present tense of the verb to be
 how to translate prepositions that take the accusative case

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 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER ONE GRAMMAR 25

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER ONE GRAMMAR

Nouns:

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f m
sg nom puell-a domin-us
acc puell-am domin-um

pl nom puell-ae domin-i

acc puell-as domin-os

Verbs:

1st conjugation

carry

sg 1 port-o I carry or I am carrying

2 port-as you (sg) carry you (sg) are carrying
3 port-at he/she/it carries he/she/it is carrying

pl 1 port-amus we carry we are carrying

2 port-atis you (pl) carry you (pl) are carrying
3 port-ant they carry they are carrying

to be (irregular)

sg 1 sum I am
2 es you (sg) are
3 est he/she/it is

pl 1 sumus we are
2 estis you (pl) are
3 sunt they are

Prepositions:

 precede nouns

 some take an accusative noun:

ad, circum, contra, in, per

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26 CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER ONE VOCABULARY

ad (+ acc) to, towards
ambulo I walk
amicus friend
amo I love, I like
ancilla slave-girl, slave-woman
cibus food
circum (+ acc) around
clamo I shout
contra (+ acc) against
dea goddess
deus god
dominus master
epistula letter
equus horse
et and
femina woman
gladius sword
hortus garden
in (+ acc) into, onto
insula island; block of flats
laboro I work, I toil
navigo I sail
neco I kill
non not
nunc now
nuntius messenger
paro I prepare
pecunia money
per (+ acc) through, along
porto I carry
puella girl
pugno I fight
Roma Rome
saluto I greet
sed but
semper always
servus slave
sum I am
villa house, country villa
voco I call

40 words

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 Chapter Two

NOUNS: MORE CASES

Sentences would get rather boring if the only noun cases were nominative and
accusative. In addition to these, there are three other main cases:

genitive used to show possession e.g. the house of the girl

dative translated to or for e.g. I give the book to the master
ablative translated by, with or from e.g. we fight with swords

We’ll meet each of these in turn.

GENITIVE CASE
The genitive case is used to demonstrate possession. It is the possessor that goes into
the genitive, not the thing they possess (e.g. in the phrase the house of the master, the
master goes into the genitive).
The term genitive is linked to the word genesis (origin). You might think of things
that are owned by somebody as (in a sense) originating from them.
Here are puella and dominus with the genitive added in:

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f m

sg nom puell-a domin-us

acc puell-am domin-um
gen puell-ae domin-i

pl nom puell-ae domin-i

acc puell-as domin-os
gen puell-arum domin-orum

27

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28 CHAPTER TWO

 In both puella and dominus the genitive singular and the nominative plural
are identical. You need to work out which one you’re dealing with from the
context (what is happening in the rest of the sentence).
 Note how puella continues to use -a- in its endings.
 Note how the genitive plurals are very similar, but use a different vowel:
-arum / -orum.

The genitive is translated into English using of or ’s (s’ for a plural).

e.g. villam amicorum amamus.

We like the house of the friends.
or We like the friends’ house.

Remember that it is the possessor that goes into the genitive case, not the thing they
possess (so, in the above example, friends is genitive).
The genitive noun tends to come immediately after the thing possessed: e.g.
gladius domini (the master’s sword).
Use any available clues to help you work out the number and case of a word with
an ending that is ambiguous (could be more than one thing):

e.g. servus domini non laborat.

The slave of the master is not working.
or The master’s slave is not working.

The verb laborat is singular, so you know that the subject of the sentence must be
singular. The subject must be servus, so domini must be genitive singular (the other
option, that domini is nominative plural, is impossible because it would need a
plural verb).
When a noun is listed in a wordlist, the genitive singular (either in full or just the
ending) is given too, as well as the gender. The declensions have different genitive
endings, so you can work out which declension the noun belongs to (and therefore
all the noun’s endings):

e.g. puella -ae f girl genitive ending -ae, therefore 1st declension
dominus -i m master genitive ending -i, therefore 2nd declension

As you meet new items of vocabulary you will always be given enough information
(e.g. the genitive of a noun) to enable you to work out what you are dealing with:
e.g. a noun that goes like puella, or a verb that goes like porto, etc.

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 DATIVE CASE 29

Exercise 2.1
Translate into English, identifying the genitive nouns:
1. servus domini semper laborat.
2. dominus insularum nunc es.
3. puellae equum nuntii amant.
4. contra amicos Romae non pugnamus.
5. ancilla gladios nuntiorum in hortum portat.

Exercise 2.2
Translate into Latin:
1. We greet the master of the house.
2. The slave-girl always carries the woman’s letters.
3. You (sg) are carrying the girls’ money.
4. The girl does not greet the slaves of the master.
5. I am calling the slaves’ master.

DATIVE CASE
The dative case is used when a noun is the indirect object. The indirect object is a
noun that is affected by the action of a sentence but is not the direct object of the
verb:

e.g. I give the money (direct object) to the slave (indirect object).

In this example, money would be accusative (since it is on the receiving end of the
verb) and slave would be dative.
The term dative comes from the Latin verb do (I give): one use of the dative is
when one person gives a thing to someone else.
Here are puella and dominus with the dative added in:

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30 CHAPTER TWO

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f m

sg nom puell-a domin-us

acc puell-am domin-um
gen puell-ae domin-i
dat puell-ae domin-o

pl nom puell-ae domin-i

acc puell-as domin-os
gen puell-arum domin-orum
dat puell-is domin-is
 For puella the dative singular is identical to the genitive singular (and the
nominative plural). You need to decide which one it is from the context.
 Note that the dative plural is the same for both puella and dominus.
 dea has an irregular form in the dative plural, deabus: this is to distinguish it
from the dative plural of deus (deis).

The dative is usually translated with to or for.

e.g. cibum domino paramus.

We prepare the food for the master.

Note the new verb do (I give), which goes like porto (i.e. do, das, dat, damus, datis,
dant).

e.g. pecuniam domino damus.

We give money to the master.

If in English you put the indirect object first, the word to is omitted:

We give the master money (i.e. we give money to the master).

Exercise 2.3
Translate into English, identifying the dative nouns:
1. puella cibum feminae dat.
2. servi equum domino nunc parant.
3. ancilla epistulas servo dat.
4. equos nuntiis paramus.
5. feminae cibum deis et deabus dant.

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 ABL ATIVE CASE 31

Exercise 2.4
Translate into Latin:
1. I prepare swords for the messengers.
2. Masters do not prepare food for slaves.
3. The girl gives the woman a letter.
4. You (pl) always give food and money to the goddess. S&C
5. We give the woman’s money to the slaves.

ABLATIVE CASE
The remaining one of the five main cases is the ablative. This case has a range of uses
and meanings.
If it appears by itself (without a preposition) it can mean by, with or from.
The term ablative comes from part of a Latin verb meaning I take away. This
captures one important thing the ablative expresses: the idea of separation.
Here are puella and dominus with the ablative added in:

1st declension 2nd declension

girl master

f m

sg nom puell-a domin-us

acc puell-am domin-um
gen puell-ae domin-i
dat puell-ae domin-o
abl puell-a (long a) domin-o

pl nom puell-ae domin-i

acc puell-as domin-os
gen puell-arum domin-orum
dat puell-is domin-is
abl puell-is domin-is
 The -a in the ablative singular of puella is pronounced long (whereas the -a
in the nominative singular is short).

Note that the dative and ablative singular of dominus are identical.

The dative and ablative plural are the same for both puella and dominus.

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32 CHAPTER TWO

In all instances where a word could be several different cases (e.g. puellae could be
gen sg, dat sg or nom pl), judge which one it is from the context.
You will need to think carefully about which translation out of by, with or from
is best when you see a word in the ablative.

e.g. servus nuntium gladio necat.

The slave kills the messenger with a sword.

More commonly, however, an ablative noun does not appear by itself but instead
follows a preposition that takes the ablative case.

PREPOSITIONS (2): WITH THE ABLATIVE

In Chapter One we met five prepositions that are followed by a noun in the accusative
case: ad, circum, contra, in, per.
Prepositions can also be followed by the ablative case. Some important examples
are:

a/ab* from, away from

e/ex* from, out of, out
cum with (i.e. accompanied by)
in in, on

* a and e when the next word begins with a consonant.

ab and ex when the next word begins with a vowel or h.

Once again, the prepositions often serve to reinforce or focus the meanings that the
case already has. Two out of four of the prepositions listed above are to do with
going away from a place: we saw above that from is one of the ablative’s main
meanings.

e.g. ancillae dominum e villa portant.

The slave-girls carry the master out of the house.

nuntius ab insula navigat.

The messenger sails away from the island.

in can be followed by either the accusative or the ablative. There is an important

difference in meaning:

in + acc = into (motion towards)

in + abl = in/on (staying put in a place)

e.g. dominus in hortum ambulat.

The master walks into the garden. (i.e. he enters it)

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 PREPOSITIONS (2): WITH THE ABL ATIVE 33

dominus in horto ambulat.

The master is walking in the garden. (i.e. he is strolling in it)

cum means with in the sense of accompanied by (e.g. a person). To say with in the
sense of using a thing the ablative is used by itself, without a preposition (we call this
the instrumental use):

e.g. cum puella ambulo.

I walk with the girl.

amicum gladio neco.

I kill my friend with a sword.

Exercise 2.5
Identify the ablative nouns and translate the sentences into English:
1. est nuntius in villa.
2. puellae feminam gladiis necant.
3. amicus ab insula nunc navigat.
4. ex horto cum amicis ambulatis.
5. servi dominum e villa portant.
6. non sunt villae in insula.
7. feminae in hortum cum puellis ambulant.
8. dominus contra amicum gladio pugnat.
9. in horto semper laboras.
10. puella a villa nunc ambulat.

Exercise 2.6
Translate into Latin :
1. There are messengers in the garden.
2. The slaves are preparing food with the slave-girls.
3. I walk into the garden with my friends.
4. We sail away from the island with our master.
S&C
5. The friends are now walking out of the house.

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34 CHAPTER TWO

NOUN CASES: A SUMMARY

nominative subject (doing the action)

accusative direct object (on the receiving end of the action)

or used with specific prepositions

genitive shows possession (of or ’s / s’)

dative indirect object (to or for)

ablative by, with or from

or used with specific prepositions

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the roles of the genitive, dative and ablative cases
 the endings of puella and dominus in all five cases, singular and plural

Exercise 2.7 (Revision)

Identify the number and case of the following:
1. pecunia (two answers)
2. amicos
3. dei (two answers)
4. gladiis (two answers)
5. puellarum
6. nuntio (two answers)
7. villae (three answers)
8. deam
9. hortorum
10. insulis (two answers)

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 SECOND DECLENSION: VIR, PUER, LIBER 35

SECOND DECLENSION: vir, puer, liber

Most masculine nouns in the second declension go like dominus.
A few, however, such as vir (man), puer (boy) and liber (book) have a nominative
singular ending in -r.
All their other endings are the same as those of dominus. In effect these nouns
decline as if they had a nominative singular ending -us, which has disappeared.
Look at the tables below. Note how puer keeps the -e- in its stem in all cases,
whereas liber drops the -e- from the accusative singular onwards, reflecting how the
word would have been pronounced.

vir puer liber

man boy book

m m m

sg nom vir puer liber

acc vir-um puer-um libr-um*
gen vir-i puer-i libr-i
dat vir-o puer-o libr-o
abl vir-o puer-o libr-o

pl nom vir-i puer-i libr-i

acc vir-os puer-os libr-os
gen vir-orum puer-orum libr-orum
dat vir-is puer-is libr-is
abl vir-is puer-is libr-is

* drops the -e- from its stem.

Note too another noun that goes like liber (dropping the -e- from the accusative
singular onwards):

ager (acc agrum, gen agri, etc.) field

Exercise 2.8
Identify the number and case of:
1. pueri (two possible answers)
2. librorum
3. puerum
4. agri (two possible answers)
5. viro (two possible answers)

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36 CHAPTER TWO

Exercise 2.9
Translate into English:
1. pueri per agros cum nuntiis ambulant.
2. vir est dominus servorum.
3. femina libros pueris dat.
4. in agris cum servis semper laboro.
5. servus gladios virorum in hortum portat.

Exercise 2.10
Translate into Latin:
1. There are men in the house.
2. The slave-girls are preparing food for the men.
3. He is now working in the field with the boys.
4. I give the book to my friend. S&C
5. We carry the boys’ books into the house.

SECOND DECLENSION NEUTER

We have already met the concept of gender: the nouns we have met that go like
puella are first declension feminine, and those that go like dominus (plus vir, puer,
liber and ager) are second declension masculine.
In Latin there is a third gender, though it is rarer than the other two. This is called
neuter (literally neither in Latin). Neuter nouns are neither masculine nor feminine.
Neuter noun endings are a slightly modified version of the masculine endings.
There are no neuter nouns in the first declension, but plenty in the second. Because
of the extensive overlap with the masculine endings there is not much new learning
required.
Here is the second declension neuter noun bellum (war) in full. The three places
where the endings differ from the masculine are underlined.

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 SECOND DECLENSION NEUTER 37

war

sg nom bell-um
acc bell-um
gen bell-i
dat bell-o
abl bell-o

pl nom bell-a
acc bell-a
gen bell-orum
dat bell-is
abl bell-is
 Note that the nominative is the same as the accusative in both singular and
plural. This is always true for neuter nouns.
 The neuter nominative and accusative plural end in -a. This too is always
true for neuter nouns.
 The genitive, dative and ablative endings are the same as those of a
masculine noun like dominus.

Here are six second declension neuter nouns that go like bellum:

auxilium help
donum gift
periculum danger
templum temple
verbum word
vinum wine

Note too a neuter second declension noun that goes like bellum but only exists in the
plural:

arma weapons

It is easy to confuse the nominative and accusative plural of second declension neuter
nouns with the nominative or ablative singular of first declension nouns. Compare,
for example:

ancilla nom or abl sg 1st declension (feminine)

verba nom or acc pl 2nd declension neuter

To avoid muddling these forms you need to learn each noun’s declension (and
gender).

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38 CHAPTER TWO

Exercise 2.11
Give an English derivative from:
1. vinum
2. donum
3. auxilium
4. arma
5. verbum

Exercise 2.12
Identify the number and case of:
1. templa (two answers)
2. vino (two answers)
3. periculorum
4. armis (two answers)
5. auxilii

Exercise 2.13
Translate into English:
1. vinum in horto est.
2. viri arma in villam portant.
3. semper sunt bella in insula.
4. amici dominum e periculo portant.
5. dona deis damus, sed dei auxilium non dant.

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 SECOND DECLENSION NEUTER 39

Exercise 2.14
Translate into Latin:
1. I am walking to the temple of the goddess.
2. The slaves are preparing the wine in the garden.
3. The messenger is always giving gifts to the slave-girl.
4. We like the woman’s words.
5. The boys are fighting with* the weapons. S&C
* Remember that no word for with is needed here:
with (accompanied by) cum (+ abl)
with (using a thing) just use the ablative by itself

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how to translate prepositions that take the ablative
 how vir, puer, liber and ager decline
 the endings of bellum and the list of neuter nouns on p37

Background: the Trojan War

The Romans borrowed most of their myths about gods and heroes from the Greeks.
Even the part of their mythology that is distinctly Roman – the story of their founding
hero Aeneas – begins with the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of Troy by the Greeks.
The legend of the Trojan War may have been loosely based on a real (but
unidentified) historical war, perhaps over trade: Troy was strategically located at the
mouth of the Hellespont, a narrow strait that gives access to the Black Sea from the
Aegean Sea. The same region was fought over bloodily, for much the same strategic
reasons, during the Gallipoli campaign during the First World War. The traditional
date for the Trojan War is about 1200 bc. Archaeological evidence from the site of
Troy (first excavated in the 1870s by the German Heinrich Schliemann) suggests
that the city was indeed violently destroyed on several occasions. One of these may
have given rise over time to the legend of the Trojan War. The war and the subsequent
homeward journeys of its participants are narrated in the Greek epic poetry of
Homer, a poet of unknown date (scholars cautiously suggest the late eighth century
bc). Homer is credited with having composed two long works, the Iliad and the
Odyssey.
The Iliad describes a period of several days in the final year of the war during
which some key events occur. Agamemnon, the king of Argos and Mycenae, and in

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40 CHAPTER TWO

overall command of the Greek forces, falls out with the best Greek warrior, Achilles.
Achilles withdraws from the fighting, and only re-enters the battle after the death of
his best friend Patroclus at the hands of the Trojan prince Hector. Achilles then kills
Hector, thus guaranteeing the eventual fall of Troy. The fall of Troy itself (including
the famous story of the Wooden Horse) is not narrated in the Iliad, which also stops
short of describing Achilles’ own death, though both events are known to be
inevitable.
The Odyssey describes the ten-year return journey of the Greek hero Odysseus to
his home on the island of Ithaca in north-west Greece, where his wife Penelope and
son Telemachus are fending off a crowd of suitors who are eager to marry Penelope
and acquire power on the island. Odysseus, after encounters with gods, monsters
and hostile cities, as well as a journey to the Underworld, finally returns home and
kills the suitors, reclaiming his palace and his wife in one go.

The rest of this chapter includes short passages that describe several of the key
events before and during the Trojan War.
All unfamiliar words are underlined, as are proper nouns when they first occur.
Meanings are given in the wordlists that follow the paragraphs. In the wordlists,
nouns that go like puella, dominus or bellum will be listed as below:

puella -ae f girl

dominus -i m master
bellum -i n war

The details that follow the nominative singular are the genitive singular ending and the
gender. Remember how the genitive ending shows the declension (-ae for 1st, -i for 2nd).
Once you know which declension a new noun belongs to you can work out the
case and number of the noun as it appears in the passage.

To apply the ending given after the hyphen, remove the last syllable of the existing
word (to get back to the stem) and attach the new ending: e.g. puella; puell-; puellae.

Note that Latin often breaks up direct speech by inserting a verb between the quoted
words:

e.g. dominus ‘sunt pueri’ clamat ‘in horto.’

The master shouts ‘There are boys in the garden.’

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 SECOND DECLENSION NEUTER 41

Exercise 2.15

The birth of Paris

The king and queen of Troy receive an ominous prophecy about their unborn son but
are thwarted in their desire to kill him when he is born.

Priamus rex Troiae est, Hecuba regina. dei somnium Hecubae dant. in somnio
Hecuba facem parit. postridie Hecuba ad templum ambulat. in templo sacerdos
‘somnium’ inquit ‘nuntius a deis est. puer tuus periculum portat. puer exitium
Troiae est.’

Priamus -i m Priam
rex king (nom sg)
Troia -ae f Troy
Hecuba -ae f Hecuba
1 regina -ae f queen
somnium -i n dream
facem torch, fire-brand (acc sg)
parit (she) gives birth to
postridie on the next day
2 sacerdos priest (nom sg)
inquit (he) says (usually interrupts quoted speech)
tuus your (nom sg)
exitium -i n destruction, ruin

5 Hecuba puerum mox parit. Priamus servum vocat. Priamus puerum servo dat.
‘puerum gladio neca!’ inquit. servus puerum ad montem portat sed puerum non
necat. puerum relinquit. sed ursa puerum nunc invenit. ursa puerum amat et
curat. servus ad montem redit. puerum invenit. ‘puer’ clamat ‘vivit! puer donum
deorum est.’ servus puerum ad villam in pera portat. servus ‘puerum’ inquit ‘in
10 pera porto: puerum Paridem voco.’ servus Paridem nunc curat.

mox soon
neca kill! (an order)
montem mountain (acc sg)
relinquit (he) abandons
7 ursa -ae f bear
invenit (he/she) finds
curo I look after (goes like porto)
redit (he) returns
vivit (he) is alive
9 pera -ae f backpack
Paridem Paris (acc; believed to be derived from
pera)

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42 CHAPTER TWO

SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS

So far we have only met verbs in the first conjugation. These verbs go like porto and
feature an -a- as the characteristic vowel in their endings.
Now we shall meet the second, third and fourth conjugations.
All the conjugations use the same person endings (-o, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt).
The major difference is that they use different characteristic vowels in these
endings (compare French, which has -er, -ir and -re verbs; French inherited this
system of different verb conjugations from Latin).

Verbs in the second conjugation use an -e- in their endings:

2nd conjugation
warn, advise

sg 1 mon-eo I warn or I am warning

2 mon-es you (sg) warn you (sg) are warning
3 mon-et etc. etc.

pl 1 mon-emus
2 mon-etis
3 mon-ent
 Note that porto originally started as portao in the first person singular and
lost the -a- over time, whereas moneo has kept its characteristic -e- in the
first person singular, rather than contracting to mono.

Here are five second conjugation verbs that go like moneo:

habeo I have, I hold

sedeo I sit
terreo I frighten
timeo I fear, I am afraid
video I see

Exercise 2.16
Give an English derivative from:
1. sedeo
2. timeo
3. terreo
4. video
5. moneo

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 SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS 43

Exercise 2.17
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same person, then
translate into English:
1. timet
2. videmus
3. terretis
4. sedes
5. habent

Exercise 2.18
Translate into English:
1. pueri in agro cum puellis sedent.
2. villam in insula habemus.
3. ancilla equum domini timet.
4. verba domini puerum terrent.
5. nuntios de periculo monetis.

de (+ abl) about (also from, down from)

Exercise 2.19
Translate into Latin:
1. I have the master’s letter.
2. You (pl) do not fear the gods.
3. The messengers’ swords frighten the woman.
4. We are sitting in the house with our friends.
S&C
5. You (sg) warn the girl about the boy.

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44 CHAPTER TWO

THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS

Here is the present tense of traho (I drag), a verb in the third conjugation:

3rd conjugation
drag

sg 1 trah-o I drag, or I am dragging

2 trah-is you (sg) drag you (sg) are dragging
3 trah-it etc. etc.

pl 1 trah-imus
2 trah-itis
3 trah-unt
 As you will realise from the above table, it is harder to identify a
characteristic vowel for the third conjugation. We shall see later that in other
parts of the third conjugation an -e- is used.
 Note that the third person plural is trahunt not, as you might expect from
the other endings, trahint.

Here are five third conjugation verbs that go like traho:

bibo I drink
duco I lead
lego I read; I choose
mitto I send
scribo I write

Exercise 2.20
Give an English derivative from:
1. duco
2. bibo
3. scribo
4. lego
5. mitto

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 THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS 45

Exercise 2.21
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same person, then
translate into English:
1. scribunt
2. mittis
3. trahimus
4. ducitis
5. legit

Exercise 2.22
Translate into English:
1. libros de deis semper scribis.
2. dominus epistulam legit et mittit.
3. feminae pueros e periculo ducunt.
4. auxilium ad insulam nunc mittimus.
5. viri vinum in taberna bibunt, pueri aquam.

taberna -ae f inn, shop

aqua -ae f water

Exercise 2.23
Translate into Latin:
1. The slaves are drinking wine in the fields.
2. We send a messenger to the temple.
3. The boys drag the horse out of the garden.
4. I am reading the girl’s letter now. S&C
5. The master sees the weapons and chooses a sword.

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46 CHAPTER TWO

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how to use the grammatical details given about a noun in a wordlist
 the endings of the second and third conjugations (moneo and traho)
 the new verbs listed on p42 and p44

Exercise 2.24

The Judgement of Paris

Figure 2.1 An illustration from an edition of Homer’s Iliad, showing the Judgement of
Paris. (Photo by Kean Collection/Archive Photos/Getty Images)

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 THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS 47

Paris, now an adult, is asked to judge a dispute between three goddesses. His decision
has far-reaching consequences.

Paris cum servo prope Troiam nunc habitat. in agris semper laborat. olim deae
Minerva et Iuno et Venus disputant.
deae ad Paridem veniunt. ‘quis’ inquiunt ‘est pulcherrima? iudex es.’

Paris (acc Paridem) Paris

prope (+ acc) near, near to
Troia -ae f Troy
habito I live (goes like porto)
1 olim one day
Minerva -ae f Minerva (goddess of wisdom)
Iuno f Juno (queen of the gods)
Venus (acc Venerem) Venus (goddess of love)
disputo I argue (goes like porto)
3 veniunt (they) come
quis . . .? who?
inquiunt (they) say (usually interrupts quoted speech)
pulcherrima the most beautiful
iudex judge (nom)

Minerva sapientiam promittit. Iuno pecuniam et imperium promittit. Venus

5 feminam pulcherrimam promittit. Paris Venerem legit. Venus Paridem ad
Graeciam ducit. in Graecia Paris Helenam videt. Helena femina pulcherrima est.
Paris Helenam amat et Helena Paridem amat. Paris Helenam e Graecia ducit.
Troiam navigant. Graeci iratissimi sunt et Troiam navigant. bellum incipit.

sapientia -ae f wisdom

promitto I promise (goes like traho)
imperium -i n power
Graecia -ae f Greece
6 Helena -ae f Helen
Troiam to Troy
Graeci -orum m pl the Greeks
iratissimi very angry (nom pl)
incipit (it) begins

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48 CHAPTER TWO

FOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS

Verbs in the fourth conjugation use an -i- in their endings:

4th conjugation
hear, listen to

sg 1 aud-io I hear or I am hearing

2 aud-is you (sg) hear you (sg) are hearing
3 aud-it etc. etc.

pl 1 aud-imus
2 aud-itis
3 aud-iunt
 Note that the third person plural keeps the -i-, so they hear is audiunt.
Compare trahunt (they drag) in the third conjugation.

Here are five fourth conjugation verbs that go like audio:

custodio I guard
dormio I sleep
invenio I find
punio I punish
venio I come

Exercise 2.25
Give an English derivative from:
1. dormio
2. audio
3. invenio
4. custodio
5. punio

Exercise 2.26
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same person, then
translate into English:
1. invenis
2. audit
3. custodimus
4. puniunt
5. venitis

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 THE INFINITIVE 49

Exercise 2.27
Translate into English:
1. nuntius puerum in horto invenit.
2. dei Romam nunc puniunt.
3. verba deorum audimus.
4. viri et feminae insulam armis custodiunt.
5. puella in villam venit. epistulam portat.

Exercise 2.28
Translate into Latin:
1. The girls are sleeping in the temple.
2. The boys are not listening to the slave.
3. The master comes into the house with the slave-girls.
4. We guard Rome with swords.
S&C
5. On the island the messenger finds a house.

THE INFINITIVE
The infinitive captures the basic meaning of a verb and is translated to X (to carry,
to warn, etc.). It describes an action in a general (non-finite) sense, rather than
dealing with a finite action done by a specific person on a specific occasion.
The infinitive is common and easy to spot since it has a distinctive -re ending. This
is added to the stem and the characteristic vowel for the conjugation.
The infinitives for each conjugation are as follows:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

port-are mon-ere trah-ere aud-ire

to carry to warn to drag to hear
 We noted that it is hard to pin down the characteristic vowel for the third
conjugation. Here in the infinitive, and (as we shall see) in some other places,
it uses -e-.
 Though the ending of the infinitive looks the same in the second and third
conjugations (-ere), the pronunciation is different: in the second conjugation
the first e of -ere is long, in the third it is short.

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50 CHAPTER TWO

The infinitive of sum is esse (to be).

The infinitive follows some verbs naturally:

e.g. epistulam legere timeo. I am afraid to read the letter.

legere amo. I like to read. or I like reading.

Note also an important second conjugation verb:

iubeo I order

This verb takes an accusative object (the person being ordered) and an infinitive (the
action they are being ordered to do):

e.g. servos sedere iubemus. We order the slaves to sit (down).

PRINCIPAL PARTS (1)

When a verb is listed in a vocabulary list or dictionary it is given with its principal
parts.
Principal parts are a way of plotting key information about a verb. There are four
items altogether; we have now met the first two.
The first principal part is the first person singular of the present tense, e.g.
porto.
The second principal part is the infinitive, e.g. portare.
Sometimes only the ending is given for the infinitive, e.g. porto -are. This ending
needs to be attached to the present stem.
By looking at the first two principal parts you can work out which conjugation a
verb belongs to:

present tense ending infinitive ending

1st -o -are
2nd -eo -ere
3rd -o -ere
4th -io -ire
 Note that if the present tense of a verb ends in -o, the verb could be either
first or third conjugation; looking at the infinitive will tell you which it is
(-are for first, -ere for third).
 Note too that -ere is the infinitive ending of both the second and the third
conjugation, but a second conjugation verb is easily recognised by the
distinctive -eo ending in the present tense.

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 PRINCIPAL PARTS (1) 51

When you meet a new verb in the wordlist below a passage, ensure that you take the
time to look at the grammatical information and to work out which conjugation the
verb belongs to (e.g. sedeo -ere: therefore 2nd conjugation).
When you know a verb’s conjugation you can work out all its endings.

Exercise 2.29
Give the infinitive of (checking the conjugation of each verb):
1. habeo
2. voco
3. bibo
4. punio
5. saluto
6. mitto
7. invenio
8. terreo
9. duco
10. clamo

Exercise 2.30
Translate into English:
1. feminae ancillas in hortum venire iubent.
2. nuntii ad insulam navigare timent.
3. in horto cum amicis sedere amamus.
4. dominus servos cibum parare iubet.
5. libros legere et epistulas scribere amo.

Exercise 2.31
Translate into Latin:
1. The slaves like to drink wine.
2. The girl is afraid to walk into the temple.
3. I order the slave-girl to guard the money.
4. You (pl) like to walk through the fields. S&C
5. We order the boys to carry the gift into the house.

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52 CHAPTER TWO

TO, FROM, AND IN CITIES

We have seen how prepositions are used to describe motion to or away from places:
e.g. ad insulam to the island (motion to – accusative)
a templo away from the temple (motion from – ablative)
When the name of a city is involved, no preposition is used. Instead, the name is used
by itself in the appropriate case (accusative or ablative: i.e. the case that the
preposition would have needed if one had been used).
e.g. Romam venio. I come to Rome. (using acc)
Roma navigamus. We sail from Rome. (using abl)
A further surprising rule is that when an action happens in a city, you do not use the
preposition in + abl, as you would expect. Instead, a special case is used. This is
called the locative, because it locates the action (in Latin, locus = place). For now the
only locative you need to recognise is that for Rome.
Romae in/at Rome
e.g. Romae cum amico sum. I am in Rome with a friend.
 Often, as here, the locative is the same as the genitive: when translating you
need to work out which it is from the context.

Exercise 2.32
Translate into English:
1. dominus amicos Romam venire iubet.
2. villam Romae habemus.
3. nuntii Roma ad insulas veniunt.
4. dei amicos Romae semper custodiunt.
5. Romae in taberna cum amicis sedere amo.

Exercise 2.33
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. We are now sailing to Rome.
2. I do not have a house in Rome.
3. The gods are friends of Rome.
4. The horse carries the messenger away from Rome.
5. The master orders the slave to carry the letter to Rome.

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 TO, FROM, AND IN CITIES 53

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the endings of the fourth conjugation (audio)
 the ending of the infinitive for each conjugation, and its use
 how to recognise which conjugation a verb is by looking at the present
tense and the infinitive (the principal parts)
 that phrases involving motion to/from or location in cities do not use
prepositions

Exercise 2.34

The wrath of Achilles and the deaths of heroes

A quarrel between the Greeks about a girl has far-reaching consequences.

Graeci et Troiani decem annos pugnant. olim templum capiunt. in templo

puellam inveniunt. Graeci puellam ad Agamemnonem trahunt, sed dei
pestilentiam ad Graecos mittunt. Graeci deos timent et iubent Agamemnonem
puellam Troianis dare. Agamemnon puellam ad Troianos mittit, sed puellam
5 Achillis nunc capit. Achilles iratus est et pugnare cum Troianis non iam vult.
Graeci et Troiani pugnant sed Achilles in casa sedet.

Graeci -orum m pl the Greeks

Troiani -orum m pl the Trojans
decem annos for ten years
olim one day
1 capiunt (they) capture, take
Agamemnon (acc -onem) Agamemnon (leader of the Greeks)
pestilentia -ae f plague
Achilles (gen -is) Achilles (the best Greek warrior)
capit (he) takes
5 iratus angry (nom sg)
non iam no longer
vult (he) wants
casa -ae f hut

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54 CHAPTER TWO

sed Patroclus, amicus Achillis, pugnare vult. Achilles Patroclum de periculo

monet sed Patroclus verba Achillis non audit. Patroclus et Hector pugnant.
Hector dux Troianorum est. Patroclus arma Achillis habet, sed Hector auxilio
10 deorum Patroclum necat. Achilles audit et lacrimat. amicos iterum pugnare
iubet. Hectorem punire nunc vult. Hector timet et circum muros Troiae fugit,
sed Achilles auxilio deae Minervae Hectorem necat. Hectorem circum muros
et ad castra Graecorum trahit.

Patroclus -i m Patroclus
Hector (acc -orem) Hector
dux leader
lacrimo -are I cry
10 iterum again
murus -i m wall
Troia -ae f Troy
fugit (he) flees
Minerva -ae f Minerva (goddess of wisdom)
13 castra -orum n pl camp (sg meaning but only found in pl form)

TIME EXPRESSIONS (1): ‘TIME HOW LONG’

To say how long an action goes on for, a time expression in the accusative case is
used.
Two new words are now required:

annus -i m year
hora -ae f hour

These words give many derivatives: annual, annually, anniversary (and French an, or
Spanish año); the word hour itself (and French heure, or Spanish hora).
A word for a period of time (e.g. hours, years) is naturally accompanied by a
number. Here are two:

quinque five
decem ten

These two words do not change their endings (they are indeclinable).

e.g. puellae quinque horas dormiunt.

The girls sleep for five hours.

dominus decem annos navigat.

The master sails for ten years.

The preposition per (through) can be used about time, as well as space. It has the
sense of for the whole time and is used for extra emphasis.

e.g. puellae per quinque horas dormiunt.

lit The girls sleep through five hours (i.e. for five whole hours).

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 TIME EXPRESSIONS (1): ‘TIME HOW LONG’ 55

Exercise 2.35
Translate into English:
1. contra Romam decem annos pugnamus.
2. puer quinque horas in agro dormit.
3. femina quinque epistulas Romam mittit.
4. amici vinum in taberna per decem horas bibunt.
5. dominus Romae quinque annos laborat.

Exercise 2.36

The Trojan Horse and the fall of Troy

After ten years of fighting the Greeks capture Troy by ingenious means.

Hector mortuus est sed Graeci victoriam non habent. Ulixes, callidissimus vir,
consilium capit. iubet Graecos equum ligneum aedificare et Troia navigare.
Graeci equum aedificant; Troia navigant. Troiani ‘Graeci’ inquiunt ‘nunc fugiunt.
equus donum deis est. victoriam habemus.’ Troiani equum in muros Troiae
5 trahunt. vinum bibunt et gratias deis agunt.

Hector Hector (nom)

mortuus dead (nom sg)
Graeci-orum m pl the Greeks
victoria -ae f victory
1 Ulixes Ulysses (nom; Latin name for Odysseus)
callidissimus very clever, very cunning (nom sg)
consilium capit (he) makes a plan
ligneum wooden (acc sg)
aedifico -are I build
2 Troia -ae f Troy
Troiani -orum m pl the Trojans
fugiunt (they) flee
gratias ago -ere I give thanks to (+ dat)

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56 CHAPTER TWO

sed sunt Graeci in equo! media nocte dum Troiani dormiunt Graeci de equo
descendunt et portas aperiunt. ceteri Graeci Troiam navigant et per portas
veniunt. est caedes. Graeci victoriam habent. plurimos Troianos necant sed unus
vir, Aeneas, cum familia et simulacris deorum Troia effugit.

media nocte in the middle of the night

dum while
descendo -ere I descend, come down
porta -ae f gate
7 aperio -ire I open
ceteri the other, the rest of (nom pl)
caedes slaughter (nom sg)
plurimos very many (acc pl)
unus one (nom)
9 Aeneas Aeneas (nom)
familia -ae f family
simulacrum -i n holy image, statue
effugit (he) escapes

Figure 2.2 Engraving depicting the Trojan Horse. (Photo by Kean Collection/Archive
Photos/Getty Images)

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 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER TWO GRAMMAR 57

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER TWO GRAMMAR

First and second declension noun endings:

1f 2m 2n
sg nom -a -us (or -r) -um
acc -am -um -um
gen -ae -i -i
dat -ae -o -o
abl -a -o -o

pl nom -ae -i -a
acc -as -os -a
gen -arum -orum -orum
dat -is -is -is
abl -is -is -is
Present tense verb endings:

conj 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

sg 1 -o -eo -o -io
2 -as -es -is -is
3 -at -et -it -it

pl 1 -amus -emus -imus -imus

2 -atis -etis -itis -itis
3 -ant -ent -unt -iunt

infinitive -are -ere -ere -ire esse = to be

 principal parts = present tense, then infinitive: e.g. porto -are

 look at the principal parts to help work out the conjugation of a verb
Prepositions:

 + acc: ad, circum, contra, in, per

 + abl: a/ab, cum, de, e/ex, in
 no prepositions used with names of cities; N.B. Romae = in/at Rome

‘Time how long’ phrases: use acc case e.g. quinque horas = for five hours

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58 CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER TWO VOCABULARY

From now on the chapter vocabulary lists will give grammatical details:
 for verbs, the infinitive ending, which can help to show the conjugation
 for nouns, the genitive ending to show the declension, and the gender
 prepositions are listed with the noun case they take

a/ab (+ abl) from, away from

ager agri m field
annus -i m year
aqua -ae f water
arma -orum n pl weapons
audio -ire I hear, I listen to
auxilium -i n help
bellum -i n war
bibo -ere I drink
cum (+ abl) with
custodio -ire I guard
de (+ abl) about, from, down from
decem ten
do dare I give
donum -i n gift, present
dormio -ire I sleep
duco -ere I lead, I take
e/ex (+ abl) from, out of, out
habeo -ere I have, I hold
hora -ae f hour
in (+ abl) in, on
inquit pl inquiunt he/she says, pl they say (usually interrupts
quoted speech)
invenio -ire I find
iubeo -ere I order
lego -ere I read; I choose
liber libri m book
mitto -ere I send
moneo -ere I warn, I advise
murus -i m wall
periculum -i n danger
puer pueri m boy
punio -ire I punish
quinque five
scribo -ere I write
sedeo -ere I sit
taberna -ae f shop, inn

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 CHAPTER TWO VOCABUL ARY 59

templum -i n temple
terreo -ere I frighten
timeo -ere I fear, I am afraid
traho -ere I drag
venio -ire I come
verbum -i n word
video -ere I see
vinum -i n wine
vir viri m man, male

45 words

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 Chapter Three

VERBS: IMPERFECT TENSE

All the verbs we have met so far have been in the present tense, i.e. the action is
described as if it is happening now. More usually, however, a story is set in the past.
To describe an action that happened in the past, and over a period of time, the
imperfect tense is used.
The imperfect tense has the basic meaning was/were X-ing.

e.g. I was carrying the food into the garden.

The term imperfect comes from the Latin imperfectus, which literally means
unfinished (as opposed to the normal modern sense of imperfect as faulty): an action
was happening, but it was interrupted, and so unfinished (as in I was writing the
letter when . . .). The imperfect is often used to give background to a story.
The imperfect tense has its own set of endings. It uses a distinctive syllable -ba-
onto which are attached the basic person endings we met in Chapter One (underlined
in the list below):

sg 1 -bam I was X-ing

2 -bas you (sg) were X-ing
3 -bat he/she/it was X-ing

pl 1 -bamus we were X-ing

2 -batis you (pl) were X-ing
3 -bant they were X-ing
 In this instance, the first person singular uses m rather than o as the basic
person ending.

These endings are attached to the verb stem, with the characteristic vowel(s) for the
conjugation inserted in between (here the 4th conjugation uses -ie-, not just -i- as it
does in the present tense and the infinitive):

60

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 VERBS: IMPERFECT TENSE 61

conj 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

porto moneo traho audio

infinitive portare monere trahere audire

carry warn drag hear

sg 1 porta-bam mone-bam trahe-bam audie-bam

2 porta-bas mone-bas trahe-bas audie-bas
3 porta-bat mone-bat trahe-bat audie-bat

pl 1 porta-bamus mone-bamus trahe-bamus audie-bamus

2 porta-batis mone-batis trahe-batis audie-batis
3 porta-bant mone-bant trahe-bant audie-bant

Exercise 3.1
Translate into English:
1. iubebamus
2. salutabam
3. mittebatis
4. veniebat
5. scribebas
6. dabant
7. puniebam
8. bibebamus
9. clamabas
10. terrebat

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62 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.2
Convert these verbs from present tense to imperfect (checking the conjugation as
necessary), then translate into English:
1. dormit
2. moneo
3. vocas
4. ducimus
5. custoditis
6. timemus
7. inveniunt
8. sedet
9. laboratis
10. habent

Exercise 3.3
Translate into Latin (checking the conjugation as necessary):
1. I was fighting.
2. We were hearing.
3. She was writing.
4. They were greeting.
5. You (sg) were walking.
6. She was giving.
7. I was drinking.
8. He was punishing.
9. We were preparing.
10. You (pl) were reading.

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 TRANSL ATING THE IMPERFECT TENSE 63

Exercise 3.4
Translate into English:
1. viri equum ex horto trahebant.
2. ancilla amicos per agros ducebat.
3. dei et deae pugnabant.
4. amicos de periculis belli monebatis.
5. pueri in templo dormiebant.
6. femina iubebat ancillas in horto laborare.
7. pecuniam gladiis custodiebamus.
8. puella equos timebat.
9. nuntii in templo deae sedebant.
10. librum de bello scribebam.

TRANSLATING THE IMPERFECT TENSE

As well as the basic meaning was/were, the imperfect tense can be translated with a
simple past tense (I X-ed) or with used to.
Some verbs, e.g. habeo or amo, sound very odd if they are translated with was or
were when they occur in the imperfect tense. Often they are best translated with the
simple past tense. This can still convey the sense of an ongoing action:

e.g. villam Romae habebam. equum amabam.

I had a house in Rome. I loved my horse.

The translation used to often introduces a contrast between the past and the present.
Even if this contrast is not explicit, the translation used to suggests that something
was once the case but no longer is.

e.g. cibum parabam; nunc epistulas domini scribo.

I used to prepare the food; now I write the master’s letters.

Romae cum amicis in taberna semper sedebam.

In Rome I always used to sit in the inn with my friends.
(i.e. this is no longer the case)

An imperfect tense verb is often accompanied by a time how long expression, telling
us the duration of the action.

e.g. quinque annos Romae laborabamus.

We were working in Rome for five years.
or We worked in Rome for five years.

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64 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.5
Translate into English:
1. decem annos villam Romae habebamus.
2. vinum semper bibebam; nunc aquam bibo.
3. quinque horas in agro sedebamus.
4. dominus dona servis dabat; nunc servos semper punit.
5. equum quinque annos habebam.

Exercise 3.6
Translate into Latin:
1. The master was sleeping in the house.
2. Men were walking to the walls of the temple.
3. We were dragging our friend out of the inn.
4. I used to sail to the islands.
S&C
5. You (sg) had a shop in Rome for ten years.

IMPERFECT TENSE OF sum

The imperfect tense of sum (I am) is listed below. sum is much more regular in the
imperfect than it is in the present. The endings echo (and rhyme with) the -bam, -bas,
-bat . . . of the usual imperfect endings, but lack the -ba- that other verbs have in this
tense.

imperfect of sum

sg 1 eram I was or I used to be

2 eras you (sg) were etc.
3 erat he/she/it was

pl 1 eramus we were
2 eratis you (pl) were
3 erant they were

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 THE VERB I CAN: POSSUM 65

Exercise 3.7
Translate into English:
1. servi eramus sed liberti nunc sumus.
2. pueri amici erant.
3. ancilla decem annos eras et nunc domina es.
4. erant in horto quinque nuntii.
5. puella in templo erat.

libertus -i m freedman, ex-slave*

domina -ae f mistress

* Slaves could be freed by their masters in return for loyal service in a process
known as manumission. Freedmen were allowed to become citizens, hold
property and vote. Many went on to become successful and wealthy.

Exercise 3.8
Translate into Latin:
1. The girls were not in danger.
2. The freedman and the master were friends.
3. We were on the island for ten hours.
4. You (pl) used to be friends but now you always fight. S&C
5. In Rome I was a slave in the temple.

THE VERB I CAN: possum

possum (I can, I am able) is a compound (a combination of different words).
Originally it consisted of the adjective potis (able, capable) and the verb sum, but the
first half contracted over time, reflecting how the word was pronounced in practice,
to leave the prefix pot-.
The present and imperfect tenses of possum are formed by sticking pot- onto the
corresponding part of sum.
When the part of sum starts with an s- the prefix changes from pot- to pos-, so the
final form is (e.g.) possum rather than potsum. This change happened over time,
once again reflecting pronunciation (-ts- starts to sound like -ss-, which is easier to
say). The places where this occurs are underlined below:

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66 CHAPTER THREE

present imperfect

I can, I am able I could, I was able

sg 1 possum pot-eram
2 pot-es pot-eras
3 pot-est pot-erat

pl 1 possumus pot-eramus
2 pot-estis pot-eratis
3 possunt pot-erant

The infinitive of possum is posse, a compound of pot- and esse (the infinitive of sum).
possum is naturally accompanied by an infinitive:

e.g. dormire possum.

I am able to sleep. or I can sleep.*

domina servum invenire non poterat.

The mistress could not find the slave.

* Note how the infinitive is translated differently depending on whether you translate
possum as I am able (to X) or I can (X).

The verb possum, and different parts of it, give many derivatives in English:
(im)possible, potential, potent, and ultimately (via French) power.

Exercise 3.9
Change from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same person and
tense, then translate into English:
1. possumus
2. potes
3. poteratis
4. potest
5. poteram

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 THE VERB I CAN: POSSUM 67

Exercise 3.10
Translate into English:
1. nunc dormire potestis.
2. feminae dona invenire non poterant.
3. in templo verba deorum audire possumus.
4. amici ad insulam navigare non possunt.
5. servus epistulam legere non poterat.

Exercise 3.11
Translate into Latin:
1. We are able to guard the temple.
2. I cannot hear the messenger.
3. I was not able to drink the wine.
4. The slaves could not carry the master.
5. The messenger can see the house of his friend.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how the imperfect tense is formed in all four conjugations
 the different translations of the imperfect: was/were, used to or a simple
past tense
 the imperfect of sum
 the present and imperfect of possum

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68 CHAPTER THREE

TEN NEW VERBS

Here are ten more verbs, listed with their infinitive endings and grouped according
to conjugation:

1st aedifico -are I build

festino -are I hurry
habito -are I live

2nd debeo -ere I ought, I should, I must, I owe (+ infinitive)*

maneo -ere I remain, I stay

3rd consumo -ere I eat

curro -ere I run
discedo -ere I depart, I leave
quaero -ere I search for, I look for, I ask

4th advenio -ire I arrive

* In a phrase involving debeo that is about the past, English uses a past tense infinitive
e.g. I ought to have stayed. Latin works differently (and more logically), putting
debeo into the past tense and continuing to use a present infinitive after it:

e.g. manere debeo.

I ought to stay. or I must/should stay.

manere debebam.
lit I ought-ed to stay.
i.e. I ought to have stayed. or I should have stayed.

Exercise 3.12
Give an English derivative from:
1. curro
2. habito
3. consumo
4. advenio
5. quaero

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 TEN NEW VERBS 69

Exercise 3.13
State the conjugation of each verb and translate into English:
1. aedificamus
2. discedunt
3. debebamus
4. advenitis
5. quaeris

Exercise 3.14
Translate into Latin:
1. He remains.
2. I was living.
3. I used to have.
4. She runs.
5. We eat.

Exercise 3.15
Translate into English:
1. libertus ad* villam advenit.
2. pueri in templum festinare debent.
3. nuntii Roma nunc discedunt.
4. librum in horto quaerebas.
5. Romae quinque annos habitabam; in insula nunc habito.
6. verba nuntii audire debebatis.
7. amici domini cibum consumebant et vinum bibebant.
8. decem horas in taberna manebamus.
9. dominus villam in insula aedificabat.
10. servi per agros cum ancillis currunt.

* ad (+ acc) can also mean at

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70 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.16
Translate into Latin:
1. Men are arriving at the house.
2. The slaves were building the walls of the temple.
3. The women and girls are staying on the island.
4. We must run away from the danger. S&C
5. You (pl) used to live in Rome in a block of flats.

Background: Aeneas and the origins of Rome

In Roman tradition, the fall of Troy (c.1200 bc ) led to a quest by the Trojan hero
Aeneas to find a new land for those who had survived the devastation. This new land
turned out to be Italy. Virgil, a Roman epic poet writing during the time of the first
Roman emperor, Augustus (ruled 31 bc – ad 14), narrates this quest in the Aeneid
(the poem is named after its hero).

Aeneas endures both a troubled journey from Troy to Italy and a new war upon his
arrival in Italy. The Roman Aeneid thus heavily alludes to the Greek Odyssey and
Iliad (but in reverse order, in that the journeying ‘Odyssean’ section comes first and
the warring ‘Iliadic’ section comes second). After surviving both his voyage and the
conflict, Aeneas founds a new city, Lavinium, and establishes a new royal dynasty,
which will go on to produce the twins Romulus and Remus. This pair famously
quarrel, with Romulus triumphing and founding a new city named after himself –
Rome (with a traditional foundation date of 753 bc ).
Virgil’s great challenge – and achievement – is to re-brand a defeated Trojan hero,
Aeneas, as a glorious and virtuous founding father of the race that will, one day, be
called Roman.
 From now on the following words will not be glossed: Aeneas -ae m (acc
Aenean): Aeneas; Troia -ae f: Troy; Troiani -orum m pl: Trojans; Graeci
-orum m pl: Greeks.

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 TEN NEW VERBS 71

Figure 3.1 The famous ‘Prima Porta’ statue of Augustus. Braccio Nuovo, Vatican
Museums, Rome. Statue of the emperor Augustus discovered in 1863 at the Villa of Livia
in Rome. (Photo by Liszt Collection/Heritage Images/Getty Images)

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72 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.17
Aeneas and Creusa

Figure 3.2 Denarius coin issued by Julius Caesar showing Aeneas carrying his father
Anchises and the holy icons of Troy. (Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images)

Aeneas is fleeing from Troy with his father on his back and holding his son’s hand. His
wife Creusa is following on behind. Disaster suddenly strikes.

Aeneas et familia per vias Troiae currunt. periculum timent sed ad portam
adveniunt et in agros festinant. ibi sistunt. Aeneas respicit. Creusam non videt.
‘Creusa! Creusa!’ clamat. sed Creusam invenire non potest. Troiam iterum currit.
per portam festinat, per vias villasque Creusam quaerit. feminam videt. Aeneas
5 ‘Creusa,’ clamat ‘discedere nunc debemus! Graeci Troiam habent. manere non
possumus!’

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 ADJECTIVES (1): L AETUS -A -UM 73

familia -ae f family

via -ae f road, street
porta -ae f gate
ibi there
2 sisto -ere I halt
respicit he looks back
Creusa -ae f Creusa
iterum again
-que and (translate before word it is attached to)*

sed femina non est Creusa: umbra Creusae est. umbra ‘dei’ inquit ‘Creusam
manere iubent. Graeci Creusam non habent: dei Creusam custodiunt. iubent
Aenean patriam Troianis invenire. consilium habent; Aenean Troianosque
10 custodiunt. nunc vale!’ ter Aeneas umbram comprendit; ter umbra evanescit.
Aeneas lacrimat. Graecos nunc audit. ad portam festinat Troiaque discedit. ad
familiam amicosque currit.

umbra -ae f ghost, shade

patria -ae f country, homeland
consilium -i n plan
vale! goodbye!
10 ter three times
comprendo -ere I grasp, I clutch at
evanesco -ere I vanish, I disappear
lacrimo -are I weep, I cry

* Note this important idiom, and always translate -que before the word it is
attached to: e.g. man and woman is vir feminaque (or vir et femina).

ADJECTIVES (1): laetus -a -um

Adjectives are words used to describe nouns, with the term adjective deriving from
the Latin verb adicio (I throw onto). We might think of an adjective throwing or
attaching a characteristic onto a noun (e.g. the big house).
Like a noun, an adjective has different endings according to number and case, but
whereas a noun has one fixed gender, an adjective has forms in all three genders,
since it needs to be able to describe nouns of any gender.
One very common type of adjective uses the endings you have already met for the
nouns dominus, puella and bellum, so there is no new learning to be done.
Here is laetus (happy). The conventional order when presenting the different
genders is m – f – n.

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74 CHAPTER THREE

happy

m f n

sg nom laet-us laet-a laet-um

acc laet-um laet-am laet-um
gen laet-i laet-ae laet-i
dat laet-o laet-ae laet-o
abl laet-o laet-a (long a) laet-o

pl nom laet-i laet-ae laet-a

acc laet-os laet-as laet-a
gen laet-orum laet-arum laet-orum
dat laet-is laet-is laet-is
abl laet-is laet-is laet-is

Because the endings of laetus exactly match the endings of 2nd declension masculine,
1st declension feminine, and 2nd declension neuter nouns, this type of adjective is
often called a 2-1-2 adjective. This is shorthand for 2m – 1f – 2n. (Note how the
order of presenting the genders overrides the declension order.)
When an adjective like laetus is given in a wordlist the masculine is written out in
full, followed by the feminine and neuter, often in abbreviated form: e.g. laetus -a
-um.
Here are nine more adjectives that decline like laetus:

bonus good
iratus angry
magnus big, large, great
malus bad, evil
multus much, pl many
novus new
parvus small
Romanus Roman
stultus stupid, foolish

Exercise 3.18
Give an English derivative from:
1. multus
2. novus
3. bonus
4. magnus
5. iratus

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 USING ADJECTIVES (1) 75

Exercise 3.19
Identify the number, gender and case of:
1. mala (four possible answers)
2. stulti (three possible answers)
3. parvarum
4. Romanum (three possible answers)
5. laetis (six possible answers)

Exercise 3.20
Give the Latin for (noting the required number, gender and case):
1. new (n gen sg)
2. many (f acc pl)
3. angry (f gen sg)
4. large (m dat pl)
5. foolish (n nom pl)

USING ADJECTIVES (1)

An adjective must agree with the noun it describes in number, gender and case, i.e.
if the noun is masculine nominative singular, any adjective describing it must also be
masculine nominative singular, and so on.
Because laetus uses the same 2-1-2 endings as most of the nouns we have met
there is often a convenient ‘rhyme’: e.g. ancilla laeta. This is not the same as
agreement, though: e.g. puer and bonus agree, but do not ‘rhyme’.
An adjective normally follows the noun it describes, but those concerning size or
quantity (and novus, out of those we have met) usually come first.

Exercise 3.21
Identify the number, gender and case:
1. liberti irati (two possible answers)
2. puer laetus
3. magna templa (two possible answers)
4. vino bono (two possible answers)
5. novos gladios

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76 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.22
Give the Latin for (working out the required case if it is not indicated):
1. for the good friend
2. the small houses (abl)
3. many years (acc)
4. of the happy slaves
5. with much money

An adjective is used to give more information about a noun or to specify which noun
is being talked about.

e.g. magnam villam aedificamus. servus stultus discedit.

We are building a big house. The foolish slave departs.

An adjective can also be used with the verb sum to tell us what a noun is like.

e.g. servus stultus est.

The slave is foolish.

If a masculine noun and a feminine noun are described by one adjective, the adjective
needs to be masculine. This is true even if the masculine noun is heavily outnumbered
(e.g. one man and fifty women still need a masculine adjective).

e.g. vir et femina laeti sunt.

The man and the woman are happy.

Exercise 3.23
Translate into English:
1. taberna parva est et vinum malum est.
2. pecuniam nuntiis laetis damus.
3. ancillae novum consilium habent.
4. vinum Romanum amatis.
5. sunt multi dei et multae deae.
6. pueri et puellae stulti sunt.
7. servi muros magni templi aedificabant.
8. novus dominus multos annos servus erat.
9. vir iratus servum malum per hortum trahebat.
10. insula parva erat sed amicum invenire non poteramus.

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 USING ADJECTIVES (2) 77

Exercise 3.24
Translate into Latin:
1. I am the master of a large house.
2. Many women were running into the small temple.
3. We cannot drink the bad water.
4. The angry freedman was punishing the new slave.
S&C
5. You (sg) do not like the stupid horse.

USING ADJECTIVES (2)

Much less frequently an adjective can act as a noun. In this situation we often need
to supply a word such as man/men, woman/women, things or people in our
translation, depending on the number and gender of the adjective. Most of the time
this sort of adjective appears in the plural.

e.g. dei malos puniunt. The gods punish evil people.

in templo multa audio. I hear many things in the temple.
stultus deos non timet. The foolish man does not fear the gods.

Romanus often acts as a noun, normally in the plural:

Romani -orum m pl the Romans

Note two subtly different uses of multi (many), the plural of multus:

e.g. multi Romani in insula sunt.

Many Romans are on the island.

multi Romanorum servos habent.

Many of the Romans have slaves.

The second example uses a genitive (many of the Romans). Although this sort of
phrase is often simply a different way of saying (e.g.) many Romans, it can also be
used to tell us what part of a certain group are doing something (e.g. many of the
slaves are fighting). We call this use of the genitive the partitive because it tells us
what part is involved. The partitive genitive is also used with multum, the neuter of
multus:

e.g. servus multum cibi domino dat.

lit The slave gives much of food to the master.
i.e. The slave gives much food (or a lot of food) to the master.

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78 CHAPTER THREE

Exercise 3.25
Translate into English:
1. dei bona Romanis semper dant.
2. boni deos amant et timent.
3. femina multum pecuniae ancillis dat.
4. Romae multi in insulis habitabant.
5. multi servorum in horto nunc laborant.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the meanings of the new verbs on p68 and adjectives on p74
 how an adjective like laetus declines, and what we mean when we say that
an adjective is ‘2-1-2’
 that an adjective must agree in three ways with a noun it describes: number,
gender and case
 the different ways in which adjectives are used
 how to translate a phrase that uses a partitive genitive e.g. multum cibi

Exercise 3.26

The journey begins

Aeneas sets sail with the Trojan survivors in a bid to find a new home.

Aeneas Troianos reliquos colligit. ‘Graeci’ inquit ‘Troiam nunc habent. discedere
debemus. dei Troianos iubent novam patriam invenire.’ Troiani verba Aeneae
audiunt. viri feminaeque clamant; pueri puellaeque lacrimant. Aeneas Troianos
Troia ducit. Troiani naves celeriter aedificant et ad Thraciam navigant.

5 in Thracia Aeneas novos muros aedificat. sed dei augurium malum mittunt:
sanguis de arboribus cadit et Aeneas vocem amici mortui, Polydori, audit.
Polydorus Aenean iubet a Thracia discedere. verba Polydori Aenean terrent.
Aeneas Troianos ad naves celeriter ducit et amicos a Thracia navigare iubet.

ad parvam insulam, Delon, adveniunt. duo dei, Apollo Dianaque, in insula

10 habitant. in templo Aeneas dona deis dat et verba deorum audit. dei ‘Troiani’
inquiunt ‘ad matrem antiquam navigare debent. ibi est nova patria.’ pater Aeneae
verba audit et ‘Creta’ clamat ‘mater antiqua Troianorum est. consilium nunc
habemus. ad Cretam navigare debemus.’

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 GENDER AND DECLENSION 79

reliquus -a -um remaining, surviving

colligo -ere I collect, I gather together
naves ships (acc pl)
celeriter quickly
4 Thracia -ae f Thrace (region on north coast of Aegean Sea)
augurium -i n omen
sanguis blood (nom sg)
arboribus trees (abl pl)
cado -ere I fall
6 vocem voice (acc sg)
mortuus -a -um dead
Polydorus -i m Polydorus
Delon Delos (acc; sacred island in Aegean Sea)
duo two
9 Apollo Apollo (god of archery and the sun)
Diana Diana (goddess of hunting and the moon)
matrem mother (acc sg)
antiquus -a -um ancient
ibi there
12 Creta -ae f Crete (large island in Aegean Sea)
mater mother (nom sg)

GENDER AND DECLENSION

Gender and declension are not the same, although they demonstrate a broad overlap
in the material we have covered so far.
Almost all nouns in the first declension (e.g. puella) are feminine. Most nouns in
the second declension are masculine (e.g. dominus), but some are neuter (e.g. bellum).
There are, however, some exceptions.
A few first declension nouns decline like puella but are masculine. These are
mainly words for roles or jobs that were thought of as male activities. The only one
you need to know for GCSE is nauta (sailor).
Other first declension masculine nouns (not required for GCSE ) include agricola
(farmer), poeta (poet) and scriba (clerk, secretary).
There are also a few second declension nouns that decline like dominus but are
feminine. Some of these are names of trees (e.g. ficus -i f, fig tree) or islands. None
are required for GCSE .
Although the endings of nauta make the word look feminine, do not be fooled.
Any adjective describing it needs to be masculine because it has to agree in respect
of gender (as well as of number and case).

e.g. nauta stultus est.

The sailor is foolish.

nautae laeti in taberna sunt.

The happy sailors are in the inn.

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80 CHAPTER THREE

Here the endings of the noun and the adjective agree but do not look alike (i.e. there
is no convenient ‘rhyme’).
Note that when we talk about ‘2-1-2’ adjectives such as laetus -a -um we are (for
these purposes) talking about gender and declension as if they were equated:
the different genders of such adjectives take their endings from the declension
where most nouns are that gender: second for masculine and neuter, first for
feminine.

ADJECTIVES (2): miser and pulcher

All the 2-1-2 adjectives we have met so far decline like laetus -a -um. A few 2-1-2
adjectives, however, have a masculine nominative singular that ends in -er. These
then subdivide – exactly like the equivalent nouns puer and liber (see p35 ) – into
those that keep the -e- and others that drop it.
One example is miser (miserable, wretched, sad). The whole adjective declines as
if -us has disappeared from the masculine nominative singular. miser (like puer)
keeps the -e- throughout.

miserable, wretched, sad

m f n

sg nom miser miser-a miser-um

acc miser-um miser-am miser-um
etc. etc. etc.

pulcher (beautiful, handsome) declines similarly but, like liber, it drops the -e- from
its stem after the masculine nominative singular:

beautiful, handsome

m f n

sg nom pulcher pulchr-a* pulchr-um*

acc pulchr-um* pulchr-am pulchr-um
etc. etc. etc.

* drops the -e- after masculine nominative singular

When miser or pulcher appear in the masculine nominative singular, noun-adjective

agreement will likely be ‘non-rhyming’: e.g. dominus miser.

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 ADJECTIVES (2): MISER AND PULCHER 81

Exercise 3.27
Translate into English:
1. dominus dona pulchra dominae semper dat.
2. nautae irati in templo pugnabant.
3. nauta miser vinum in taberna bibebat.
4. patriam pulchram habemus.
5. verba misera nuntiorum audiebamus.

Exercise 3.28
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The miserable friend was not eating his food.
2. Many of the Romans lived in beautiful villas.
3. The wretched girl was crying for five hours.
4. The happy sailors were sailing to Rome.
5. We love to give beautiful gifts to the gods.

Exercise 3.29

The Trojans depart from Crete

Aeneas leads the Trojans to Crete but soon learns that it is their destiny to settle
elsewhere.

Troiani laeti ad Cretam nunc navigant. in Creta forum et templa et villas

aedificant. sed dei novum malum Troianis dant: pestilentiam malam mittunt.
pestilentia multos Troianorum necat. in somnio Aeneas deos Troianos videt et
audit. dei ‘ad terram aliam’ inquiunt ‘navigare debetis. in Creta manere non

Creta -ae f Crete (island to the south of mainland Greece)

forum -i f forum, marketplace
pestilentia -ae f plague, disease
somnium -i n dream
4 terra -ae f land, country
aliam other (f acc sg)

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82 CHAPTER THREE

5 potestis. Creta non est mater Troianorum. est terra bona procul, Hesperia.
antiqua, valida, pulchra est. Hesperia prima patria Troianorum erat. nunc nomen
terrae Italia est. Troianos ad Italiam ducere debes.’ Aeneas ubi verba audit miser
est. Troianos a Creta navigare iubet.

mater mother (nom sg)

procul far away, far off
Hesperia -ae f Hesperia
antiquus -a -um ancient
6 validus -a -um powerful
primus -a -um first
nomen name (nom sg)
Italia -ae f Italy
ubi when

DIRECT COMMANDS: THE IMPERATIVE

The imperative is a form of the verb used when a direct command is being given. The
term imperative comes from the Latin verb impero (I order).
e.g. Give the book to the slave!
The imperative is normally found in the second person (i.e. you sg/pl). It has its own
distinctive set of endings, as follows:

conj 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

carry warn drag hear

you (sg) port-a mon-e trah-e aud-i

you (pl) port-ate mon-ete trah-ite aud-ite
 In three of the four conjugations the singular imperative ends with the
characteristic vowel for the conjugation; the plural then adds -te.
 Note how the third conjugation uses an -e in the singular imperative and an
-i- in the plural. (Compare how four bits of its present tense have an -i-
whereas its infinitive ends -ere and its imperfect features an -e-; compare e.g.
trahis, trahere, trahebam).
e.g. porta cibum ad forum
Carry the food to the marketplace! (to one person)

equum ex horto trahite!

Drag the horse out of the garden! (to more than one person)
An imperative often comes earlier in the sentence than a Latin verb normally does.
It is modern convention to use an exclamation mark in both Latin and English
(though this was not actually used by ancient authors).

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 VOCATIVE CASE 83

Exercise 3.30
Translate into English:
1. quaere!
2. venite!
3. manete!
4. da!
5. aedificatis
6. aedificate!
7. sede!
8. bibite!
9. punis
10. puni!

Exercise 3.31
S&C
Translate into English :
1. in hortum ambula!
2. monete libertum de magno periculo!
3. Roma discedite!
4. iube servos stultos laborare!
5. custodite templum gladiis!

VOCATIVE CASE
The vocative case is used when someone is being directly addressed. The term
vocative is derived from the verb voco: someone is being called.

e.g. Messengers are arriving, master!

The vocative is always identical to the nominative in the plural, and usually in the
singular, too, so there is very little new learning to do.

The only place where the vocative is different from the nominative is the singular of
the second declension masculine:

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84 CHAPTER THREE

 Nouns and adjectives ending -us (e.g. dominus and laetus) have a vocative
singular ending -e (e.g. domine laete). deus is an exception: the vocative is
still deus.
 Nouns ending -ius (e.g. nuntius) have a vocative singular ending -i (e.g. nunti
bone).
 But nouns and adjectives ending -r (e.g. puer and miser) have a vocative that
is identical to the nominative.

The vocative is often found accompanying an imperative verb. The person who is
being given the order goes into the vocative.

e.g. bibe vinum, amice!

Drink the wine, friend!

In prayers to gods and in other formal contexts the word o often precedes the
vocative noun. This can be left out when translating into English:

e.g. custodite Romam, o dei!

Guard Rome, (o) gods!

Exercise 3.32
Translate into English, identifying the words in the vocative case:
1. audite verba laeta nuntii, puellae!
2. veni Romam, o domine bone!
3. domina, nuntius ad villam nunc advenit.
4. nova arma puero da, nunti!
5. patriam custodite, o Romani!

Exercise 3.33
Translate into Latin:
1. Master, I cannot find the letter.
2. There is a messenger in the house, mistress.
3. Stay in the garden, boy!
4. Gods, guard the temple! S&C
5. Drink the wine and eat the food, sailors!

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 VOCATIVE CASE 85

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the difference between gender and declension
 the gender and declension of the noun nauta
 how the adjectives miser and pulcher decline
 the forms and the function of imperative verbs
 the forms and use of the vocative case (usually identical to the nominative
apart from in the singular of the second declension masculine, e.g. domine)

Exercise 3.34

Two contrasting receptions

The Trojans encounter the savage Harpies, but their fortunes then improve.

Troiani ad parvam insulam adveniunt. in insula habitant Harpyiae. Harpyiae

monstra sunt. feminae sunt sed alas et ungulas habent. Troiani cenam parant.
cibum consumunt vinumque bibunt. sed Harpyiae advolant et cibum rapiunt.
Troiani lacrimant timentque. Aeneas viros iubet monstra gladiis oppugnare.
5 monstra fugiunt sed regina Harpyiarum ‘navigate’ clamat ‘ad Italiam, Troiani
stulti! famem malam ibi invenite! lacrimate! etiam mensas consumite!’ verba
Aenean terrent; amicos miseros navigare iubet.

Harpyiae -arum f pl the Harpies

monstrum -i n monster
ala -ae f wing
ungula -ae f claw
2 cena -ae f dinner, meal
advolo -are I fly up, I fly near
rapiunt (they) snatch
oppugno -are I attack
fugiunt (they) flee
5 regina -ae f queen
Italia -ae f Italy
famem hunger (f acc sg)
ibi there
etiam even
6 mensa -ae f table

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86 CHAPTER THREE

ad Epirum adveniunt. in Epiro Aeneas alios Troianos invenit. hi Troiani Novam

Troiam aedificant. Helenus, amicus Aeneae, Novam Troiam regit. Helenus
10 Aenean in villam invitat. Aeneas cum Heleno diu laetus* manet.

Epirus -i m Epirus (kingdom in northwest Greece)

alios other (m acc pl)
hi these (m nom pl)
Nova -ae Troia -ae f New Troy
9 Helenus -i m Helenus (prince of Troy)
rego -ere I rule
invito -are I invite
diu for a long time

* laetus is being used here as an adverb, happily. Other adjectives can also be used like
this, e.g. puella per viam misera ambulat. (The girl walks sadly along the road.)

TIME ADVERBS (1)

Time adverbs give important information about when or how quickly the action in
a sentence is happening. Here are five very common examples:

deinde then, next

diu for a long time
statim at once, immediately
subito suddenly
tandem at last, finally

e.g. pueri stulti tandem discedunt.

The stupid boys are finally departing.

nuntius periculum statim videt.

The messenger sees the danger at once.

Take particular care to distinguish between statim and subito; confusing these is a
very common mistake at GCSE .

Exercise 3.35
Translate into English:
1. insulam diu oppugnabamus.
2. epistulam statim mitte, domina!
3. dominus verba feminarum audit. deinde servum vocat.
4. amicus nunc discedit; dormire tandem possum.
5. libertus subito equos audit. ‘puellae,’ inquit ‘amici nunc adveniunt.’

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 TIME ADVERBS (1) 87

Exercise 3.36
Translate into Latin:
1. The sailors were drinking wine for a long time.
2. Suddenly a slave-girl runs into the field.
3. Write the letter at once, boy!
4. At last I was able to read the book. S&C
5. We listen to the words of the messenger. Then we call the girls.

Exercise 3.37

Scylla and Charybdis

Helenus warns Aeneas about two formidable obstacles that lie ahead.

Troiani cum Heleno diu manent sed discedere tandem debent. Aeneas amicique
naves parant. deinde Helenus Aenean de periculis monet: ‘amici, circum Siciliam
navigate! inter Siciliam et Italiam sunt magna pericula. dextra est Scylla. Scylla
pistrix est, parte femina, parte lupus, parte delphinus. nautas subito capit et
5 consumit. periculum sinistrum Charybdis est. Charybdis vortex est. ter per diem
naves nautasque sugit et delet. non tutum est navigare inter Scyllam et
Charybdem: navigate circum insulam!’

Helenus -i m Helenus (ruler of New Troy, in Epirus)

naves ships (acc pl)
Sicilia -ae f Sicily
inter (+ acc) between
3 Italia -ae f Italy
dextra adv on the right
Scylla -ae f Scylla
pistrix sea-monster (nom sg)
parte in part, partly
4 lupus -i m/f wolf
delphinus -i m/f dolphin
capit she seizes, she captures
sinister -ra -rum on the left (adj)
Charybdis (acc -dem) Charybdis
5 vortex whirlpool (nom sg)
ter per diem three times per day
sugo -ere I suck down
deleo -ere I destroy
tutus -a -um safe

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88 CHAPTER THREE

deinde Helenus Troianos iubet: ‘deam Iunonem semper amate!’ Aenean iubet: ‘in
Italia, quaere Sibyllam, feminam sacram!’ Troiani tandem discedunt. viri et
10 feminae lacrimant. Helenus dona Aeneae dat. deinde Troiani ad Italiam navigant.
Siciliam tandem vident; circum insulam navigant; Scyllam et Charybdem
diligenter vitant.

Iunonem Juno (acc) (queen of gods, hostile to Trojans)

Sibylla -ae f the Sibyl (a prophetess)
sacer -ra -rum sacred, holy
diligenter carefully
12 vito -are I avoid

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 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER THREE GRAMMAR 89

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER THREE GRAMMAR

Imperfect tense:

 translate as I was X-ing, I used to X, or simple past tense (I X-ed)

 endings: -bam, -bas, -bat, -bamus, -batis, -bant
 added to present stem plus characteristic vowel(s) for conjugation:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

sg 1 porta-bam mone-bam trahe-bam audie-bam
2 porta-bas mone-bas trahe-bas audie-bas
etc. etc. etc. etc.

 for sum: eram, eras, erat, eramus, eratis, erant

possum (I am able, I can):

 = pot- (pos- before an s) + the relevant part of sum

 present: possum, potes, etc.
 imperfect: poteram, poteras, etc.

Imperatives (for direct commands):

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

you (sg) port-a mon-e trah-e aud-i
you (pl) port-ate mon-ete trah-ite aud-ite
Adjectives:

 2-1-2 adjectives like laetus -a -um use the endings of dominus, puella, bellum
 note miser -era -erum and pulcher -chra -chrum (m like puer/liber)
 must agree with noun in number, gender and case (e.g. puella laeta) but do
not always ‘rhyme’ (e.g. nauta bonus)
Vocative case:

 identical to the nominative except in second declension masculine singular:

– where nominative is -us, vocative is -e (e.g. domine)
– where nominative is -ius, vocative is -i (e.g. nunti)

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90 CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER THREE VOCABULARY

advenio -ire I arrive

aedifico -are I build
bonus -a -um good
cado -ere I fall
cena -ae f dinner, meal
consilium -i n plan, idea, advice
consumo -ere I eat
curro -ere I run
debeo -ere I ought, I should, I must, I owe (+ infinitive)
deinde then, next
deleo -ere I destroy
discedo -ere I depart, I leave
diu for a long time
domina -ae f mistress
festino -are I hurry
forum -i n forum, marketplace
habito -are I live, I dwell
inter (+ acc) among, between
invito -are I invite
iratus -a -um angry
lacrimo -are I weep, I cry
laetus -a -um happy
libertus -i m freedman, ex-slave
magnus -a -um big, large, great
malus -a -um bad, evil
maneo -ere I remain, I stay
miser -era -erum miserable, wretched, sad
multus -a -um much, pl many
nauta -ae m sailor
novus -a -um new
oppugno -are I attack
parvus -a -um small
patria -ae f country, homeland
porta -ae f gate
possum posse I can, I am able
pulcher -ra -rum beautiful, handsome
quaero -ere I search for, I look for, I ask
-que and (before word it is attached to)
Romanus -a -um Roman
statim at once, immediately
stultus -a -um stupid, foolish
subito suddenly
tandem at last, finally
terra -ae f earth, ground, land, country
via -ae f road, street, way

45 words

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 Chapter Four

VERBS: PERFECT TENSE

In the last chapter we met the imperfect tense: I was, I used to. This is used for
actions that took place in the past and over a period of time.
When talking about actions that took place at a specific moment in the past
(rather than going on for a long time), Latin uses the perfect tense. The term perfect
comes from the Latin verb perficio (I complete): the action described by a perfect
tense verb has been completed. (Compare the grammatical sense of imperfect as
unfinished.) This is the most frequently used tense in Latin.
The perfect is usually translated with a simple past tense (e.g. I carried), but can
be translated using have/has (e.g. I have carried).
As with other tenses, the perfect has its own set of person endings. In some places
these resemble the present and imperfect endings, but they are generally quite
different from other tenses.
These endings are added to the perfect stem. This consists of the basic verb stem
that has been either slightly added to or modified.

sg 1 perfect stem + -i I X-ed or I have X-ed

2 -isti you (sg) X-ed you (sg) have X-ed
3 -it he/she/it X-ed he/she/it has X-ed

pl 1 -imus we X-ed we have X-ed

2 -istis you (pl) X-ed you (pl) have X-ed
3 -erunt they X-ed they have X-ed
 Dintinguish carefully between the second person singular and plural: -isti
and -istis are easily confused.
 Note too the distinctive third person plural ending, -erunt.
 The last four bits end with the usual letters that signify the person in other
tenses: -t, -mus, -tis, -nt.

Most of the time the perfect tense is translated with a simple past tense. English
normally adds -ed (e.g. I carried), though some verbs have irregular forms (e.g. I ran).
Alternatively, the perfect tense can be translated with have/has: I have carried.
This translation suggests either that the action happened recently and/or that its
effects are still continuing. We call this the true perfect. For example, compare:

91

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92 CHAPTER FOUR

simple past I opened the window.

(i.e. simply stating what happened)

true perfect I have opened the window.

(i.e. I did it just now and/or the window is still open)

Often one of these translations fits the context better than the other.

PERFECT TENSE: FIRST CONJUGATION

The perfect stem for the first conjugation uses the basic verb stem (e.g. port-) and a
syllable consisting of the characteristic vowel a and the letter v: portav-.
Hence:

sg 1 portav-i I carried or I have carried

2 portav-isti you (sg) carried you (sg) have carried
3 portav-it etc. etc.

pl 1 portav-imus
2 portav-istis
3 portav-erunt

Exercise 4.1 (mixed tenses of porto )

Translate into English :
1. portavisti
2. portas
3. portabamus
4. portaverunt
5. portamus
6. portavi
7. portavistis
8. portatis
9. portate!
10. portavit

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 PERFECT TENSE: FIRST CONJUGATION 93

All of the first conjugation verbs you have met so far form their perfect tense like
porto, with the execption of do (I give). Here is a revision list:

present tense meaning perfect tense

aedifico build aedificavi

ambulo walk ambulavi
amo love, like amavi
clamo shout clamavi
do give dedi (N.B. irregular stem)
festino hurry festinavi
habito live, dwell habitavi
invito invite invitavi
laboro work, toil laboravi
lacrimo cry lacrimavi
navigo sail navigavi
neco kill necavi
oppugno attack oppugnavi
paro prepare paravi
porto carry portavi
pugno fight pugnavi
saluto greet salutavi
voco call vocavi

Exercise 4.2 (perfect tense)

Translate into English :
1. clamavit
2. oppugnavisti
3. paravi
4. necaverunt
5. lacrimavimus
6. invitavistis
7. vocavit
8. aedificavi
9. dedisti
10. festinavistis

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94 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.3 (mixed tenses)

Translate into English :
1. salutavimus
2. ambulabatis
3. dat
4. navigas
5. laboravisti
6. amaverunt
7. habitabant
8. necamus
9. pugnavi
10. aedificabam

Exercise 4.4 (mixed tenses)

Translate into Latin:
1. They gave.
2. We were calling.
3. He is crying.
4. You (sg) worked.
5. She has sailed.
6. I was hurrying.
7. They attacked.
8. You (pl) have killed.
9. We live.
10. They were carrying.

Exercise 4.5
Translate into English:
1. cenam bonam libertis paravistis.
2. dominus in magno bello pugnavit.
3. servum malum gladio necavi.
4. Romani novum templum in foro aedificaverunt.
5. nuntius epistulas dominae ad insulam portavit.

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 PERFECT TENSE: SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH CONJUGATIONS 95

Exercise 4.6
Translate into Latin:
1. The messengers have sailed away from the homeland.
2. We immediately invited our new friends to dinner.
3. The small boy carried the wine into the garden.
4. The angry slaves attacked the walls of Rome.
5. Many of the girls have given gifts to the goddess.
S&C

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the difference in meaning between the perfect and imperfect tenses
 the person endings for the perfect tense
 the subtle difference in meaning between the simple past tense (e.g.
I carried) and the true perfect (e.g. I have carried)
 how first conjugation verbs form the perfect stem

PERFECT TENSE: SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH

CONJUGATIONS
All four conjugations all use the same person endings in the perfect tense (-i, -isti, -it,
-imus, -istis, -erunt). They differ, however, in the way in which they form the perfect
stem.
Study the table below:

conj 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

porto moneo traho audio

infinitive portare monere trahere audire

carry warn drag hear

sg 1 portav-i monu-i trax-i audiv-i

2 portav-isti monu-isti trax-isti audiv-isti
3 portav-it monu-it trax-it audiv-it

pl 1 portav-imus monu-imus trax-imus audiv-imus

2 portav-istis monu-istis trax-istis audiv-istis
3 portav-erunt monu-erunt trax-erunt audiv-erunt

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96 CHAPTER FOUR

Note the various ways in which the perfect stem is formed:

 1st and 4th conjugation verbs normally use the basic stem (port-, aud-)
followed by a syllable with the characteristic vowel for the conjugation
(a or i) and v: portav-; audiv-.
 2nd conjugation verbs normally add a u to the basic stem: monu-. There are,
however, some irregulars.
 3rd conjugation verbs form their perfect stem in various ways; there is not
one set rule, and perfect tenses of these verbs need to be learned. Many, like
traho, have a stem that incorporates an s sound. This is sometimes in the
form of an x, as in the case of traho: trax-.

Exercise 4.7 (perfect tense)

Translate into English:
1. traxit
2. monuimus
3. audivisti
4. monuistis
5. traxerunt
6. traxi
7. audivit
8. audivistis
9. monuerunt
10. traxisti

The following summary lists contain all the 2nd, 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs you
have met so far, along with their perfect tenses. The lists are arranged to show the
different ways a perfect stem can be formed.

2nd conjugation

present tense meaning perfect tense

 most use -u-:
debeo ought debui
habeo have habui
moneo warn monui
terreo frighten terrui
timeo fear timui

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 PERFECT TENSE: SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH CONJUGATIONS 97

 some use -s-:

iubeo order iussi
maneo remain mansi
 some use the basic stem (usually lengthening the first vowel):
sedeo sit sedi
video see vidi
 a few use the basic stem and add the characteristic vowel e plus v:
deleo destroy delevi*
* On the analogy of 1st conjugation portavi, you might have expected many more
2nd conjugation verbs to have perfect tenses like delevi. -ui forms did, in fact, start
off as -evi (i.e. monevi), but most contracted over time.

Exercise 4.8 (perfect tense)

Translate into English:
1. terruerunt
2. timuistis
3. mansimus
4. debuisti
5. habuit
6. delevimus
7. vidisti
8. iussi
9. sederunt
10. monuit

3rd conjugation (where things are most complicated)

present tense meaning perfect tense

 most use -s- (forming an -x- when combined with some consonants):
consumo eat consumpsi
discedo depart discessi
duco lead duxi
mitto send misi
scribo write scripsi
traho drag traxi

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98 CHAPTER FOUR

 some use the basic stem (usually lengthening the first vowel):
bibo drink bibi (first i stays short)
lego read; choose legi
 some double up the stem, adding an extra syllable at the start which repeats
the initial consonant of the basic stem. This process is called reduplication:
cado fall cecidi
curro run cucurri
 some change more unpredictably:
quaero search for quaesivi

Exercise 4.9 (perfect tense)

Translate into English:
1. quaesivit
2. misimus
3. cucurristis
4. legisti
5. biberunt
6. discessi
7. duxisti
8. scripsit
9. ceciderunt
10. consumpsimus

4th conjugation

present tense meaning perfect tense

 most go like audio, adding to the basic stem a syllable with the characteristic
vowel i plus the letter v:
audio hear audivi
custodio guard custodivi
dormio sleep dormivi
punio punish punivi
 venio uses the basic stem ven- (but lengthening the vowel), and compounds
of venio do the same:
venio come veni
advenio arrive adveni
invenio find inveni

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 PERFECT TENSE: SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH CONJUGATIONS 99

Exercise 4.10 (perfect tense)

Translate into English:
1. invenerunt
2. venistis
3. punivit
4. advenisti
5. dormivimus

Note also the perfect tenses of the two irregular verbs we have met:

present perfect

sum fui I was, I have been (on one occasion)

possum potui I could, I was able (on one occasion)

(this was originally pot + fui)

Note the difference between the imperfect and perfect of these verbs:

e.g. dominus bonus erat.

The master was a good man. (ongoing: erat)

dominus iratus fuit.

The master was angry. (on one occasion: fuit)

servus legere non poterat.

The slave could not read. (ongoing: poterat)

servus epistulam invenire non potuit.

The slave could not find the letter. (on one occasion: potuit)

The verb inquit (he/she says) does not change its form in the perfect tense; the same
form can be translated as present or perfect, depending on the context. The plural
form inquiunt (they say) is only used in the present tense.

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100 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.11 (mixed tenses)

Translate into English:
1. fuerunt
2. poteramus
3. potuisti
4. eras
5. fuistis
6. inquit (two answers)
7. es
8. fuit
9. poterat
10. potest

Exercise 4.12 (perfect tense)

Translate into Latin, checking the perfect stem as necessary:
1. You (pl) stayed.
2. We guarded.
3. He fell.
4. You (sg) have eaten.
5. They saw.
6. You (pl) departed.
7. They were able (on one occasion).
8. She has arrived.
9. I have frightened.
10. You (sg) were (on one occasion).

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 PERFECT TENSE: SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH CONJUGATIONS 101

Exercise 4.13 (perfect tense)

Translate into English :
1. nuntius e villa cum liberto cucurrit.
2. servos cibum in hortum portare iussistis.
3. puer stultus de muro subito cecidit.
4. in templo librum pulchrum invenimus.
5. dominam de novo periculo monui.
6. amici ad villam tandem advenerunt.
7. verba domini audire non potuimus.
8. puellae laetae cibum consumpserunt vinumque biberunt.
9. feminam pulchram in via vidisti.
10. Romani villas templaque deleverunt.

Exercise 4.14
Translate into English :
1. epistulam legit et servo dedit.
2. multos libros de bello scripsisti.
3. decem horas laborabam. tandem dormivi.
4. domina irata puerum malum punivit.
5. nautae Romani circum insulam navigaverunt.
6. nuntium gladiis oppugnavimus.
7. magnam villam in parva insula aedificavistis.
8. arma domini puellam terruerunt.
9. verba dei audivi; bellum non timeo.
10. fuit Romae magnum periculum.

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102 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.15
Translate into Latin :
1. We led the women out of danger.
2. The friends have finally arrived.
3. I stayed in the temple with the girls.
4. The foolish men dragged the horse through the gate. S&C
5. Call the master at once, boy! Messengers have come from Rome.

PRINCIPAL PARTS (2)

In Chapter Two we met the concept of verb principal parts. Principal parts are a way
of plotting key information about a verb.
The first two principal parts are the first person singular of the present tense and
the infinitive (e.g. porto -are).
The third principal part is the first person singular of the perfect tense (e.g.
portavi). It is very important to look at this when you meet a new verb since you
cannot necessarily predict how a verb will form its perfect stem by looking the first
two principal parts alone.
If the perfect tense builds on the present stem, the information can be given in
abbreviated form: e.g. porto -are -avi.
If the perfect tense changes more radically, it is written out in full: e.g. iubeo -ere iussi.
Remember that by looking at the first two principal parts you can work out
which conjugation a verb belongs to. By looking at the third principal part you see
how the verb forms its perfect stem. These pieces of information allow you to work
out the other endings of a verb.
Here are some more examples of verbs listed with their principal parts:

timeo -ere -ui venio -ire veni

cado -ere cecidi sum esse fui
custodio -ire -ivi possum posse potui

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the different ways in which the perfect stem can be formed in the four
conjugations
 the perfect tenses of the verbs we have met so far (see the lists on pp93–98)
 what we mean when we talk about a verb’s ‘third principal part’
 the order in which verb principal parts are normally written out

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 PRINCIPAL PARTS (2) 103

Exercise 4.16
Danger in Sicily (1)
Aeneas and his men encounter further horrors when they land in Sicily.

Aeneas Troianique circum Siciliam navigabant. ad terram venerunt et

cenam paraverunt. laeti erant: prope novam patriam tandem erant. sed
subito strepitum horrendum audiverunt: Mons Aetna erat. Aetna multas
horas ignem vomebat. strepitus Troianos terruit. Aeneas amicique dormire
5 non potuerunt. mane vir miser ad Troianos subito cucurrit. macer erat
et vestimenta lacerata habebat. ‘servate me, Troiani!’ clamavit.

Sicilia -ae f Sicily

prope (+ acc) near, near to
strepitus m din, noise
horrendus -a -um dreadful
3 Mons Aetna -ae f Mount Etna (volcano in Sicily)
ignis -is m fire
vomo -ere I spew up
mane in the morning
silva -ae f wood, forest
5 macer -cra -crum thin, scrawny
vestimenta -orum n pl clothing
laceratus -a -um torn, ripped
servo -are I save, I protect
me me (acc)

‘Graecus sum et Troiae pugnabam, sed miser et solus nunc sum. post bellum cum
Ulixe domino multos annos navigabam; ad Siciliam tandem advenimus. per terram
ambulavimus et speluncam invenimus. erat in spelunca multum cibi. laeti cibum
10 consumebamus sed subito advenit Cyclops, monstrum horrendum et unoculum.
Cyclops iratus multos viros consumpsit. sed Ulixes monstrum hasta caecavit et e
spelunca cucurrimus. Ulixes iussit nautas ab insula statim navigare sed stultus
me miserum reliquit. servate me! festinate! statim discedere debemus!’

Graecus -a -um Greek

Troiae at Troy (locative)
solus -a -um alone, lonely
post (+ acc) after, behind
8 Ulixes (abl Ulixe) Ulysses (Latin name for Odysseus)
spelunca -ae f cave
Cyclops Cyclops
monstrum -i n monster, giant
horrendus -a -um dreadful
10 unoculus -a -um one-eyed
hasta -ae f spear
caeco -are -avi I blind
me me (acc)
relinquo -ere reliqui I leave, I leave behind (i.e. abandon)
13 servo -are I save, I protect

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104 CHAPTER FOUR

Figure 4.1 Etruscan vase portraying Odysseus blinding the Cyclops Polyphemus. (Photo
by CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images)

THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

So far we have met first and second declensions nouns (i.e. nouns that decline like
puella, dominus and bellum).
Now we meet the third declension. (In Part 2 we shall meet fourth and fifth
declension nouns, but these are much less common; the vast majority of Latin nouns
are first, second or third declension.)
If a noun is first or second declension its nominative singular will almost always
end -a, -us, or -um. In the third declension, however, the nominative singular can
end in many different ways. This means that it is impossible to assign a ‘normal’
ending for the third declension nominative singular. However, in all other bits of the
third declension there is a standard set of endings, added to the stem (explained
below):
3rd declension endings
m/f
sg nom (wide range of possibilities)
acc stem + -em
gen stem + -is
dat stem + -i
abl stem + -e

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 THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS 105

pl nom stem + -es

acc stem + -es
gen stem + -um (or -ium)*
dat stem + -ibus
abl stem + -ibus
* see note on pp108–109.
 The same endings are used for both masculine and feminine nouns in this
declension.
 There is a neuter variant, which we shall meet later in this chapter; it differs
from the masculine/feminine only in the nominative and accusative.
 The vocative is identical to the nominative for third declension nouns.
Here are some common third declension nouns. As you can see, there is a variety of
possible endings in the nominative singular:
rex m king
dux m leader
frater m brother
mater f mother
miles m soldier
nox f night
pater m father
senex m old man
urbs f city
The most important part of a third declension noun is, however, its genitive stem. When
you know the genitive stem, all you then need to do to form the other cases is add the
endings. You cannot predict the genitive stem by looking at the nominative alone
(although you will become aware of some recurrent patterns), so it needs to be learned.
One way in which a third declension noun can form its genitive stem is to make
a make a slight spelling change to the nominative singular, e.g. the genitive stem of
rex is reg-. This means that the forms of rex are:
king
m
sg nom rex
acc reg-em
gen reg-is
dat reg-i
abl reg-e

pl nom reg-es
acc reg-es
gen reg-um*
dat reg-ibus
abl reg-ibus

* see note on pp108–109.

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106 CHAPTER FOUR

 A form ending -es could be nominative or accusative plural: judge which it is

from the context of the sentence.

Note how, if you didn’t know that rex was third declension, you could
mistake the genitive plural regum for the accusative singular of a noun like
dominus, or the nominative or accusative singular of a noun like bellum.
 Likewise, the -is ending of the third declension genitive singular (pronounced
with short i) is confusable with the -is ending of the first and second
declension dative and ablative plural (long i).
 It is therefore very important to learn which declension each noun is.

The other third declension nouns listed above all make a slight spelling change to
form their genitive stem:

dux ducis m leader stem duc-

frater -tris m brother fratr-
mater -tris f mother matr-
miles -itis m soldier milit-
nox noctis f night noct-
pater -tris m father patr-
senex -is m old man sen-
urbs urbis f city urb-
 The genitive of monosyllabic nouns is normally written out in full in a wordlist.
 As well as being vital for forming other bits of the noun correctly, the
genitive stem often provides lots of English derivatives (e.g. reg- gives us
regal, regicide, regalia, etc.).

Exercise 4.17
Give an English derivative from :
1. pater
2. miles
3. urbs
4. frater
5. nox

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 THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS 107

Exercise 4.18
Identify the number and case of :
1. senibus (two possible answers)
2. urbem
3. milites (two possible answers)
4. patris
5. duce
6. noctes (two possible answers)
7. matrem
8. nox
9. militum
10. regi

Exercise 4.19
Change the following from singular to plural or vice versa, keeping the same case :
1. ducum
2. matre
3. fratribus (dat)
4. urbs
5. reges (acc)

There are two more main ways in which a third declension noun can form its genitive
stem, as the words navis (ship) and clamor (shout) demonstrate. rex is also listed
below, for comparison:

king ship shout, shouting, noise

m f m
sg nom rex navis clamor
acc reg-em nav-em clamor-em
gen reg-is nav-is clamor-is
dat reg-i nav-i clamor-i
abl reg-e nav-e clamor-e

pl nom reg-es nav-es clamor-es

acc reg-es nav-es clamor-es
gen reg-um* nav-ium* clamor-um*
dat reg-ibus nav-ibus clamor-ibus
abl reg-ibus nav-ibus clamor-ibus

* see note on pp108–109

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108 CHAPTER FOUR

navis forms its genitive stem by dropping the final syllable of the nominative singular
(i.e. nav-). In this instance, the genitive singular ends up looking identical to the
nominative singular. Another noun like this is:

iuvenis -is m young man stem iuven-

For clamor the whole of the nominative singular is the genitive stem (i.e. clamor-).
Another noun like this is:

amor -oris m love stem amor-

A noun’s gender does not dictate which of these methods it uses to form the stem.

As with nouns of all declensions, when a third declension noun is given in a

wordlist its genitive singular and gender are listed too (this is especially important
for the third declension, since the genitive stem can’t easily be predicted from the
nominative singular).
Sometimes the genitive is given in abbreviated form to save space, with the
syllables that stay the same not being printed again. Removing the ending (-is) from
the genitive will leave you with the genitive stem. You can then use this stem to form
all the other bits of the noun.

e.g. miles, militis m soldier (therefore stem = milit-)

or miles -itis m soldier

Remember that the genitive ending tells you which declension a noun is:

-ae first declension

-i second
-is third

Knowing the declension of a noun prevents you confusing the endings: e.g. regum
must be genitive plural once you know that rex, regis is a third declension noun.

Genitive plural endings for third declension nouns:

 -um if the gen sg has one more syllable than the nom sg (i.e. if the noun
‘increases’ in the gen sg, it does not extend again in the gen pl): e.g. clamor;
clamoris; clamorum.
 -ium if the gen sg and the nom sg have the same number of syllables (i.e. if
the noun does not increase in the gen sg, it does in the gen pl): e.g. navis;
navis; navium. Also -ium if the nom sg is a monosyllable ending in two
consonants, e.g. urbs, nox (x counts as two consonants, = cs or gs): urbs;
urbis; urbium (this sort increase twice).

However, these rules are sometimes broken:

 pater, mater, frater, iuvenis, senex (all, coincidentally, people you might find
in a family) have -um in the gen pl, despite having the same number of

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 THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS 109

syllables in the nom sg and gen sg (they should therefore increase to -ium in
the gen pl).

rex, as a monosyllable ending in two consonants (x counting as two), should
have a genitive plural -ium, but in fact has -um.

Exercise 4.20
Translate into English :
1. noctem diu timebamus.
2. matres miserae in via lacrimabant.
3. dux multos milites in insula reliquit.
4. frater regis stultus et malus erat.
5. matrem patremque per vias urbis quaerebam.
6. libertus magnum amorem pecuniae habebat.
7. iuvenis per urbem cum militibus regis currebat.
8. pueri clamores senum non audiverunt.
9. senex iuvenes de periculis belli monebat.
10. nautae ad insulam in magna nave navigaverunt.

Exercise 4.21
S&C
Translate into Latin :
1. There are many cities on the island.
2. I did not hear my brother’s shout.
3. The young man suddenly saw his mother and father.
4. The king’s soldiers were guarding the money.
5. We must run to the ship at once, old man!

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the endings of masculine and feminine third declension nouns
 the importance of the genitive stem in forming the other cases
 the different ways in which third declension nouns can form the genitive
stem

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110 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.22

Danger in Sicily (2)

The Trojans soon come face to face with the one-eyed Cyclopes.

verba misera nautae Troianos terruerunt. Aeneas amicique statim misericordiam

habuerunt. clamorem subito audiverunt et Cyclopem viderunt. Cyclops caecatus
iratusque ad Troianos ambulabat. Aeneas statim Troianos et nautam miserum ad
naves currere iussit. subito ceteri Cyclopes advenerunt. Cyclopes Troianos
5 lapidibus ramisque oppugnaverunt. Troiani ad naves cucurrerunt et statim
discesserunt. Graecum miserum non reliquerunt.

misericordia -ae f pity

Cyclops -opis m Cyclops
caecatus -a -um blinded
ceteri -ae -a the other, the rest of
5 lapis -is m stone
ramus -i m branch (of tree)

Troiani circum Siciliam ad novam patriam lente navigabant. sed dei novum dolorem
miserunt: senex Anchises, pater Aeneae, tandem periit. Aeneas miser diu lacrimabat
sed Troiani manere non poterant. dux pius nautas iussit naves in aquam iterum
10 deducere. ‘ad naves,’ inquit ‘amici! lacrimae verbaque misera non prosunt.
patriam petere debemus!’

Sicilia -ae f Sicily

lente slowly
dolor -oris m grief, woe
Anchises -is m Anchises
8 periit (he) perished, (he) died
pius -a -um dutiful
iterum again
deduco -ere I launch, I bring down
lacrima -ae f tear
10 prosum I am of use
peto -ere petivi I seek, I make for (also I beg/ask for)

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 THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER 111

THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER

We have seen that in the third declension both masculine and feminine nouns use the
same endings.
There is, however, a neuter variant. The neuter endings differ from the masculine
and feminine endings in the nominative and accusative.
In the table below the neuter endings have been added on the right:

3rd declension endings

m/f n
sg nom (wide range) (wide range)
acc stem + -em (wide range, same as nom)
gen stem + -is stem + -is
dat stem + -i stem + -i
abl stem + -e stem + -e

pl nom stem + -es stem + -a

acc stem + -es stem + -a
gen stem + -um (or -ium) stem + -um (or -ium)
dat stem + -ibus stem + -ibus
abl stem + -ibus stem + -ibus
 As with the masculine and feminine forms, the nominative singular of third
declension neuter nouns can end in various ways.
 As with all neuter nouns, the nominative and the accusative are always
identical.
 The vocative is identical to the nominative.
 Any stem change for a third declension neuter noun will only kick in with the
genitive singular (this is why we talk about the genitive stem for third
declension nouns: the idea of a different accusative stem wouldn’t work for
neuter nouns). This genitive stem will be used in all subsequent bits of the noun.
 Like all neuter nouns, the nominative and accusative plural end in -a.
 The rules about whether the genitive plural ends -um or -ium govern the
neuter, too (see note on pp108–109).
One common third declension neuter noun, nomen (name), is given below. Note
how the stem changes from the genitive singular onwards.

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112 CHAPTER FOUR

name
n
sg nom nomen
acc nomen
gen nomin-is (stem nomin-)
dat nomin-i
abl nomin-e
pl nom nomin-a
acc nomin-a
gen nomin-um
dat nomin-ibus
abl nomin-ibus
 The ablative singular can mean by name (i.e. called. . .):
e.g. dux, Caesar nomine, in templo erat.
The leader, called Caesar, was in the temple.
Three other common third declension neuter nouns are as follows; the genitive
singular enables you to work out the stem:
caput -itis n head stem capit-
iter -ineris n journey itiner-
mare -is n sea mar-
 mare is slightly irregular: its ablative singular is usually mari and its
nominative and accusative plural are maria.

Exercise 4.23
Give an English derivative from :
1. caput
2. iter
3. mare
4. nomen

Exercise 4.24
Identify the number and case of :
1. nominum
2. capitibus (two possible answers)
3. itineris
4. maria (two possible answers)
5. capite

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 THIRD DECLENSION NEUTER 113

Exercise 4.25
Translate into English :
1. nomen urbis Roma est.
2. senex milites ad mare duxit.
3. rex nautas Romanos necavit et capita Romam misit.
4. iter longum erat sed dormire nunc possumus.
5. equus pulcher, Bucephalus nomine, magnum caput habet.*

longus -a -um long

* Bucephalus (literally ‘Ox-head’), the horse of Alexander the Great (king of

Macedon 336-323 bc ), was so called because of his unusually large head.
Bucephalus proved a faithful companion to Alexander as he conquered the known
world; Alexander even named a city after him when he died.

Exercise 4.26
S&C
Translate into Latin :
1. The sailors feared the god of the sea.
2. The new slaves do not have names.
3. I carried the head of the evil young man to the king.
4. The leader gave the island a new name.
5. We have heard about the soldiers’ journeys.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the endings of neuter third declension nouns
 the meaning and genitive stem of all the third declension nouns we have
met so far
 the use of nomine to mean by name (i.e. called)

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114 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.27

Storm and Prophecy

Juno, still smarting from the Judgement of Paris, engineers a terrible storm.

Aeneas Troianique novam patriam nunc petebant. sed Iuno, regina deorum,
Troianos punire adhuc cupiebat. naves Troianas irata spectabat. necare nautas et
naves delere cupiebat. ad Aeolum, regem ventorum, festinavit. dea Aeolum iussit
magnam tempestatem mittere. Aeolus ventos in caelum statim misit. venti mari
5 incubuerunt, lux e caelo discessit, aquae naves oppresserunt. Aeneas lacrimavit
mortemque timuit. sed venti et aquae tandem resederunt. multae naves, multi
nautae amissi nunc erant. Aeneas ad terram tandem navigavit. Venus, mater Aeneae,
periculum vidit. ad Iovem festinavit, lacrimavit, verba irata clamavit: ‘promisisti, rex
deorum, Troianis novum regnum novamque patriam! sed tempestas naves Troianas
10 nunc oppressit et dux bonus in magno periculo est. cur Aenean adhuc punis?’ sed
Iuppiter risit. ‘consilia deorum manent,’ inquit. ‘Troianos custodio. Aenean non
punio. pater novi regni Romani est; Romanis imperium sine fine dedi.’

Iuno -onis f Juno

regina -ae f queen
adhuc still
cupiebat (she) wanted
2 specto -are -avi I look at, I watch
Aeolus -i m Aeolus
ventus -i m wind
tempestas -atis f storm
caelum -i n sky, heaven
5 incumbo -ere incubui I throw myself upon (+ dat)
lux lucis f light
opprimo -ere oppressi I overwhelm
mors mortis f death
resido -ere resedi I settle down, I subside
7 amissus -a -um lost
Venus -eris f Venus
Iuppiter Iovis m Jupiter
promitto -ere -misi I promise
regnum -i n kingdom
10 cur why?
rideo -ere risi I smile, I laugh
imperium -i n empire
sine (+ abl) without
finis -is m end, border, limit

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 DIRECT QUESTIONS (1) 115

DIRECT QUESTIONS (1)

A direct question quotes the actual words of someone asking a question and ends in
a question mark, e.g. Are you happy? There are two main types of question.

1. The first type asks if something is the case, and leads to a Yes or No answer.
Any sentence in Latin can be turned into a question simply by adding a question mark.

e.g. laeti estis. You (pl) are happy.

laeti estis? Are you (pl) happy?

More commonly, a question is signalled by adding -ne to the end of first word. The
suffix -ne means ‘is it the case?’, though it is clumsy to translate it like this. Adding
-ne can make a familiar word look odd: remove the -ne to get back to the original
word. When a statement is made into a question the word order is often changed,
with the verb usually coming first; but another word that the author wants to
emphasise can also be put first.

e.g. discesseruntne feminae? Have the women left?

fratremne necavit rex? Did the king kill his brother?
or Was it his brother that the king killed?

Note how Latin can subtly shift the emphasis by manipulating the word order;
English has to find other ways to achieve this effect.
-ne is neutral, and does not point towards either Yes or No as the likely answer.
Alternatively, the question can be slanted to suggest either Yes or No as the
expected answer by using one of the following instead of -ne:

nonne . . . ? Surely . . . ? (expecting the answer Yes)

num . . . ? Surely . . . not . . . ? (expecting the answer No)

Note how nonne is simply non + ne: literally isn’t it the case. . . ? (Yes)

e.g. nonne Romam amas? Surely you (sg) like Rome? (Yes)
or You (sg) do like Rome, don’t you? (Yes)

num vinum amas? Surely you (sg) do not like the wine? (No)
or You (sg) don’t like the wine, do you? (No)

2. The second type of question requests a specific piece of information. As in English,

various question words are used, five of which are listed below.

cur? why?
quando? when?
quo? where . . . to? (whither? in old-fashioned English)
ubi? where?
unde? where . . . from? (whence? in old-fashioned English)

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116 CHAPTER FOUR

Many Latin question words begin with qu- (and even cur used to be spelled quor),
just as many question words in English begin with wh-:

e.g. quando advenit rex? quo curritis, pueri?

When did the king arrive? Where are you running (to), boys?

Note how in modern English we often simply say where? rather than where to? (e.g.
where are you going (to)?); Latin is more precise, with ubi and quo having specific
different meanings.

Exercise 4.28
Translate into English :
1. mare amatis?
2. habetne insula nomen?
3. cur ridetis, pueri?
4. quando discessit regina?
5. nonne dei Romam amant?
6. timetisne iter longum, puellae?
7. num senex gladio pugnare potest?
8. unde navigavistis, nautae?
9. quo currebas, puer?
10. ubi nunc sumus, pater?

Exercise 4.29
Translate into Latin :
1 When did you find the money, slave-girl?
2 Why are you not working, boy?
3 You (pl) are able to read, aren’t you?
4 Where is the mistress walking to? S&C
5 Has the leader ordered the soldiers to make for the city?

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 DIRECT QUESTIONS (1) 117

Exercise 4.30

Dido and Aeneas (1)

Divine intervention helps the lost Aeneas find his way to Carthage.

Aeneas in terra nova ignotaque nunc erat. miser erat et timebat. sed Iuppiter rex
deorum Aenean Troianosque servabat. terra Carthago erat, regina Dido. Iuppiter
Mercurium, nuntium deorum, ad Poenos Didonemque reginam misit. Mercurius
Poenis mentem benignam dedit. periculum igitur Troianis parvum erat. Aeneas
5 amicusque, Achates nomine, per agros ignotos miseri errabant. subito Venus, dea
amoris et mater Aeneae, de caelo ad terram descendit et ad Aenean venit. sed dea
vestimenta puellae gerebat: Aeneas matrem non agnovit.

ignotus -a -um unknown

Iuppiter gen Iovis m Jupiter
servo -are I save, I protect
Carthago -inis f Carthage
2 Dido -onis f Dido
Mercurius -i m Mercury
Poeni -orum m pl Carthaginians
mens mentis f mind
benignus -a -um kind, friendly
5 Achates -ae m Achates (Trojan warrior)
erro -are I wander, I roam
Venus -eris f Venus
descendo -ere -i I go down, I come down
vestimenta -orum n pl clothing
7 gero -ere I wear
agnosco -ere agnovi I recognise

Venus viros salutavit: ‘salvete, viri! qui estis? cur hic erratis? unde venistis?’
Aeneas ‘Troiani’ inquit ‘sumus, et Troia navigavimus. novam patriam petimus
10 sed dei adversi sunt: multa pericula et magnam tempestatem miserunt. nunc in
terra ignota sumus. sed quis es? deane es? num puella es? ubi sumus? qui hic
habitant? suntne viri benigni?’

salvete! greetings! hello! (to pl)

qui who (pl)?
hic here
adversus -a -um hostile
10 tempestas -atis f storm
quis? who (sg)?

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118 CHAPTER FOUR

Venus ‘tuti’ inquit ‘estis, Troiani. in terra Poenorum estis. Poeni viri boni sunt, et
Dido regina bona est. Poeni huc per maria navigaverunt; nuper advenerunt. urbem
15 nunc aedificant. non dea sed venatrix sum; vias agrosque scio. ad urbem nunc
festinate!’ deinde dea passibus fulgentibus discessit: Aeneas matrem statim
agnovit. Aeneas Achatesque Carthaginem petiverunt. Venus viros nebula densa
velavit; nemo Aenean videre poterat.

tutus -a -um safe

huc to here
nuper recently
venatrix -icis f huntress
15 scio -ire I know
passibus fulgentibus with radiant steps
agnosco -ere agnovi I recognise
nebula -ae f cloud, mist
densus -a -um thick
18 velo -are -avi I cover, I veil
nemo nobody

ad novam urbem advenerunt. Poeni forum, muros, templa aedificabant. viri

20 feminaeque sicut apes laborabant. Aeneas Didonem pulchram subito vidit. erat
cum regina – mirabile dictu! – magna turba iuvenum Troianorum. Aeneas
Achatesque amicos laeti viderunt. deinde nebula subito evanuit. Aeneas in forum
turbamque ambulavit. Dido obstupefacta Aenean Troianum spectavit.

sicut just like

apis -is f bee
mirabile dictu! wondrous to say!
turba -ae f crowd
22 evanesco -ere evanui I vanish, I disappear
obstupefactus -a -um amazed, astounded

 Note that Dido -onis f (Dido) and Poeni -orum m pl (Carthaginians) will not
be glossed again.

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 MIXED CONJUGATION VERBS 119

MIXED CONJUGATION VERBS

So far we have met verbs in four different conjugations.

There are, however, a few verbs that fall between the third and fourth conjugations.
These are called mixed conjugation verbs. They possess some features of either
conjugation.
 In the present and imperfect these verbs go like the fourth conjugation.
 The present infinitive ends -ere, like the third conjugation (this means that
they count as third overall, even though they have more in common with
fourth).
 The way they form their perfect stem (vowel change or lengthening, and
slight irregularity) aligns them with third.
 In the imperative they go like the third.
 In the vocabulary at the back of this book they are shown as ‘3rd*’.

Study the forms of capio (I take, I catch, I capture):

present imperfect perfect

sg 1 cap-io capie-bam cep-i

2 cap-is capie-bas cep-isti
3 cap-it capie-bat cep-it

pl 1 cap-imus capie-bamus cep-imus

2 cap-itis capie-batis cep-istis
3 cap-iunt capie-bant cep-erunt

infinitive cap-ere

imperative cap-e (sg)

cap-ite (pl)
Two important mixed conjugation verbs that go like capio are:

facio -ere feci I make, I do

fugio -ere fugi* I flee, I run away

* fugio has a short u in the present tense and a long u in the perfect.
Note that facio can sometimes appear with two accusative nouns:

e.g. puerum ducem fecimus.

We made the boy our leader.
Note too a very common phrase involving capio:

consilium capio I make (lit I take) a plan

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120 CHAPTER FOUR

Exercise 4.31
Translate into English:
1. faciunt
2. capiebatis
3. fuge!
4. facere
5. cepisti
6. fugerunt
7. facis
8. capitis
9. fugistis
10. consilium capite!

Exercise 4.32
Translate into Latin :
1. We were doing.
2. She fled.
3. To capture.
4. They have made.
5. He flees.

Exercise 4.33
Translate into English :
1. senes miseri iter longum Romam faciebant.
2. urbem ducemque tandem cepimus.
3. libertus ‘num’ inquit ‘fugitis, nuntii?’
4. equum capite, pueri stulti!
5. Romani servum regem fecerunt.
6. fuge, o regina! urbem relinque!
7. duces Romanorum novum consilium capiebant.
8. ancillae ex horto subito fugerunt.
9. pater iuvenis vinum bonum facit.
10. tempus fugit.

tempus -oris n time

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 MIXED CONJUGATION VERBS 121

Exercise 4.34
Translate into Latin :
1. We are making wine in the garden.
2. The slaves caught the evil boy.
3. Why did you not flee from the danger, old man?
4. The brothers were making a journey through the new land. S&C
5. The soldiers have captured the walls and gates; we cannot flee.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how a sentence can be turned into a question
 how a question can be slanted to expect either Yes or No as the answer
 the list on p115 of question words requesting specific information
 how mixed conjugation verbs use the endings of the 3rd and 4th
conjugations in different places

Exercise 4.35

Dido and Aeneas (2)

Dido gives Aeneas a royal welcome but Venus then hatches a fateful plan.

Aeneas ad reginam ambulavit. ‘ducem’ inquit ‘militum Troianorum quaeris, o

regina. ego, Aeneas, adsum. dedisti, Dido regina, Troianis magnum auxilium:
nautas fessos in urbem invitavisti et gentem sparsam servavisti. o magni dei,
servate Poenos et urbem et reginam bonam!’ deinde Dido ‘cur,’ inquit ‘dux, ad
5 terram Poenorum venisti? quid contra deos fecisti? cur dei Troianos oderunt?
multas fabulas de Troianis et de Aenea audivi. ego quoque exsul sum: patriam
reliqui et novam urbem nunc aedifico. gratissimi estis, Troiani. ad regiam venite!’

ego I (nom)
adsum adesse I am here, I am present
fessus -a -um tired
gens gentis f race, tribe, family
3 sparsus -a -um scattered
servo -are I save, I protect
quid what (acc)?
oderunt (they) hate
fabula -ae f story, tale
6 quoque also, too
exsul -ulis m/f exile, exiled person
gratissimus -a -um very welcome
regia -ae f royal palace

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122 CHAPTER FOUR

regina Troianos in regiam duxit. servos magnam cenam parare iussit. multum
cibi ad naves amicosque Aeneae misit. Aeneas nuntium iussit filium Ascanium ad
10 urbem ducere. sed Venus novum consilium nunc cepit: non Ascanium sed
Cupidinem, Ascanio similem, ad urbem misit. dum Poeni et Troiani cenant,
Cupido cor Didonis amore Aeneae incendit.

filius -i m son
Ascanius -i m Ascanius
Venus -eris f Venus
Cupido -inis m Cupid (assistant of Venus)
11 similem (m acc sg) resembling, looking like (+ dat)
dum while (+ present tense verb, translate as
imperfect)
ceno -are I dine
cor cordis n heart
12 incendo -ere -i I burn, I set on fire

TIME EXPRESSIONS (2): ‘TIME WHEN’

In Chapter Two we saw that the accusative case is used in a expression that states
how long an action lasts.

e.g. librum multos annos scribebam.

I was writing the book for many years.

To express when something happens the ablative case is used.

The following two new adjectives are frequently found in this context:

medius -a -um the middle (of)

primus -a -um first, the first

Note that medius is simply an adjective that agrees with the relevant noun. It usually
has the sense the middle of . . . (e.g. the middle of the forum) rather than the middle
one of several (as in the middle child of three). Both adjectives normally come before
the nouns they describe.

e.g. Roma prima hora discessi.

I left Rome at the first hour.

urbem media nocte cepimus.

We captured the city in the middle of the night.

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 TIME EXPRESSIONS (2): ‘TIME WHEN’ 123

Exercise 4.36
Translate into English :
1. ad templum prima hora ambulavistis.
2. Romani primo anno insulas oppugnaverunt.
3. pueri in mediam turbam cucurrerunt.
4. senex fratrem gladio media nocte necavit.
5. multas villas primo anno aedificavimus.

Exercise 4.37

Dido and Aeneas (3)

The queen of Carthage and her Trojan guest grow ever closer.

post cenam Aeneas Didoni fabulam longam de exitio Troiae et itinere

Troianorum narravit. regina Poenique obstupefacti erant. media nocte sagitta
amoris Didonem transfixit: regina caput, capillos, oculos viri Troiani amavit.
cotidie Dido et Aeneas templa visitabant, dona deis dabant, per vias urbis
5 ambulabant. Iuno regina deorum cupiebat Aenean in terra Poenorum diu
manere. dea consilium cepit. Dido et Aeneas venationem ducebant; Iuno
magnam tempestatem misit. regina et Aeneas ad speluncam fugerunt: hic
manebant; hic amaverunt. Dido laeta nunc Aenean maritum vocabat.

fabula -ae f story, tale

exitium -i n destruction
narro -are -avi I tell, I narrate
obstupefactus -a -um amazed, astounded
2 sagitta -ae f arrow
transfigo -ere transfixi I pierce (someone) through
capilli -orum m pl hair
oculus -i m eye
cotidie every day
4 visito -are I visit
Iuno -onis f Juno
cupio -ere I want, I desire
venationem duco I lead the hunt, I lead the hunting packs
tempestas -atis f storm
7 spelunca -ae f cave
hic here
amaverunt (here) they made love
maritus -i m husband

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124 CHAPTER FOUR

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE

ADJECTIVES (1): ego, tu, meus, tuus
Personal pronouns refer to specific people (I, you, he, etc.), and operate like nouns
within sentences. Like nouns, they decline according to case.
Note how English has retained inflection (i.e. the changing of word endings to
create meaning) for pronouns. Consider for example (subject, object, possessive):
I, me, mine; he, him, his; she, her, hers.
Here are the forms of the first and second person singular personal pronouns,
I and you (sg):

I, me you (sg)

nom ego tu
acc me te
gen mei tui
dat mihi tibi
abl me te
 There is no distinction made for the gender of the person referred to.
 ego and tu do not have plural forms: there are separate words for we and
you (pl).
 There is no vocative of ego; for tu it is identical to the nominative.

e.g. milites me ceperunt. deus tibi multa dona dedit.

The soldiers captured me. The god has given you many gifts.

Personal pronouns in the nominative are normally only used to add emphasis,
particularly in a question or in a contrast between two people. They can also mark
a change of subject between sentences.

e.g. ego mansi, sed tu fugisti.

I stayed, but you (sg) fled.

In this sentence the subjects of the verbs are already revealed by the verb endings; the
pronouns give greater weight to the contrast.
Personal pronouns can be used reflexively (i.e. to refer back to the subject):

e.g. me cibum consumere iussi.

I ordered myself to eat the food.

If a pronoun appears with the preposition cum (with), the two words join up, and
the pronoun comes first, i.e. mecum, tecum rather than cum me, cum te.

e.g. in hortum mecum ambula, pater!

Walk into the garden with me, father!

A possessive adjective shows who an item belongs to: e.g. my book, your house.

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 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (1) 125

The possessive adjectives my and your (belonging to you sg) are regular 2-1-2
adjectives like laetus:

meus -a -um my
tuus -a -um your, yours (belonging to you sg)
 The masculine vocative singular of meus is mi (in the other genders the
vocative is the same as the nominative). There is no vocative of tuus.

A possessive adjective normally follows the noun it describes. Like any adjective, it
needs to agree with the noun in number, gender and case. Note that the possessive
adjective will have the gender of the thing owned, not the gender of the owner. Like
other adjectives they can also be used on their own, acting like nouns.
We have already seen that when the possession is clear from the context, Latin
doesn’t normally use a possessive adjective. A possessive adjective is used for
emphasis, or when the possession is not otherwise obvious.

e.g. patrem amas. patrem meum amas.

You (sg) love your father. You (sg) love my father.

urbem meam amo. pater tuus meum non amat.

I love my city. Your father does not like mine.

It is possible to use the genitive of the personal pronoun rather than the possessive
adjective, e.g. villa mei (lit the villa of me) rather than villa mea (my villa). It is,
however, much more common to use the possessive adjective.

Exercise 4.38
Translate into English :
1. unde venisti tu? ubi habitas tu?
2. mecum in agros meos ambulate, amici!
3. ego vinum bibi, tu aquam.
4. fratres mei tuos non timent.
5. materne mea donum tibi et patri tuo dedit?

Exercise 4.39
S&C
Translate into Latin :
1. Your husband gave me the weapons.
2. Kill yourself with the sword, brother!
3. They found my slave-girl in the temple.
4. Why are your slaves not with you, father?
5. Is my book in your house, freedman?

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126 CHAPTER FOUR

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how to form a ‘time when’ phrase with the ablative
 what personal pronouns and possessive adjectives are
 the declension and use of ego, tu, meus and tuus

Exercise 4.40

Dido and Aeneas (4)

The gods remind Aeneas of his mission; the love affair cannot go on.

sed Aeneas cum Didone manere non poterat: fatum non erat. Troianos ad novam
patriam ducere debebat. Iuppiter iratus Mercurium ad Aenean media nocte misit.
Mercurius ad ducem in somnio venit. ‘vir stulte,’ inquit ‘cur verborum Iovis non
meministi? patriam Troianis invenire debes. hoc regnum tuum non est. maritus
5 Didonis non es. statim discede! festina!’ verba dei Aenean terruerunt. postridie
naves paravit et Troianos navigare iussit. Dido ubi consilium ducis Troianorum
cognovit misera et irata erat. lacrimavit, clamavit, Aenean manere iussit: sed frustra.
Aeneas ad naves festinavit et amicos a terra Poenorum navigare iussit. regina ‘nunc’
clamavit ‘Poeni hostes Troianorum sunt. o dei, Poenos vindicate! Troianos punite!’
10 Aeneas Troianique discesserunt; Dido regina se gladio transfixit et in ignem iniecit.

fatum -i n fate, divine will

Iuppiter Iovis m Jupiter
Mercurius -i m Mercury
somnium -i n sleep, dream
4 memini (perfect form,
but present meaning) I remember (+ gen)
hoc (n nom) this
postridie on the next day
ubi (here) when
7 cognosco -ere cognovi I find out
frustra in vain
hostis -is m enemy
vindico -are I avenge, I take vengeance on behalf of
se (acc) herself
10 transfigo -ere transfixi I pierce (someone) through
ignis -is m (here) funeral pyre
inicio -ere inieci I throw. . . onto

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 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (1) 127

Figure 4.2 A manuscript illustration of Dido killing herself on the pyre. c.400 ad. Found
in the collection of the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage
Images/Getty Images)

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128 CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER FOUR GRAMMAR

Perfect tense:

 meaning: I X-ed (simple past) or I have X-ed (true perfect)

 endings: -i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, -erunt
 added to perfect stem (first person singular of perfect = third principal part)
 e.g. portavi, monui, traxi, audivi
 but perfect stem can be formed in various ways: see pp93–98
 perfect of sum = fui; of possum = potui

Mixed conjugation verbs:

 e.g. capio, facio, fugio

 go like 4th conjugation audio in present and imperfect
 go like 3rd conjugation traho in imperative and infinitive
 normal perfect tense endings applied to their perfect stem

Third declension nouns:

m&f

sg nom (wide range) pl stem + -es

acc stem + -em stem + -es
gen stem + -is stem + -um (or -ium)
dat stem + -i stem + -ibus
abl stem + -e stem + -ibus

 same set of endings for both m & f; in neuter, acc sg same as nom sg, and
both nom pl and acc pl are stem + -a
 vital to know the gen sg stem and gender of each third declension noun
 for rules about gen pl ending see pp108–109
 e.g. rex regis m; navis -is f; clamor -oris m; nomen -inis n
Questions:


some are answered by Yes or No: -ne, nonne, num
 some ask for specific information: cur, quando, ubi, quo, unde

‘Time when’ expressions: use the ablative: e.g. media nocte; primo anno

Personal pronouns: ego and tu; they decline; can be used reflexively

Possessive adjectives: meus and tuus (both 2-1-2); function like other adjs

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 CHAPTER FOUR VOCABUL ARY 129

CHAPTER FOUR VOCABULARY

amor -oris m love
caelum -i n sky, heaven
capio -ere cepi I take, I catch, I capture
caput -itis n head
clamor -oris m shout, shouting, noise
cur? why?
dux ducis m leader
ego mei I, me
facio -ere feci I make, I do
frater -tris m brother
fugio -ere fugi I run away, I flee
iter -ineris n journey
iuvenis -is m young man
longus -a -um long
mare -is n sea
maritus -i m husband
mater -tris f mother
medius -a -um middle (of)
meus -a -um my
miles -itis m soldier
navis -is f ship
-ne . . . ? (makes a question, e.g.) is it . . . ?
nomen -inis n name
nonne . . . ? surely . . . ?
nox noctis f night
num . . . ? surely . . . not . . . ?
pater -tris m father
peto -ere -ivi I seek, I beg/ask for, I make for
post + acc after, behind
primus -a -um first
quando? when?
quo? where to?
regina -ae f queen
regnum -i n kingdom
relinquo -ere reliqui I leave, I leave behind (i.e. abandon)
rex regis m king
rideo -ere risi I laugh, I smile
senex -is m old man
specto -are -avi I look at, I watch
tu tui you (sg)
turba -ae f crowd
tuus -a -um your (of you sg), yours
ubi? where?
unde? where from?
urbs urbis f city, town

45 words

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 Chapter Five

VERBS: FUTURE TENSE

So far we have met three different verb tenses:

present porto I carry, I am carrying

imperfect portabam I was carrying, I used to carry
perfect portavi I carried, I have carried

We now meet the future tense, which describes actions that are yet to take place and
has the basic meaning I shall . . ., I am going to . . ..
Since most stories are set in the past, the future tense is used less often than the
other tenses we have met. Unless the author is talking about the future (which is
unlikely), you will probably find a future tense verb within direct speech.
The future tense has two sets of endings. The 1st and 2nd conjugations use one
set, and the 3rd, 4th and mixed conjugations use the other. You therefore need to
know the conjugation of a verb in order to form and recognise its future tense
correctly (remember how you can work this out by analysing the principal parts: see
p50). The endings are:

conjugation 1st & 2nd 3rd, 4th & mixed

sg 1 -bo -am I shall. . .**

2 -bis -es you (sg) will. . .
3 -bit -et he/she/it will. . .

pl 1 -bimus -emus we shall. . .**

2 -bitis -etis you (pl) will. . .
3 -bunt* -ent they will. . .

* Note the form -bunt rather than, as you might have predicted, -bint.
** Nowadays will is often used rather than shall for the first person. But in formal
English there is a subtle difference: I will conveys determination or an order (I will
go to the city), whereas I shall is neutral (I shall go to the city). Conversely for the
second and third persons will is neutral whereas shall is used for an instruction: you
will learn vs you shall learn. Reversing the shall/will norm for the person expresses
an order.

130

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 VERBS: FUTURE TENSE 131

You will recognise once again the distinctive person endings that we saw in the
endings of the present and imperfect: -o (or -m), -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt.
The 1st and 2nd conjugations use endings similar to the -bam, -bas, -bat (etc.) of
the imperfect tense; in the imperfect tense all the conjugations used the same endings,
but this is not the case in the future.
Here in full are the future tense forms for each of the four main conjugations.
Note once again how the characteristic vowels appear in the 1st (a), 2nd (e) and 4th
(i) conjugations between the basic verb stem and the ending.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th*

I shall carry I shall warn I shall drag I shall hear

sg 1 porta-bo mone-bo trah-am audi-am

2 porta-bis mone-bis trah-es audi-es
3 porta-bit mone-bit trah-et audi-et

pl 1 porta-bimus mone-bimus trah-emus audi-emus

2 porta-bitis mone-bitis trah-etis audi-etis
3 porta-bunt mone-bunt trah-ent audi-ent

* Just as in the present and imperfect tenses, mixed conjugation verbs go like audio
in the future tense: e.g. capiam, capies, capiet, etc.

Exercise 5.1 (future tense)

Translate into English:
1. timebo
2. fugient
3. bibes
4. ridebunt
5. punient
6. vocabimus
7. scribetis
8. habebitis
9. cadet
10. petam

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132 CHAPTER FIVE

A possible source of confusion is that the future tense of the 3rd conjugation (traham,
-es, -et, etc.) resembles the present tense of the 2nd conjugation (moneo, -es, -et, etc.)
in every bit apart from the first person singular. To translate the verb correctly you
need to remember (or check) its conjugation.

e.g. mones 2nd conjugation, therefore present: you (sg) warn

trahes 3rd conjugation, therefore future: you (sg) will drag

(The present tense of the 3rd conjugation here would be trahis.)

Exercise 5.2 (2nd and 3rd conjugations, mixed tenses)

Translate into English:
1. sedes
2. curres
3. videbis
4. relinquent
5. delent
6. ducebant
7. discedam
8. manebat
9. mittet
10. terrent

Exercise 5.3
Translate into Latin (checking the conjugation where necessary):
1. He will guard.
2. You (sg) will build.
3. He will leave behind.
4. You (pl) will capture.
5. They will give.
6. She is afraid.
7. She will depart.
8. We shall run.
9. We run.
10. They will stay.

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 VERBS: FUTURE TENSE 133

Exercise 5.4
Translate into English:
1. dei viros bonos non punient.
2. num per urbem media nocte ambulabis?
3. maritus meus post cenam adveniet.
4. epistulas librosque in horto legam.
5. mater mecum in villa manebit.
6. decem annos Romae habitabimus.
7. invenietne patrem in magna turba?
8. ad insulam in quinque navibus navigabimus.
9. auxilium ad amicos statim mittemus.
10. dux stultus te in periculum ducet.

Exercise 5.5
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The soldiers will depart in the middle of the night.
2. Brother, where shall we build the city?
3. The young man will have to flee from Rome.
4. You (pl) will drink good wine in the inn.
5. Surely you (sg) will warn your friends about the danger?

‘will have to’: use future of debeo (+ infinitive)

Here are three more time adverbs that are often (but not only) found with future
tense verbs:

cras tomorrow
mox soon
numquam never

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134 CHAPTER FIVE

Exercise 5.6
Translate into English:
1. rex cum multis militibus mox adveniet.
2. dei Romam numquam relinquent.
3. mater me ad forum cras mittet.
4. puer stultus libros numquam legit.
5. quaere me cras in foro, amice!
6. clamores senum mox audivimus.
7. frater meus ad villam tuam cras adveniet.
8. urbem Romam numquam vidi.
9. navigabitne mox dominus ad insulam?
10. dux ‘cras,’ inquit ‘milites, muros capiemus.’

FUTURE TENSE OF sum and possum

We have so far met sum and its compound possum in three tenses:

I am I can, I am able

present sum possum

imperfect eram poteram
perfect fui potui

Here are their forms in the future tense:

I shall be I shall be able

sg 1 ero potero
2 eris poteris
3 erit poterit

pl 1 erimus poterimus
2 eritis poteritis
3 erunt* poterunt*

* Note (pot)erunt rather than (pot)erint, as you might have predicted: compare
-bunt rather than -bint in the future tense of the 1st and 2nd conjugations. Take care
to distinguish the future (pot)erunt from the imperfect (pot)erant.

Note how possum once again simply sticks the prefix pot- onto sum.

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 FUTURE TENSE OF SUM AND POSSUM 135

Exercise 5.7
Translate into English:
1. cras, pueri, reginam videre poteritis.
2. frater meus ‘num’ inquit ‘bellum erit?’
3. nunc lacrimatis, sed laeti mox eritis.
4. senes te in foro invenire non poterunt.
5. quinque horas Romae ero; deinde cum domino discedam.

Exercise 5.8
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. Will the leader be angry?
2. You will be able to stay with your brother in Rome, boy.
3. I shall be in the city tomorrow, friends; seek me in the forum!
4. The soldiers will soon arrive; we shall not be able to flee.
5. The Romans are foolish; they will never be able to capture me.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the two sets of endings for the future tense, and which set is used for which
conjugations
 the new adverbs cras, mox, numquam
 the future tense forms of sum and possum

Background: Aeneas and the Roman ‘future’

Aeneas dutifully obeys divine will in abandoning Dido and Carthage, and takes to
the seas once again. While sailing away from the African coast he spots smoke rising
from the city; little does he realise that this comes from Dido’s funeral pyre. Dido’s
final words contain the promise that the peoples of Rome and Carthage will be
enemies for evermore, and a vow that one day a Carthaginian ‘avenger’ will punish
Aeneas’ descendants for his betrayal.

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136 CHAPTER FIVE

This scene illustrates the way in which the poet Virgil cleverly manipulates time
as he tells the story of Aeneas’ quest. Virgil composed the Aeneid in the 20s bc , by
which time Rome had indeed fought and won three bitter wars against Carthage for
control of the western Mediterranean (the Punic Wars in 264–241, 218–201 and
149–146 bc ). Hannibal, the most formidable Carthaginian general, even occupied
Italy itself for many years during the second war, before his eventual defeat: it is
Hannibal to whom Virgil is likely referring when he describes Dido’s wish for an
‘avenger’. For Virgil’s readers, therefore, the Punic Wars were already the familiar
stuff of history, a key part of the story of Rome’s unstoppable progress from tiny
city to world superpower. In the world of Virgil’s poem, however, the struggles
between the descendants of Dido and Aeneas lie many years ahead. The events of
myth are depicted as the root cause of later historical events. Virgil also uses his
readers’ knowledge of Roman history to add greater depth to Dido’s tragedy. Not
only does the queen herself suffer at Aeneas’ hands, but her dying wish for
Carthaginian revenge on Rome will not ultimately be fulfilled (as the readers well
know, to their glee).
There are several other scenes where Virgil writes about known historical events
as if they were in the distant Roman future. For example, even when Aeneas is in
grave danger during the storm that drives him to Carthage, Jupiter reassures Venus
with the words imperium sine fine dedi (‘I have granted [the Romans] empire without
end’) – see Ex. 4.27. Here Virgil explains Roman territorial expansion as divine
destiny, long ago set in stone: the empire that the Romans have by his day acquired
was sanctioned by the gods from the very start.
When Aeneas lands once again in Sicily he organises games to celebrate the
anniversary of the death of his father Anchises, who later appears to Aeneas as a
ghost. Upon arrival in Italy, the ghost tells him, Aeneas must visit Anchises’ soul in
the Underworld, where he will learn more about his future. He will need to seek out
the Sibyl as his guide for this descent (recall the words of Helenus that you read in
Ex. 3.37). In the Underworld Aeneas will also see a parade of Roman heroes; these
are the souls of great Romans yet to be born, amongst them Julius Caesar and the
emperor Augustus, during whose reign Virgil was writing. Once again Virgil
incorporates past and present figures into his poem in the form of prophecies about
the ‘future’.
When Aeneas finally reaches central Italy he finds himself searching for allies
on the very spot where Rome will one day stand. Virgil describes cows grazing
in what will later become the Forum Romanum, and again invites his readers
to reflect on the workings of time. Many centuries later, long after the demise of
the Roman Empire, the sight of the classical buildings in ruins prompted the
historian Edward Gibbon (1737–1794), himself reflecting on the workings of
time, to write the landmark The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire (1776–1788): all things eventually come full circle, as Virgil himself perhaps
sensed.

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 FUTURE TENSE OF SUM AND POSSUM 137

Exercise 5.9

The Sibyl and the Underworld

Neptunus Troianis ventos bonos dedit. nimbi e caelo statim discesserunt. naves
per mare sine periculo navigaverunt et ad terram mox advenerunt. nautae e
navibus laeti cucurrerunt: in Hesperia tandem erant. pater Aeneas scopulos
ascendit; templum statim vidit. erat prope templum magnum antrum ubi
5 habitabat Sibylla. Sibylla Aenean subito vocavit: ‘Troiane, precibus deos voca!
tum futura audies.’ Aeneas ‘o magni dei!’ clamavit. ‘magnae deae! Hesperiam
Troianis date! o Sibylla domina, futura Troianorum mihi monstra!’

Neptunus -i m Neptune
ventus -i m wind
nimbus -i m cloud
sine (+ abl) without
3 Hesperia -ae f Hesperia (the Trojans’ promised land)
scopulus -i m cliff
ascendo -ere -i I climb
prope (+ acc) near
antrum -i n cave
4 ubi (here) where (not as question)
Sibylla -ae f the Sibyl
preces -um f pl prayers
futura -orum n pl the future (lit future things)
monstro -are I reveal, I show

Sibylla ‘dux bone,’ inquit ‘Troiani Hesperiam habebunt. sed bella, horrida bella,
et Tiberim multo sanguine spumantem video. auxilium ab urbe Graeca pete!’
10 Aeneas ‘tu, o vates,’ inquit ‘portam Averni custodis. permitte me patrem meum
videre perque terram mortuorum ambulare!’ Sibylla ‘est ramus aureus in silva’
inquit. ‘tu ramum inveni! deinde ego tibi viam monstrabo.’

horridus -a -um dreadful

Tiberis acc Tiberim m the Tiber (river in Rome)
spumantem foaming (m acc sg)
sanguis -inis m blood
9 Graecus -a -um Greek
vates -is f (here) prophetess
Avernus -i m the Underworld
permitto -ere I allow
mortuus -a -um dead
11 ramus -i m branch, bough
aureus -a -um golden
silva -ae f wood

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138 CHAPTER FIVE

Aeneas in silvam statim festinavit. ramum aureum mox invenit et ad Sibyllam

portavit. deinde vates portam Averni Aeneae monstravit; Aeneas cum Sibylla per
15 portam in Avernum descendit. advenerunt ad loca ubi habitant Morbus et Mors
et Bellum et Discordia. mox ad Stygem venerunt et portitorem Charontem
viderunt. Sibylla Charonti ramum aureum monstravit. senex Aenean vatemque
trans Stygem portavit.

descendo -ere -i I descend, I go down

locus -i m (pl is n: loca) place, area, region
Morbus -i m Disease
mors mortis f death (with capital letter, as a deity, Death)
16 Discordia -ae f Strife
Styx Stygis f the Styx (river in the Underworld)
portitor -oris m ferryman
Charon -ontis m Charon
trans (+ acc) across

magnum latratum subito audiverunt; Cerberus fuit. Cerberus, canis triceps,

20 Avernum custodiebat. Aeneas timebat sed Sibylla Cerbero cibum soporatum
dedit; Cerberus cibum laetus consumpsit et mox dormiebat. ad terram
mortuorum advenerunt. Aeneas Didonem vidit et ‘egone,’ inquit ‘femina misera,
mortis tuae causa fui? per deos iuro, invitus ab urbe tua discessi: dei me navigare
iusserunt.’ sed Dido aversa tacebat; mox fugit. ‘cur’ inquit Aeneas ‘fugis? mecum
25 mane!’ sed frustra: Dido discessit.

latratum barking (m acc sg)

Cerberus -i m Cerberus
canis -is m/f dog
triceps three-headed (m nom sg)
20 soporatus -a -um sleep-inducing
mortuus -a -um dead
causa -ae f cause, reason
iuro -are I swear
invitus -a -um unwilling
24 aversus -a -um having turned away
taceo -ere I am silent

ad Elysium tandem advenerunt. Sibylla et Aeneas multos Troianos viderunt. tum

Anchisem tandem invenerunt. Aeneas patrem salutavit et lacrimavit. tum
Anchises posteros Aeneae monstravit. ‘ecce!’ inquit. ‘hic sunt reges Albae Longae;
hic magnus Romulus et reges Romani; hic Iulius Caesar; hic Augustus, vir divus.
30 Augustus imperium Romanum Oceano, famam Romanam astris terminabit.
posteri tui, Aenea, terrarum domini erunt!’

Elysium -i n Elysium (land of the blessed)

Anchises -is m Anchises
posteri -orum m pl descendants
monstro -are -avi I reveal, I show

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 TEN NEW VERBS (2) 139

28 ecce! look!
hic . . . hic . . . here . . . here . . .
Alba -ae Longa -ae f Alba Longa (city, forerunner to Rome)
Romulus -i m Romulus (founder of Rome)
Iulius -i Caesar -aris m Julius Caesar (general and dictator)
29 Augustus -i m Augustus (first emperor of Rome)
divus -a -um godlike
imperium -i n empire
Oceanus -i m the Ocean (thought to bound the known
world)
30 fama -ae f fame, glory
astrum -i n star
termino -are I limit, I bound (X, acc) with (Y, abl)

TEN NEW VERBS (2)

Here are ten more verbs, grouped according to their conjugation and listed with
their principal parts:

1st rogo -are -avi I ask, I ask for*

supero -are -avi I overcome, I beat

2nd taceo -ere -ui I am silent, I am quiet

teneo -ere -ui I hold

3rd ascendo -ere -i I climb

defendo -ere -i I defend
pono -ere posui I place, I put, I set up
rego -ere rexi I rule
trado -ere -idi I hand over, I hand down
vinco -ere vici I conquer, I win, I am victorious

* When rogo means ask for (a thing) it can take two accusatives: I ask X (acc) for Y
(acc), e.g. fratrem auxilium rogo = I ask my brother for help.
Alternatively you can phrase this: I ask for X (acc) from Y (a/ab + abl), e.g.
auxilium a fratre rogo = I ask for help from my brother. peto works similarly:
auxilium a fratre peto.

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140 CHAPTER FIVE

Exercise 5.10
Translate into English:
1. tradidimus
2. vincebas
3. superant
4. tenebunt
5. ponite!
6. tacuistis
7. reximus
8. ascendet
9. rogabis
10. defendebam

Exercise 5.11
Give the Latin for:
1. Conquer (sg)!
2. They will hand over.
3. We used to ask.
4. He will be silent.
5. You (pl) rule.

Exercise 5.12
Translate into English:
1. patriam meam semper defendam.
2. parvus puer arma tenere non poterit.
3. montem multas horas ascendebamus.
4. Caesar ‘veni, vidi, vici’ scripsit.
5. multum cibi in navem posuistis.
6. dux ‘Romanos’ inquit ‘mox superabimus, milites.’
7. rex bonus terram multos annos regebat.
8. senem cibum rogavimus.
9. epistulam legi et servo tradidi.
10. tacete, pueri! patrem audite!

mons montis m mountain

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 TIME ADVERBS (2) 141

Exercise 5.13
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The soldiers defended the gate for many hours.
2. I have climbed many mountains and seen many seas.
3. We shall ask the goddess for help.
4. Hand the money over to the king at once, boy!
5. I fought against you (sg) for a long time. Finally you overcame me.

TIME ADVERBS (2)

Here are five more adverbs connected with time:

heri yesterday
hodie today
olim once, some time ago
saepe often
tum then (i.e. at that time)*

* Compare deinde = then (i.e. next).

Exercise 5.14
Translate into English:
1. pater me Romam saepe invitat.
2. olim dei ad terram saepe veniebant; nunc caelum numquam relinquunt.
3. servus miser sum: heri laboravi, hodie laboro, cras laborabo.
4. tum laetus eram; nunc puella mea me non amat.
5. te in via heri vidi: quo ambulabas?

Exercise 5.15
S&C
Translate these linked sentences into Latin:
1. The Romans were once attacking an island.
2. The leader often sent the soldiers into danger.
3. But the Roman soldiers were never victorious.
4. Then the leader heard a god’s words.
5. ‘Today the gods have given me help,’ he said. ‘Tomorrow we shall capture
the island.’

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142 CHAPTER FIVE

LINKING SENTENCES: FOR,

THEREFORE, HOWEVER
The following are often used to link sentences:

enim for (i.e. because)

igitur therefore, and so
tamen however

None of these words can come first in a sentence; they normally come second, but
are often translated as if they had come first.

enim is used to explain a previous sentence.

e.g. vinum bibimus. aqua enim mala est.

We are drinking wine. For the water is bad.

igitur is used when a second sentence describes the result of the first.

e.g. aqua mala est. vinum igitur bibimus.

The water is bad. Therefore we are drinking wine.

tamen is used to provide a contrast between two sentences.

e.g. servi laborant. ancillae tamen dormiunt.

The slaves are working. The slave-girls however are sleeping.

Exercise 5.16
Translate these linked sentences into English:
1. iuvenis in urbe non habitabat. in agris enim ambulare currereque amabat.
pater tamen Romae habitabat. iuvenis igitur iter Romam saepe faciebat.
2. Iuno dea Aenean non amabat. Aeneas enim dux Troianorum erat. Iuno
igitur consilium cepit et magnam tempestatem misit. Aeneas igitur in
magno periculo erat. Venus tamen auxilium Troianis dedit.
tempestas -atis f storm

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 LINKING SENTENCES: FOR, THEREFORE, HOWEVER 143

Exercise 5.17

The eating of tables

A chance remark causes Aeneas to celebrate the fulfilment of a prophecy.

Aeneas et Troiani per oram Italiae navigabant. media nocte Neptunus navibus
ventos secundos dedit et Troianos praeter insulam Circae sagae duxit. prima luce
venti residerunt et Aeneas terram vidit. magnam silvam et flumen Tiberim vidit.
amicos ad terram navigare iussit; laeti ad flumen advenerunt et naves ad ripam
5 religaverunt. tum in ripa Aeneas et amici parvam cenam paraverunt. nautis poma
libaque dura pro patellis dederunt. nautae poma et, adhuc esurientes, liba
consumpserunt. tum Ascanius filius Aeneae risit et ‘ecce, pater!’ inquit ‘etiam
mensas consumimus!’ Aeneas verba audivit et obstupefactus deos statim vocavit.

ora -ae f coast

Italia -ae f Italy
Neptunus -i m Neptune
ventus -i m wind
2 secundus -a -um favourable, following
praeter (+ acc) past, beyond
Circe -ae f Circe (goddess who turns men to beasts)
saga -ae f witch
lux lucis f light
3 resido -ere -i I become calm, I subside
flumen -inis n river
Tiberis acc Tiberim m the Tiber
ripa -ae f riverbank
religo -are -avi I tie up, I moor (a ship)
5 pomum -i n fruit
libum -i n flat-bread board
durus -a -um tough
pro (+ abl) instead of
patella -ae f plate
6 adhuc still
esurientes hungry (m nom pl)
Ascanius -i m Ascanius
filius -i m son
etiam (here) even
8 mensa -ae f table
obstupefactus -a -um amazed, astounded

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144 CHAPTER FIVE

‘salve, terra mihi debita! dei Troianorum, salvete! hic domus Troiana, hic patria
10 Troiana erit. pater meus* verba arcana mihi reliquit: “in terra ignota fames te
mensas consumere coget. ibi mane! ibi urbem aedifica!” nunc intellego: ad
Hesperiam tandem advenimus. Troiani, deos vocate! novam patriam tandem
habemus.’

salve! pl salvete! hail!, hello!, greetings!

debitus -a -um owed, fated
hic here
domus home (f nom sg)
10 arcanus -a -um secret
ignotus -a -um unknown
fames -is f hunger
mensa -ae f table
cogo -ere I force
11 ibi there
intellego -ere I understand
Hesperia -ae f Hesperia (the Trojans’ promised land)

* It was, in fact, the Harpy queen Celaeno who gave Aeneas this prophecy, as she
mocked him and warned him that he still had a long voyage to endure (see p85 ).
Why do you think Aeneas misremembers?

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE

ADJECTIVES (2): nos, vos, noster, vester
In Chapter Four we met the personal pronouns and possessive adjectives for the first
and second persons singular: ego and tu, meus and tuus. Here we meet the equivalents
for the first and second persons plural.
The personal pronouns decline as follows:

we, us you (pl)

nom nos vos

acc nos vos
gen nostrum vestrum
dat nobis vobis
abl nobis vobis
 Note the places where the same form is used for two cases – as usual, you
must work out the case from the context.
 The vocative of vos is identical to the nominative. nos has no vocative.

e.g. dominus multos libros nobis dedit.

The master has given us many books.

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 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (2) 145

vos heri in foro vidi.

I saw you (pl) yesterday in the marketplace.

As with ego and tu, nos and vos usually appear in the nominative only for emphasis
or contrast, since the person endings of the verbs already reveal the subjects:

e.g. vos fugistis, sed nos mansimus.

You (pl) fled, but we stayed.

Just as with ego and tu, if the ablative forms of nos and vos appear with cum, the
words join up, with cum second:

e.g. per agros vobiscum ambulabo, pueri.

I shall walk through the fields with you, boys.

The possessive adjectives our(s) and your(s) are 2-1-2 adjectives which decline like
pulcher -chra -chrum (see p80 ). Note how the -e- drops out of the stem for both:

our, ours

m f n

sg nom noster nostr-a nostr-um

acc nostr-um nostr-am nostr-um
etc.

your, yours (belonging to you pl)

sg nom vester vestr-a vestr-um

acc vestr-um vestr-am vestr-um
etc.

There is an overlap between parts of noster and vester and the genitive forms of nos
(nostrum) and vos (vestrum). As a rule, the possessive adjective is used (in the
appropriate number, gender and case) rather than the genitive of the pronoun. Study
the following sentence, for example:

vinum nostrum bonum est.

Our wine is good.

Here nostrum is naturally read as the nominative neuter singular of the possessive
adjective noster (i.e. our wine) rather than the genitive of the pronoun nos (i.e. the
wine of us), though the forms are identical.

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146 CHAPTER FIVE

Exercise 5.18
Translate into English:
1. rex noster malus est; ad terram igitur vestram mox fugiemus.
2. milites nos ceperunt et ad ducem traxerunt.
3. mater pecuniam cibumque nobis tradidit.
4. mare nostrum est; naves nostrae semper vincunt.
5. pater noster nobiscum ad insulam navigavit.

Exercise 5.19
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The sailors heard our shouts and ran to the temple.
2. Surely the king has ordered you to defend the city, soldiers?
3. You be quiet, boys; we will ask father for money.
4. Have you seen our slaves, soldier? They have run away.
5. You fear your leader, Romans; we love our king.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the ten new verbs listed on p139 , including their perfect tenses
 the meanings of time adverbs on p141
 how enim, igitur and tamen are used to link sentences
 how the personal pronouns nos and vos and their associated possessive
adjectives noster and vester decline

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 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (2) 147

Exercise 5.20

The future site of Rome

Figure 5.1 A Roman marble relief showing Aeneas and Ascanius finding the sow with
thirty piglets. (Photo by CM Dixon/Print Collector(Getty Images)

Aeneas seeks allies in his war against the Latins, the tribe who dwell in the area where
the Trojans have landed. He finds himself on the spot where Rome will one day stand.

erat in Latio bellum inter Troianos et Latinos. nox tamen nunc erat et milites
tacebant. in somnio – ecce! – Aeneas Tiberinum deum vidit. Tiberinus statim
‘Troiane,’ inquit ‘diu exspectate! bellum timere non debes. tu enim tutus eris,
Troiani tuti erunt. in ripa ingentem suem albam cum triginta porcellis invenies. ibi
Latium -i n Latium (region of central Italy)
Latini -orum m pl the Latins (tribe in Latium)
somnium -i n sleep, dream
Tiberinus -i m Tiberinus (river god of the Tiber)
3 exspectatus -a -um awaited
tutus -a -um safe
ripa -ae f riverbank
sus suis f sow, female pig
albus -a -um white
4 triginta indecl thirty
porcellus -i m piglet
ibi there

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148 CHAPTER FIVE

5 post triginta annos filius tuus urbem, Albam Longam nomine, condet.* non procul
socios bonos invenies: Evandrum regem et Pallanteum, urbem Graecam.** Evander
cum Latinis semper bellum gerit. multum auxilium tibi dabit. ego te ad Evandrum
ducam; tu nunc surge!’ Aeneas subito surrexit; suem mox invenit et deis gratias egit.

Alba -ae Longa -ae f Alba Longa (forerunner to Rome)

condo -ere (here) I found, I establish (a city)
procul far off, far away
socius -i m ally
6 Evander -ri m Evander (Greek now living in Latium)
Pallanteum -i n Pallanteum (settlement on site of Rome)
Graecus -a -um Greek
bellum gero -ere I wage war
surgo -ere surrexi I rise, I get up
8 gratias ago -ere egi I give thanks (to), I thank (+ dat)

* The name ‘Alba’ Longa is derived from albus.

** Recall that the Sibyl ordered Trojan Aeneas to seek help from, ironically, a Greek
city (see p137).

deinde Troiani navem paraverunt et per Tiberim Pallanteum navigaverunt. muros,

10 arcem, villas raras tandem viderunt: urbs, nunc magna, tum parva erat. Evander
et filius, Pallas nomine, Troianos laete salutaverunt. rex servos cibum Aeneae et
Troianis parare iussit. post cenam Evander cum Aenea per urbem ambulavit.

Tiberis acc Tiberim m the Tiber

arx arcis f citadel
rarus -a -um scattered
Pallas -antis m Pallas

Figure 5.2 Cattle drovers near the Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome, 1890. Photograph by
Count Primoli. (Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images)

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 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (2) 149

Evander multas fabulas loci narrabat: ‘hic est antrum Caci. Cacus saevus vaccas
Herculis cepit et in antro celavit. Hercules tamen vaccas invenit et Cacum morte
15 misera punivit. hic Saturnus viris leges et terrae Latium nomen dedit. Fortuna
fatumque me exsulem huc duxerunt.’ rex Aeneasque ad Capitolium tandem
advenerunt: nunc aureum, tum rusticum erat. villa Evandri in foro Romano erat;
per vias ambulabant vaccae. nox tandem erat; Aeneas, loco captus, dormivit.
postridie Evander Aeneae milites et Pallantem socium dedit. Aeneas laetus discessit.

fabula -ae f story, tale

narro -are I tell, I narrate
hic . . . hic . . . here . . . here . . .
antrum -i n cave
13 Cacus -i m Cacus
saevus -a -um savage, cruel
vacca -ae f cow, heifer
Hercules -is m Hercules
celo -are -avi I hide, I conceal
15 Saturnus -i m Saturn (god, father of Jupiter)
lex legis f law
Fortuna -ae f Fortune
fatum -i n fate
exsul -ulis m/f exile, exiled person
16 huc (to) here
Capitolium -i n the Capitol (one of Rome’s seven hills)
aureus -a -um golden, refined
rusticus -a -um rustic, unadorned
captus -a -um (here) charmed, captivated
19 postridie on the next day
socius -i m ally

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150 CHAPTER FIVE

ADJECTIVES (3): THIRD DECLENSION

So far we have met adjectives that use the endings of the first and second declensions
in a 2-1-2 pattern (for the masculine, feminine and neuter): laetus -a -um and the
slight variation miser -era -erum.
There are also many adjectives that use the endings of the third declension (see
pp104–5 ). It is helpful to study two examples:

brave

m/f n

sg nom fort-is fort-e

acc fort-em fort-e
gen fort-is fort-is
dat fort-i fort-i
abl fort-i fort-i

pl nom fort-es fort-ia

acc fort-es fort-ia
gen fort-ium fort-ium
dat fort-ibus fort-ibus
abl fort-ibus fort-ibus

huge

m/f n

sg nom ingens ingens

acc ingent-em ingens
gen ingent-is ingent-is
dat ingent-i ingent-i
abl ingent-i ingent-i

pl nom ingent-es ingent-ia

acc ingent-es ingent-ia
gen ingent-ium ingent-ium
dat ingent-ibus ingent-ibus
abl ingent-ibus ingent-ibus

fortis and ingens represent two basic models:

1 Adjectives ending -is in the masculine and feminine nominative singular,

like fortis. These have a different neuter nominative/accusative singular
ending, -e.
2 Adjectives with other forms in the nominative singular, like ingens. For these
adjectives the neuter nominative singular is identical to the masculine/
feminine. The genitive stem will usually change for these adjectives (e.g.
ingens, stem ingent-).

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 ADJECTIVES (3): THIRD DECLENSION 151

Note the following points that apply to both models:

 As with third declension nouns, there is no separate set of feminine endings
for third declension adjectives. We can therefore talk about these adjectives
as 3-3 (shorthand for 3m&f – 3n).
 The vocative is identical to the nominative.
 The ablative singular ends -i rather than -e as it does in third declension
nouns. (For adjectives like fortis, the form forte is instead used for the neuter
nominative and accusative singular.)
 The genitive plural is usually -ium (whereas it can be either -um or -ium for
third declension nouns – see note on pp108–109 )
 As always, in the neuter the nominative and accusative are identical in both
singular and plural.
 The neuter nominative and accusative plural once again end in -a, but here
there is an -i- added in, so the ending is -ia.

In word lists and dictionaries the information provided about a third declension
adjective makes it clear which of the two models is being used.
 Adjectives like fortis will be listed with their separate neuter form. Take off
-is from the masculine/feminine form to get the stem.
 Adjectives like ingens will be listed with the genitive form (removing -is from
the genitive shows the stem, as with third declension nouns). There is no
need to show the neuter form, since it is identical to the masculine/feminine.
The stem, however, changes, so the genitive must be shown.
i.e. fortis forte adj
ingens ingentis adj

Alternatively this information may be given in abbreviated form:

fortis -e adj 3
ingens -entis adj 3
Here are some common third declension adjectives, listed with either the neuter
nominative singular (if they go like fortis) or the genitive singular (if they go like ingens):
ferox -ocis fierce, ferocious
gravis -e heavy; serious
omnis -e all, every
tristis -e sad

Note too the following pair. The second is a compounded form of the first:
facilis -e easy
difficilis -e difficult (originally dis-facilis: ‘not-easy’)

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152 CHAPTER FIVE

Finally, celer (quick, fast) is unusual in that it behaves as if it started celeris, though the
-is has dropped out of the nominative singular in the masculine. Thus the nominative
singular is different in all three genders, though it goes just like fortis thereafter:

m f n

sg nom celer celeris celere

acc celerem celerem celere
etc.

Exercise 5.21
Give an English derivative from:
1. facilis
2. celer
3. omnis
4. fortis
5. gravis

Exercise 5.22
Identify the number, gender and case (more than one possible answer exists for
each of these; give one possibility):
1. ingentium
2. tristi
3. difficilibus
4. ferocem
5. omnes
6. celeria
7. facile
8. omnibus
9. celeris
10. graves

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 ADJECTIVES (3): THIRD DECLENSION 153

Exercise 5.23
Give the Latin for the following (noting the number, gender and case):
1. sad (n nom pl)
2. fierce (f gen sg)
3. difficult (m abl sg)
4. quick (m acc pl)
5. serious (f acc sg)

Exercise 5.24
Translate into English :
1. navis parva sed celeris est.
2. clamores puellarum tristium audivimus.
3. dux cum omnibus militibus mox adveniet.
4. facile est regem videre: ingens et pulcher est.
5. pater tuus vir gravis erat: numquam ridebat.
6. milites feroces fortesque sunt; a periculo non fugient.
7. servi dona gravia in hortum portaverunt.
8. mater nostra libros tristes legere non amat.
9. domina epistulam difficilem scribebat.
10. rex iussit omnes nautas statim oppugnare.

Exercise 5.25
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The brave young man loves the sad slave-girl.
2. I have read every book about the great war.
3. Send a quick messenger today, father!
4. It is easy to find a beautiful girl in Rome.
5. We shall build a huge temple in the middle of the city.

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154 CHAPTER FIVE

Exercise 5.26

A final duel
The Trojans, now helped by Pallas who leads a detachment of his father’s soldiers, fight
a bitter war of survival against the Latins. Eventually the matter is decided by a duel
between Aeneas and Turnus; both men seek to marry Lavinia, the daughter of the local
king. The brutal culmination of the duel represents the final act of Virgil’s Aeneid.
bellum ferox erat. Aeneas auxilium Pallantis et milites Evandri nunc habebat.
Turnus tamen, dux Latinorum, Pallantem hasta necavit et balteum a corpore cepit.
sed vir stultus spolio nimis gaudebat; magna ira Aenean cepit; dux Troianus
fervidus ultionem promisit. tandem indutias conventumque fecerunt. Aeneas et
5 Turnus ‘nos comminus’ inquiunt ‘pugnabimus. praemia victori erunt urbs
Laurentum et filia regis et regnum Latium! tum inter Troianos Latinosque pax erit.’
Pallas -antis m Pallas
Evander -ri m Evander
Turnus -i m Turnus
Latini -orum m pl the Latins
2 hasta -ae f spear
balteus -i m sword-belt
corpus -oris n body
spolium -i n the spoil, the winnings
nimis too much, excessively
3 gaudeo -ere I rejoice (in, + abl)
ira -ae f anger
fervidus -a -um seething, raging
ultio -ionis f revenge
promitto -ere promisi I promise
4 indutiae -arum f pl truce
conventum -i n agreement
comminus (here) in single combat
victor -oris m victor
praemium -i n reward, prize
6 Laurentum -i n Laurentum
filia -ae f daughter
(but dat & abl pl filiabus;
compare deabus)
Latium -i n Latium
pax pacis f peace
diu pugnaverunt, dux contra ducem sicut taurus contra taurum. gladius Turno
subito defuit; statim fugit; Aeneas tamen Turno sicut venator cervo instabat. tum
in caelo Iuno iram tandem deposuit et Iovi ‘cedo,’ inquit ‘marite. Latini nomen,
10 linguam, vestes retinebunt, sed Aeneas victor erit.’ tum Aeneas Turnum hasta
percussit. Turnus miser ‘tu, Aenea,’ clamavit ‘vicisti! omnia tua sunt: urbs, uxor,
regnum. sed mihi parce!’ verba animum Aeneae nunc flectebant; tum tamen
balteum Pallantis vidit et gladium in Turnum iratus condidit.

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 ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES 155

sicut just like

taurus -i m bull
desum desse defui I fail (someone), I let (someone) down (+ dat)
venator -oris m hunter
8 cervus -i m stag
insto -are I chase, I press upon (+ dat)
Iuno -onis f Juno
ira -ae f anger
depono -ere deposui I let go
9 Iuppiter Iovis m Jupiter
cedo -ere I yield, I give up
lingua -ae f language
vestis -is f clothing
retineo -ere I keep
10 hasta -ae f spear
percutio -ere percussi I strike
parco -ere I spare (+ dat)
animus -i m mind
flecto -ere I alter, I bend
13 balteus -i m sword-belt
condo -ere -idi (here) I bury

ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES

We have already met a number of adverbs, not formed from adjectives, which
provide more information about when or how the action is happening, e.g. diu,
nunc, statim.
Alternatively, adverbs can be formed from adjectives. To form the adverb, English
often adds -ly to the adjective, though this is not always possible with longer
adjectives: e.g. bravely, happily, with difficulty, etc.
Latin adjectives are turned into adverbs in one of two ways, according to their
declension.

1 2-1-2 adjectives like laetus and miser add -e to the stem (found by removing
-i from the masculine genitive singular).
e.g. laetus happy adj pulcher beautiful adv
laete happily adv pulchre beautifully adv
Note an irregular adverb formed from bonus, a regular 2-1-2 adjective:
bene well
2 Most 3-3 adjectives add -iter (or sometimes just -ter) to the stem (found by
removing -is from the genitive singular).
e.g. fortis brave adjective
fortiter bravely adverb

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156 CHAPTER FIVE

so: celeriter quickly, fast (as adv)

ferociter fiercely, ferociously
graviter heavily; seriously

A few third declension adjectives, however, still form their adverbs with the ending
-e: facilis, difficilis and tristis all do this.

so: facile easily

difficile with difficulty
triste sadly

If you meet one of these in a passage you will need to work out from the context
whether it is the adverb or the neuter nominative or accusative singular of the
adjective. Of the two, the adverb is more frequently found.

Finally, note the following new adverb:

forte by chance

This looks like it comes from fortis (brave), but in fact has another root, fors
(fortune), and a meaning quite different from that of fortiter. Although the form
forte could be the neuter nominative or accusative singular of fortis, it is much more
likely to be the adverb by chance.
Confusing fortiter with forte is an extremely common mistake at GCSE .

Unlike adjectives, adverbs do not decline, since they modify the verb and do not
agree with any noun or pronoun in the sentence. Thus there are no sets of endings
to learn.
It is important not to translate an adverb as if it were an adjective (another
common mistake at GCSE ). Take care to distinguish them. Compare:

e.g. puer stultus librum non legit.

The foolish boy did not read the book. (adjective)

puer amicum in periculum stulte duxit.

The boy foolishly led his friend into danger. (adverb)

In the first sentence, the boy himself is being described as foolish; in the second, it is
his action that is being described as foolish.
As we have seen, however, it is sometimes acceptable to translate an adjective as
if it were an adverb, e.g. puer laetus clamavit = The happy boy shouted or The boy
shouted happily. Use your own judgement as to which translation is best. In
summary: treating an adjective as an adverb is sometimes acceptable; treating an
adverb as an adjective is not.

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 ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES 157

Exercise 5.27
Translate into English:
1. naves ad insulas celeriter navigaverunt.
2. dux ‘cur, fratres, disceditis?’ irate rogavit.
3. feminae amicos laete salutaverunt.
4. milites urbem fortiter diu defendebant; tandem fugerunt.
5. vos in foro heri forte vidimus.
6. post mortem mariti regina regnum multos annos bene regebat.
7. dux milites in silvam stulte duxit.
8. num Romae facile dormire potestis?
9. iuvenes laeti vinum in taberna bibebant.
10. nunc senex sum; verba difficile lego.

Exercise 5.28
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The freedman used to punish his slaves fiercely.
2. Our soldiers guarded the city bravely yesterday.
3. Your slaves are working well today, friends.
4. By chance I found the boys in the large crowd.
5. The girls walked slowly and sadly along the road.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the endings of third declension adjectives, and the two different models:
fortis and ingens
 how to form adverbs from 2-1-2 and 3-3 adjectives
 the meanings of the irregular adverbs bene and forte

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158 CHAPTER FIVE

Background: from Aeneas to Romulus

Aeneas is, of course, a figure of myth rather than of history, but this didn’t stop
the Romans thinking of him as a founding father; it is unsatisfactory not to know
where your nation comes from, and they sought some explanation of their own
origins.
According to myth, Aeneas’ killing of Turnus secured the survival of the Trojans
in central Italy; the abandonment, however, of their native language, clothing and
customs (as demanded by Juno in Ex. 5.26) conveniently explains why the Romans’
culture was an Italian rather than Trojan one. Aeneas went on to marry the local
princess Lavinia and to found the city of Lavinium, which he named after her. He
was to live only three more years, but his son Ascanius succeeded him and reigned
for thirty, founding Alba Longa as a new royal capital. Ascanius’ own descendants
would rule Alba Longa for three hundred more years: there is a suspicious elegance
about the numbers (three/thirty/three hundred). As you will read in the next
stories, a family crisis eventually led to Romulus’ foundation of a third city, Rome,
supposedly in the year we call 753 bc . Romans measured all dates from this point,
Ab Urbe Condita: i.e. from the city’s foundation. Might the sequence of numbers
for the various stages of Roman development suggest that Rome itself is to last for
3000 years?
So much for the myth. In reality little is known about the early history of Rome
and the surrounding region, Latium. No historical evidence exists for any of the
characters named above, even Romulus: a figure of his name simply makes for a
plausible founding hero. (Various theories have been offered to explain the actual
origins of the name ‘Rome’; it is probably linked to the language of the Etruscans, a
local people who pre-dated the Romans.) As, however, with the myth of the Trojan
War, the legend of Rome’s foundation and growth contains a kernel of historical
truth. Archaeolgical evidence shows traces of settlement on the site that would
become Rome from as early as 5000 bc . Its topography made it a prime location:
the hills on which Rome is famously built offered defence, while the River Tiber was
narrow enough to be crossed safely but wide enough to be navigable from the sea,
less than twenty miles away. The site was certainly inhabited by the tenth century
bc , i.e. long before Romulus’ supposed foundation in 753 bc . By the eighth century
it seems there was an unremarkable village, Rumi, on the site; if there was any
‘founding hero’ around that date, he was perhaps symbolically re-founding an
existing settlement in a bid to assert his own authority.
‘Romulus’ might be historically and archaeologically invisible, but to the Romans
he was a central and inspirational part of the national story. Elements of his story, in
particular the she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus as infants (compare the
uncannily similar story of the bear suckling Paris, Ex. 2.15), became important
visual symbols of the city. Romulus’ leadership, meanwhile, was viewed as exemplary;
the emperor Augustus liked to compare himself to Romulus as well as to Aeneas.
Modern verdicts on the morality of Romulus’ actions (see Ex. 5.30 and 5.39) are
rather more complex.

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 ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES 159

Exercise 5.29

Romulus and Remus

Figure 5.3 A bronze statue of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus. c. 450–430 BC.
Height 75 cm. Now in Capitoline Museum, Rome. (Photo By DEA/G. NIMATALLAH/
De Agostini/Getty Images)

Several hundred years after Aeneas, twins are born to a princess. They are condemned
to death, but their chance survival has lasting consequences.

Numitor et Amulius filii regis Albae Longae erant. post mortem patris, Numitor,
frater natu maior, rex esse debebat. Amulius tamen multos milites habebat et
fratrem ferociter expulit. Amulius igitur nunc rex erat, sed insidias semper
timebat. filios Numitoris mox necavit; filiam tamen non necavit, sed Vestalem
5 fecit. ‘femina igitur’ inquit ‘maritum filiosque numquam habebit.’ femina tamen,
Numitor -oris m Numitor
Amulius -i m Amulius
Alba -ae Longa -ae f Alba Longa
natu maior elder
3 expello -ere expuli I drive out
insidiae -arum f pl plotting, treachery
Vestalis -is f Vestal Virgin (unmarried priestess)

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160 CHAPTER FIVE

Rhea Silvia nomine, filios geminos, Romulum et Remum, mox peperit. Amulius
rex, ubi de pueris audivit, ‘quis est pater geminorum?’ irate rogavit. Rhea Silvia
‘Mars’ inquit ‘pater est.’ sed Amulius verbis matris non credebat. servum iussit
pueros in Tiberim iacere. servus tamen pueros in flumen non iecit sed in ripa
10 reliquit. deinde – ecce! – ad flumen forte advenit lupa. lupa pueros invenit et
lacte aluit. mox pastor geminos invenit et laete servavit.

Rhea -ae Silvia -ae f Rhea Silvia

geminus -a -um twin
Romulus -i m Romulus
Remus -i m Remus
6 pario -ere peperi I give birth to
ubi (here) when
quis? who?
Mars Martis m Mars (god of war)
credo -ere -idi I believe, I trust (+ dat)
9 Tiberis acc Tiberim m the Tiber
iacio -ere ieci I throw
flumen -inis n river
ripa -ae f riverbank
lupa -ae f she-wolf
11 lac lactis m milk
alo -ere -ui I feed, I nourish
pastor -oris m shepherd
servo -are -avi I save

 Romulus and Remus will not be glossed again.

Exercise 5.30
The foundation of Rome
The twins exact their vengeance upon Aemulius before falling out themselves.

Romulus Remusque iuvenes fortes nunc erant. de matre et de Amulio

cognoverunt; regem punire constituerunt. Albam Longam iter fecerunt; Amulium
mox necaverunt et Numitorem regem restituerunt. tum novam urbem condere
constituerunt. erant prope Albam Longam septem colles. Romulus urbem in
5 Palatio aedificare cupiebat, Remus in Aventino. ‘dei’ inquiunt ‘locum constituent.
nobis augurium mittent.’ Romulus in Palatio manebat, Remus in Aventino. subito
super Aventinum sex vultures Remus vidit. ‘in Aventino erit urbs mea!’ laete
clamavit ‘Rema erit nomen!’ tum tamen super Palatium duodecim vultures
Romulus vidit. ‘augurium tuum’ clamavit ‘primum fuit, frater, sed augurium meum
10 melius fuit. in Palatio urbem aedificabimus. urbem Romam vocabimus.’ Romulus
urbem aedificare celeriter coepit. Remus tamen muros fratris vidit et risit. Romulus
iratus statim ‘de urbe mea’ inquit ‘impune non ridebis!’ diu pugnaverunt; tandem
Romulus Remum saeve necavit. ita Romulus cum morte fratris Romam condidit.

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 THIRD PERSON PRONOUNS (1): IS, EA, ID 161

Amulius -i m Amulius
cognosco -ere cognovi I find out
constituo -ere -ui I decide
Alba -ae Longa -ae f Alba Longa
3 Numitor -oris m Numitor
restituo -ere -ui I restore
condo -ere I found (a city)
prope (+ acc) near (to)
septem seven
4 collis -is m hill
Palatium -i n the Palatine (hill in Rome)
cupio -ere I want, I desire
Aventinum -i n the Aventine (hill in Rome)
augurium -i n omen, augury
7 super (+ acc) above
sex six
vultur -uris m vulture
Rema -ae f Reme
duodecim twelve
10 melius better (n nom sg)
coepi (irreg pf) I began
impune freely, without being punished
ita thus, in this way

THIRD PERSON PRONOUNS (1): is, ea, id

We have so far met the personal pronouns for the first and second persons singular
and plural: ego, tu, nos, vos.
Now we meet the third person pronoun. Unlike the other personal pronouns, this
has forms in all three genders and in both the singular and the plural. As a result, it
is very versatile, and can mean any of he (him), she (her), it or they (them). It is
extremely common.
In addition to its role as a pronoun, forms of is, ea, id can also be used as an
adjective meaning that (pl those); this will be covered in Chapter Seven, in Part 2.

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162 CHAPTER FIVE

he (him), she (her), it, they (them); that pl those

m f n

sg nom is ea id
acc eum eam id
gen eius eius eius
dat ei ei ei
abl eo ea eo

pl nom ei eae ea
acc eos eas ea
gen eorum earum eorum
dat eis eis eis
abl eis eis eis
 Note the genitive and dative singular endings -ius and -i (underlined), which
are the same for all three genders. You will see these endings again in the
same parts of the many other pronouns.
 The plural forms have regular 2-1-2 endings.
 There is no vocative.
 As elsewhere, the number, gender and case of ambiguous forms need to be
worked out from the context.

The gender and number of is, ea, id affect your translation: take care to identify
these. You may need to supply the word man, woman, or thing (or their plural
forms) when translating.
e.g. pueros inveni et eos ad regem duxi.
I found the boys and led them to the king.
eam in horto vidimus.
We saw her in the garden.
ea non audivi.
I did not hear those things.

Exercise 5.31
Identify the number, gender and case of the following (give all possibilities):
1. eius (three possibilities)
2. ei (four possibilites)
3. eis (six possibilities)
4. eas
5. eorum (two possibilites)

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 THIRD PERSON PRONOUNS (2): SE 163

Exercise 5.32
Give the Latin for:
1. to her (dat)
2. they (m nom pl)
3. her (acc)
4. them (f acc pl)
5. it (nom)

Exercise 5.33
Translate into English :
1. rex eos in villam vocavit.
2. ea facile legere non possum.
3. multam pecuniam eis dabo.
4. puella tristis eas in hortum duxit.
5. nomen eius non audivi.
6. Romanos deosque eorum amamus.
7. cum ea decem annos habitabamus.
8. erant forte inter eos multi milites fortes.
9. senem in silva cepimus. nunc eum ad regem trahemus.
10. femina laeta maritum vocavit et epistulam ei tradidit.

THIRD PERSON PRONOUNS (2): se

We saw that the pronouns ego, tu, nos and vos can be used reflexively:

e.g. me terreo. num nos necabitis?

I frighten myself. Surely you won’t kill yourselves?

is, ea, id cannot be used as a reflexive in this way; as a pronoun it must always must
refer to someone other than the subject of the sentence.

e.g. femina eam necavit.

The woman killed her (i.e. someone else).

We therefore call is, ea, id the third person non-reflexive pronoun.

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164 CHAPTER FIVE

There is a separate third person reflexive pronoun: se.

himself, herself, itself, pl themselves

m/f/n, sg and pl
nom -
acc se
gen sui
dat sibi
abl se
 The same forms are used for both the singular and plural of se, and for all
three genders.
 There is no nominative.

se cannot be translated in isolation. It always refers back to the subject of the

sentence, and agrees with it in gender and number.

e.g. senex cibum sibi paravit.

The old man prepared the food for himself.

milites inter se pugnabant.

The soldiers were fighting among themselves.

Take particular care to distinguish between eum/eam/eos/eas and se:

e.g. ancilla eam necavit.

The slave-girl killed her (i.e. someone else).

ancilla se necavit.
The slave-girl killed herself.

When used with the preposition cum (with), the ablative of se tags the preposition
onto its end (so secum), just like the first and second person pronouns (e.g. mecum,
vobiscum). Ablative forms of is, ea, id do not do this:

e.g. dominus amicos secum duxit.

The master took (lit led) his friends with him(self).

cum eo ambulabamus.
We were walking with him.

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 THIRD PERSON POSSESSIVES: EIUS AND SUUS 165

Exercise 5.34
Translate into English:
1. milites nostri se fortiter defendent.
2. dux noster cibum sibi numquam parat.
3. nautae stulti inter se diu clamabant.
4. senex saepe sibi ridet.
5. reges multas naves secum duxerunt.

Exercise 5.35
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. After the war the Romans gave him a new name.
2. The leader will take all the soldiers with him.
3. We like the young men but we do not trust them.
4. The foolish kings were fighting among themselves.
5. The queen ruled them well for many years.

THIRD PERSON POSSESSIVES: eius and suus

In English there is room for ambiguity with the words his, her, its, their(s), since they
can be either reflexive or non-reflexive. In ‘the boy saw his house’ we do not know
whether the house being referred to is that of the boy (i.e. his own house) or that of
somebody else (e.g. his friend’s).
Latin avoids this problem by expressing the non-reflexive and the reflexive third
person possessive in two different ways.
For the third person non-reflexive possessive, since there is no adjective meaning
his (i.e. someone else’s), we have to use the genitive of is, ea, id (lit of him/her/it).
Contrast for example the first person singular, where meus is available to express
my, and so the genitive of the pronoun ego doesn’t need to be used (e.g. we say villa
mea instead of villa mei, lit the house of me).

his/her/its (belonging to someone other than the subject of the sentence)

m f n

sg eius eius eius

their (belonging to people other than the subject of the sentence)

pl eorum earum eorum

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166 CHAPTER FIVE

When using the genitive of is, ea, id the number and gender are those of the possessor
(though the singular forms are the same for all three genders, in any case). The forms
do not depend on the number, gender and case of the thing owned.

e.g. matrem eius vidi.

I saw his (or her) mother.

feminae lacrimabant sed mox fratrem earum invenimus.

The women were crying but we soon found their brother.

Note that the -us ending of eius may give it the misleading appearance of a 2-1-2
adjective, but is actually the distinctive -ius genitive of a pronoun.
For the third person reflexive possessive (i.e. when the his/her/its/their refers back
to the subject of the sentence) a specific adjective does exist: suus -a -um.

his/her/its/their (own) (belonging to whoever is the subject of the sentence)

m f n

sg nom suus sua suum

acc suum suam suum
etc. etc. etc. (regular 2-1-2)

suus (like e.g. meus) agrees in number, gender and case with the thing that is
possessed, not with the possessor (therefore it works differently from eius: see above).
It is not the case that the masculine of suus means his, the feminine means her,
and the neuter means its (or that the the plural means their). Any part of suus can
mean any of these: the number, gender and case of suus are simply those of the noun
it describes.

e.g. puer urbem suam amabat. femina consilia sua amat.

The boy loved his (own) city. The woman loves her (own) plans.

In these examples we translate using his or her depending on the gender of the
possessor, but in the Latin the gender of suus depends on the gender of the thing
possessed.
Compare the French possessive adjective for his/her (own): son, sa. Like suus in
Latin, the gender of son/sa depends on that of the thing possessed, not the possessor:
e.g. elle aime son père (she loves her father); il aime sa ville (he loves his town).
Finally, note an important idiom involving suos (masculine plural, without a
noun). In a military context it usually means his men/soldiers. In other contexts it
can mean his/her/their people/family.

e.g. dux suos in periculum misit. puella suos non amat.

The leader sent his men into danger. The girl does not like her family.

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 THIRD PERSON POSSESSIVES: EIUS AND SUUS 167

Exercise 5.36
Translate into English:
1. cives regi suo semper credebant.
2. amicos nostros et villam eorum amamus.
3. rex suos fortiter pugnare iussit.
4. post mortem senis filius eius regnum habebat.
5. milites ducem suum necaverunt et caput eius Romam miserunt.

Exercise 5.37
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The woman does not trust her own brother.
2. I love the girl but I fear her father.
3. A good leader never leaves his soliders.
4. We overcame the Romans and we killed their leader.
5. I have seen Rome and its beautiful temples.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how the non-reflexive is, ea, id and the reflexive se decline
 the difference in their meanings and usage
 the difference between the non-reflexive (eius) and the reflexive (suus) forms
of the third person possessive
 what suos can mean if it appears without a noun

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168 CHAPTER FIVE

Exercise 5.38 (revision of all personal pronouns and

possessive adjectives)
Translate into English:
1. id tibi statim dabo.
2. mater mea pecuniam suam vobis dedit.
3. villa nostra magna est: nobiscum manete, amici!
4. cur me de fratre tuo non monuisti?
5. frater vester cum ea diu habitabat.
6. Romani contra amicos suos numquam pugnant.
7. iuvenis amicum secum ad tabernam duxit.
8. unde venistis, pueri? ubi est urbs vestra?
9. tu vinum tuum bibe! ego meum bibam.
10. cives ducem suum necaverunt et caput eius per vias portabant.

Exercise 5.39

The Sabine women

Romulus’ new city cannot grow without women; a brutal solution is found.

Romulus leges et magistratus urbi dedit. multi exsules et fugitivi Romae habitare
cupiebant. mox Palatium satis magnum non erat et cives villas suas in aliis collibus
aedificaverunt. plerique tamen novorum civium viri erant; feminae paucae erant.
urbs sine feminis crescere non poterat: rex igitur consilium cepit. Romulus ludos
5 in Circo Maximo fecit et Sabinos invitavit. viri Sabini cum uxoribus laete
advenerunt. Romulus tamen in turba milites celavit. milites signum exspectare
iussit. Romani Sabinis cibum vinumque dederunt; omnes bibebant et ridebant et
ludos laete spectabant. subito tamen Romulus signum dedit. milites Romani
feminas Sabinas ceperunt et eas e Circo traxerunt. viros Sabinos superaverunt.
10 Romani mox feminas Sabinas in matrimonium duxerunt. scelus malum fuit, sed
urbs nunc crescere poterat.

lex legis f law

magistratus magistrates (m acc pl)
exsul -ulis m/f exile, exiled person
fugitivus -i m fugitive, runaway
2 cupio -ere I want, I desire
Palatium -i n the Palatine (hill in Rome)
satis enough, sufficiently
civis -is m/f citizen
aliis other (m abl pl)

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 THIRD PERSON POSSESSIVES: EIUS AND SUUS 169

2 collis -is m hill

plerique the majority (m n pl)
pauci -ae -a few, few in number
sine (+ abl) without
cresco -ere I grow, I increase in size
4 ludi -orum m pl games
Circus -i Maximus -i m Circus Maximus (racecourse at Rome)
Sabini -orum m pl Sabines (people neighouring Rome)
abinus -a -um Sabine (as adj)
celo -are -avi I hide
6 signum -i n sign, signal
exspecto -are I wait for
in matrimonium duco I marry (a woman; lit ‘lead into marriage’)
scelus -eris n crime

Exercise 5.40

The ascension of Romulus

Romulus mysteriously disappears; he later makes a surprising return.

Romulus Romanos multos annos bene regebat. multas gentes in bello vicit;
Romanis pacem dedit. olim cives in forum vocavit. magna turba civium et
senatorum advenit. deinde tamen ingens nubes cum multa aqua grandineque de
caelo ad terram descendit. cives perterriti erant et magna voce clamabant. nubes
5 tandem in caelum iterum ascendit. Romulus tamen in foro non iam erat. cives ‘ubi’
inquiunt ‘est rex noster? quis Romulum vidit?’ quamquam omnes diu quaerebant,
nemo regem invenire potuit.

postea senator Proclus nomine per viam Romam ambulabat. subito – ecce! –
Romulus de caelo descendit. rex ‘salve, civis!’ inquit. ‘ego nunc in caelo cum deis
gens gentis f tribe, people
senator -oris m senator (leading politician in Rome)
nubes -is f cloud
aqua -ae f (here) rain
3 grando -inis f hail, hail-storm
descendo -ere -i I descend, I come down
perterritus -a -um terrified
vox vocis f voice
iterum again
5 non iam no longer
quis? who?
quamquam although
nemo no-one, nobody
postea later, afterwards
8 Proclus -i m Proclus
salve! greetings! hello!

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170 CHAPTER FIVE

10 habito. iube cives templum mihi Romae aedificare! vobis magnam urbem aedificavi.
Roma omnes terras olim vincet. Romani voluntate deorum orbem terrarum regent.
gens nulla milites Romanos terrebit. festina! verba mea civibus nuntia!’ tum rex in
caelum iterum ascendit. Proclus Romam celeriter cucurrit et cives vocavit. cives
nuntium audiverunt et laete lacrimaverunt.

voluntas -atis f will, blessing

orbis -is m terrarum the world
nulla no (f nom sg)
nuntio -are I announce

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 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER FIVE GRAMMAR 171

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER FIVE GRAMMAR

Future tense (I shall/will . . .):

 two sets of endings:

1st and 2nd conj: -bo, -bis, -bit, -bimus, -bitis, -bunt
(added to pres stem & characteristic vowel, e.g. portabo, monebis)
3rd, 4th and mixed conj: -am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent
(added to pres stem, e.g. traham, audies)
 future of sum: ero, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt
 future of possum: potero, poteris, etc.

1st and 2nd person plural pronouns and possessives:

 we, us: nos, nos, nostrum, nobis, nobis our: noster -tra -trum
 you (pl): vos, vos, vestrum, vobis, vobis your (pl): vester -tra -trum
 N.B. order of nobiscum, vobiscum (both 2-1-2)

Third person pronouns:

 non-reflexive: is, ea, id e.g. eum necavit. (someone else)

 reflexive: se e.g. se necavit. (himself)

Third person possessives:

 non-reflexive: eius/eorum/earum (genitive of is, ea, id)

 reflexive: suus -a -um (2-1-2; agrees with thing possessed)
 e.g. puer matrem eius vidit. (his = someone else’s)
puer matrem suam vidit. (his = his own)

Third declension adjectives:

 two models:
fortis: n nom sg different from m/f, i.e. forte
ingens: n nom sg identical to m/f; gen stem changes (e.g. ingent-)
 use same endings as third declension nouns except: abl sg -i, n nom/acc
pl -ia, gen pl usually -ium

Adverbs from adjectives:

 2-1-2 adjectives form adverbs by adding -e to the stem e.g. laete


3-3 adjectives usually add -iter or -ter to the stem e.g. fortiter
 some 3-3 adjectives form adverbs in -e e.g. facile

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172 CHAPTER FIVE

CHAPTER FIVE VOCABULARY

ascendo -ere -i I climb

bene well
celer -eris -ere quick, fast
civis -is m/f citizen
cras tomorrow
credo -ere -idi I believe, I trust (+ dat)
defendo -ere -i I defend
difficilis -e difficult
ecce! look!
enim for
facilis -e easy
ferox -ocis fierce, ferocious
filia -ae f (N.B. dat/abl pl filiabus) daughter
filius -i m son
forte by chance
fortis -e brave
gravis -e heavy, serious
heri yesterday
hodie today
igitur therefore, and so
ingens -entis huge
is, ea, id he, she, it, pl they
locus -i (pl is n: loca) m/n place
mons montis m mountain
mors mortis f death
mox soon
nos nostrum we, us
noster -tra -trum our, ours
numquam never
olim once, some time ago
omnis -e all, every
pax pacis f peace
pono -ere posui I place, I put, I set up
rego -ere rexi I rule
rogo -are -avi I ask, I ask for
saepe often
saevus -a -um savage, cruel
se sui himself, herself, itself, themselves (refl)
silva -ae f wood
supero -are -avi I overcome, I beat
suus -a -um his, her, its, their (own) (refl)
taceo -ere -ui I am silent, I am quiet
tamen however

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 CHAPTER FIVE VOCABUL ARY 173

teneo -ere -ui I hold

trado -ere -idi I hand over, I hand down
tristis -e sad
tum then (i.e. at that time)
vester -tra -trum your, yours (of you pl)
vinco -ere vici I conquer, I win, I am victorious
vos vestrum you (pl)

50 words

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 Chapter Six

VERBS: PLUPERFECT TENSE

We have already met four different verb tenses:

present porto I carry, I am carrying

future portabo* I shall carry, I am going to carry
imperfect portabam I was carrying, I used to carry
perfect portavi I carried, I have carried

* Remember that verbs in the 3rd and 4th conjugations have a different set of
endings in the future tense (-am, -es, -et, etc., e.g. traham = I shall drag).

When the action of a sentence is set in the past, and an event from even further
back in time is referred to, the pluperfect tense is used. The term pluperfect
literally means ‘more than perfect’, i.e. another stage back in time from the perfect
tense. It is used to describe an action that had already happened by a certain point
in the past.
Always use had when translating a pluperfect tense verb into English, e.g.
the king had ruled Rome for many years; the ship had arrived during the night.
The pluperfect is formed by adding to the perfect stem a set of person endings
identical to the imperfect tense of sum (i.e. -eram, -eras, -erat . . .).
Thus there are no new bits of learning: instead, this is a new arrangement of some
of the building-blocks with which you are already familiar:

sg 1 perfect stem + -eram I had . . .

2 -eras you (sg) had . . .
3 -erat he/she/it had . . .

pl 1 -eramus we had . . .
2 -eratis you (pl) had . . .
3 -erant they had . . .

hence: portaveram I had carried

Here is the pluperfect tense for each of the four main verb conjugations. All four
attach the pluperfect endings to the perfect stem:

174

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 VERBS: PLUPERFECT TENSE 175

conj 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

I had carried I had warned I had dragged I had heard

sg 1 portav-eram monu-eram trax-eram audiv-eram

2 portav-eras monu-eras trax-eras audiv-eras
3 portav-erat monu-erat trax-erat audiv-erat

pl 1 portav-eramus monu-eramus trax-eramus audiv-eramus

2 portav-eratis monu-eratis trax-eratis audiv-eratis
3 portav-erant monu-erant trax-erant audiv-erant
 Mixed conjugation verbs also attach the pluperfect endings to the perfect
stem, hence: ceperam, ceperas, ceperat etc. for capio.
 The pluperfect of sum and possum are formed in the same way, hence:
fueram and potueram.
 Take care to distinguish between the third person plural perfect (-erunt) and
pluperfect (-erant). This is a common mistake at GCSE .

The pluperfect tense is often used to explain one action or situation as the result of
an earlier one.

e.g. rex milites paravit. hostes enim viderat.

The king prepared his soldiers. For he had seen the enemy.

Exercise 6.1
Translate into English :
1. posuerant
2. rogaveramus
3. tenueram
4. superaverat
5. tradideratis
6. ceperas
7. fueram
8. crediderant
9. potueramus
10. reliquerat

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176 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.2
Translate into Latin:
1. We had climbed.
2. They had defended.
3. You (sg) had fallen.
4. I had conquered.
5. You (pl) had arrived.
6. They had fled.
7. He had laughed.
8. We had sought.
9. She had wept.
10. I had done.

Exercise 6.3 (mixed tenses)

Translate into English:
1. tenueramus
2. ponebam
3. credidistis
4. ascenditis
5. superaverant
6. tradiderunt
7. vincent
8. petiveras
9. feceram
10. ridebas

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 VERBS: PLUPERFECT TENSE 177

Exercise 6.4
Translate into English :
1. reges urbem Romam olim habuerant.
2. multos annos servi fueramus.
3. ancilla subito clamavit. nuntium enim tandem viderat.
4. maritum bonum invenire numquam potuerat.
5. ego manebam; tu tamen fugeras.
6. dux regnum filio tandem tradiderat.
7. servi omnem cibum in hortum portaverant.
8. iter longum difficileque fuit. iuvenes enim decem horas ambulaverant.
9. fuerat bellum saevum multos annos sed pacem tandem fecimus.
10. cur amicum vestrum de periculo non monueratis?

Exercise 6.5
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The ship had finally arrived at the island.
2. We had heard many things about the leader.
3. The good boys had read all the books.
4. The long walls had defended the city well for many years.
5. Had your father lived in Rome for a long time, girls?

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the form and meaning of the pluperfect tense
 the sorts of situations in which a pluperfect tense might be used

Background: the early kings of Rome

From 753 to 509 bc Rome was supposedly ruled by seven kings, beginning with
Romulus. Since, however, the Romans’ own historical records were destroyed when
the city was sacked by the Gauls in 390 bc , the stories about the kings cannot be
treated as historical fact. Moreover, it seems somewhat implausible that the Romans

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178 CHAPTER SIX

had just seven kings during this period: their reigns would need to have been long
(on average about 35 years each) and stable to account for the entire period. It is
likely that the story of seven kings represents a considerable simplification of the
reality.
In the absence of other explanations the Romans credited the kings with taking
key steps in the early formation of the city: Romulus, for example, ensured a gender
balance in the city with the capture of the Sabine women; Numa established a
religious code; Tarquinius Superbus was responsible for purchasing the Sibylline
Books, which would later be revered as a set of national prophecies. The tendency
for major achievements to be ascribed to particular individuals was common in
ancient times (the Spartans, for example, credited a lawgiver Lycurgus with creating
their laws and culture, even though he may well have never existed).
Two of the last three kings had ‘Tarquinius’ as part of their name. This name
derives from a neighbouring city, Tarquinii, which was an Etruscan settlement. The
Etruscans were the major regional power prior to the growth of Rome. It is likely
that the Etruscans did in fact control Rome for a period prior to 509 bc , and that
the Roman legend of two kings with Etruscan names is a memory of this period
of subjugation. The eventual overthrow of the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, in
509 bc may well therefore have been, in reality, a Roman liberation from foreign
Etruscan control rather than simply a Roman popular uprising against their own
monarchy.
The Romans celebrated this overthrow as a landmark date: when the kings were
evicted the state became a republic in which power was shared between two consuls
who were elected each year. It was under this system that Rome grew from a small
village into the cosmopolitan capital city of an empire that ruled most of the known
world. The term rex became, in the Roman mind, a tainted byword for moral
corruption; both Julius Caesar and Augustus would later go to great lengths to deny
that they were kings, even though in many ways that is precisely what they were.

Exercise 6.6

The reluctant ruler

After Romulus’ ascension the Romans struggle to find a new king.

Romulus in caelum nunc ascenderat; in terra tamen senatores de regno inter se

pugnabant. viri Sabini regem Sabinum cupiebant; viri Romani regem Romanum
cupiebant. nemo tamen magnopere eminebat: fuit annuum interregnum et senatores
urbem regebant. cives regem tandem rogabant. ‘vos, senatores,’ inquiunt ‘novum
5 regem Romae legite!’

senator -oris m senator (leading politician in Rome)

Sabinus -a -um Sabine (or as m pl noun = the Sabines)
cupio -ere -ivi I want, I desire
nemo no-one (nom)
3 magnopere greatly

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 BECAUSE AND ALTHOUGH: QUOD AND QUAMQUAM 179

emineo -ere I stand out, I am pre-eminent

annuus -a -um year-long
interregnum -i n interregnum (period without a monarch)

vir bonus clarusque, Numa nomine, in agris habitabat. Numa magnam virtutem,
multam doctrinam, animum temperatum habebat; omnes leges deorum sciebat.
senatores Romani igitur Numam novum regem legerunt. nuntios ad Numam statim
miserunt. nuntii ‘Numa bone,’ inquiunt ‘Romam veni civesque Romanos rege!’
10 Numa Romam mox advenit. ‘Romani,’ inquit ‘non cupio rex vester esse. dei
signum mittent si me regem esse cupiunt.’ augur igitur Iovem vocavit: ‘Iuppiter
pater, signum Romanis mitte!’ rex deorum signum statim dedit; Numa rex fuit.

clarus -a -um famous

Numa -ae m Numa
virtus -utis f excellence, goodness, virtue
doctrina -ae f learning
7 animus -i m mind
temperatus -a -um sensible, even-tempered
lex legis f law
scio -ire I know
signum -i n sign, signal
11 si if
augur -uris m/f augur, soothsayer
Iuppiter Iovis m Jupiter

BECAUSE AND ALTHOUGH:

quod and quamquam
A subordinate clause is a group of words that contains a verb but is not the main
clause in a sentence. Subordinate clauses could be bracketed off and the sentence
would still make sense.
Because and although introduce two types of subordinate clause. Both of these
analyse events: because gives a reason why something occurs (a causal clause);
although gives a reason why it might have been expected not to (a concessive clause:
although one fact is conceded, another is still true).
These clauses are introduced by indeclinable conjunctions:

quod because
quamquam although

These clauses often contain a verb in the pluperfect tense, describing an action that
had already happened by the time of the sentence.

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180 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.7
Translate into English :
1. pater ridebat quod verba senis audiverat.
2. pueri quamquam perterriti erant ad portam manebant.
3. filia mea laeta est quod multas epistulas hodie accepit.
4. difficile est credere feminae quamquam eam amo.
5. quamquam milites viderat senex non timebat.

Exercise 6.8
S&C
Translate into Latin :
1. I am sad because you (sg) did not send gift.
2. Father climbed the mountain although he cannot easily walk.
3. We are miserable because the Romans have overcome us in war.
4. Because we are Romans we shall never flee.
5. Although my son never writes letters, I send letters to him.

Exercise 6.9

Numa, thunderbolts and fish

Numa presides over a peaceful and devout city. One day he demonstrates his intellect
by defeating Jupiter in a battle of wits.

Numa regnum multos annos bene servaverat. pacem cum hostibus Romanorum
fecerat; multa templa in urbe aedificaverat; leges civibus dederat; libros scripserat.
rex (fama est) cum dea pulchra, Egeria nomine, habitabat. Egeria Numae verba
deorum dicebat; deinde Numa ea civibus dicebat; cives verbis regis semper
5 credebant. quamquam Romani bellum multos annos amaverant, Numa cives
pacem amare docuit. hostes igitur Romam amare coeperunt. Romulus hostes
bello superaverat, Numa pace.

Numa -ae m Numa (second king of Rome)

servo -are -avi I save, I protect, I keep
hostis -is m enemy (usually plural)
lex legis f law
3 fama -ae f rumour, story
Egeria -ae f Egeria (a nymph i.e. a minor goddess)
dico -ere dixi I say, I speak, I tell

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 THE REL ATIVE PRONOUN AND REL ATIVE CL AUSES: QUI, QUAE, QUOD 181

doceo -ere -ui I teach

coepi (irreg pf) I began

rex magnam sapientiam habebat. Iuppiter ad terram de caelo olim venit. Numam
ad se irate vocavit. deus ‘rex’ inquit ‘sapientiam tuam proba! averte fulmina mea
10 ab urbe tua!’ Numa ‘quomodo?’ rogavit. deus ‘capitibus’ inquit. ‘capitibus
caeparum?’ Numa rogavit. ‘virorum’ Iuppiter inquit. Numa ‘capillis?’ rogavit.
Iuppiter inquit ‘vitas posco’. ‘pisces igitur dabimus,’ Numa inquit. Romani adhuc
fulmina caepis et capillis et piscibus avertunt.

sapientia -ae f wisdom

Iuppiter Iovis m Jupiter
probo -are I prove, I demonstrate
averto -ere I ward off, I repel
9 fulmen -inis n lightning, thunderbolt
quomodo how?
caepa -ae f onion (note the play-on-words: caput/caepa)
capilli -orum m pl hair
vita -ae f life
12 posco -ere I demand
piscis -is m fish (note the play-on-words: posco/piscis)
adhuc still, to this day

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE

CLAUSES: qui, quae, quod
The relative pronoun is the name for the pronoun who or which, and declines
according to number, gender and case:

who, which

m f n

sg nom qui quae quod

acc quem quam quod
gen cuius cuius cuius
dat cui cui cui
abl quo qua quo

pl nom qui quae quae

acc quos quas quae
gen quorum quarum quorum
dat quibus quibus quibus
abl quibus quibus quibus

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182 CHAPTER SIX

Note the following:

 Some of the endings resemble those of 2-1-2 adjectives (i.e. the ablative
singular, and the nominative, accusative and genitive plural); elsewhere endings
resemble those of the third declension (e.g. the dative and ablative plural).
 The genitive and dative singular start with a distinctive c rather than q. Their
endings -ius and -i (underlined above) are the same for all genders. These
distinctive endings are used in many pronouns; we have already seen them,
for example, in is, ea, id: eius, ei (see p162 ).

Exercise 6.10
Identify the number, gender and case of the following (give all possibilities):
1. quas
2. cui
3. quod
4. quarum
5. quibus
6. quo
7. quorum
8. quae
9. qui
10. cuius

Exercise 6.11
Give the Latin for (noting the required number, gender and case):
1. to whom (m pl)*
2. whom (f acc pl)
3. which (n acc sg)
4. whose (f sg)
5. by which (f sg)

* English properly uses whom for all cases apart from the nominative (who) and
the genitive (which is best translated whose): e.g. whom (acc) did you see in the
forum? However, whom is now rather old-fashioned and you will often find who
being used instead: i.e. who did you see in the forum? With its various endings
(who, whom and whose) the relative pronoun is one of the few places where
English still uses some inflection (personal pronouns are another, as we have seen).

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 THE REL ATIVE PRONOUN AND REL ATIVE CL AUSES: QUI, QUAE, QUOD 183

The appropriate form of qui, quae, quod is used to introduce a relative clause, which
is a subordinate clause that gives us more information about a noun already
mentioned in the sentence.

e.g. The man who was walking along the road was sad.

Here the main clause is the man . . . was sad. The relative clause is who was walking
along the road, and gives us more information about the man. The noun that the
relative pronoun refers to is called the antecedent. The relative clause refers or relates
back to the antecedent.
Using a relative clause is one way of incorporating the information provided by
one sentence into another:

e.g puer in foro est. is puellam amat.

The boy is in the forum. He loves the girl.

puer qui puellam amat in foro est.

The boy who loves the girl is in the forum.

The main focus of the second example is that the boy is in the forum: puer . . . in foro
est is the main clause. Now, however, with the addition of the relative clause (i.e. qui
puellam amat) we learn more information about the boy, or find out which boy the
author is talking about.

The relative pronoun takes its number and gender from the thing it is describing
(the antecedent).

Conversely, it takes its case from the job which it itself is doing within the relative
clause. The relative pronoun does not have to be the same case as the antecedent
(though this may happen by coincidence); often, it is not. To analyse another
example:

libertus quem heri vidi in foro est.

The freedman whom I saw yesterday is in the forum.

antecedent = libertus
relative pronoun = quem
number: singular (agreeing with libertus)
gender: masculine (agreeing with libertus)
case: accusative (because the freedman is the object
in the relative clause: I saw him)

Some forms of the relative pronoun are confusable with quod and quamquam. Take
care to distinguish the following:

quod indeclinable conjunction because

quod n nom/acc sg of relative which

quamquam indecl conj although

quam f acc sg of relative who/whom/which

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184 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.12
Translate into English, identifying the case of the relative pronoun:
1. puer cui donum dedi in foro est.
2. puer qui pecuniam habet in foro est.
3. puer a quo fugio in foro est.
4. puer cuius clamorem audivi in foro est.*
5. puer quem puella amat in foro est.

* Beware of confusing whose (= of whom) and who’s (= who is or who has) in

English.

The third person pronoun and the relative pronoun can appear together:

e.g. ei qui Romam defendunt fortes sunt.

Those who defend Rome are brave.

Exercise 6.13
Translate into English, indentifying the number, gender and case of the relative
pronoun in each sentence:
1. ancillam quae regem necaverat invenimus.
2. vidistisne milites qui ad urbem heri advenerunt?
3. navis in qua Romam navigabimus magna et celeris est.
4. amasne eum qui in horto nunc est?
5. templa quae Romani nunc aedificant ingentia erunt.
6. vir pecuniam quam in via invenerat filiabus tradidit.
7. timetisne turbam cuius clamores audire possumus?
8. nautae capita Romanorum quos necaverunt ad regem portant.
9. milites quibus dux pecuniam dedit muros fortiter defendent.
10. femina ad portam per quam maritus festinaverat diu lacrimabat.

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 THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN: QUIS?, QUID? 185

Exercise 6.14
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The old man who is walking to the forum is my father.
2. The man whom I saw in the street was crying.
3. Give the sword to the man who is now arriving, slave!
4. Do you have the books which my husband sent?
5. The master from whom I am fleeing is savage.

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN: quis?, quid?

A slightly modified version of the relative pronoun is used for the question version,
who?, what?; this is called the interrogative pronoun. The term interrogative is
derived from rogo: a question is being asked.
Its form only differs from the relative pronoun in the nominative and accusative
singular:

who? what?

m f n

sg nom quis? quis? quid?

acc quem? quam? quid?
gen cuius? cuius? cuius?
etc.: same as the relative pronoun

e.g. quis nunc advenit? quid est nomen tuum?

Who is now arriving? What is your name?

quae video? cuius clamorem audio?

What (things) am I seeing? Whose shouting do I hear?

Exercise 6.15
Translate into English:
1. quis portam nunc defendet?
2. cuius est liber quem teneo? estne tuus, fili?
3. quem in turba vidisti, marite?
4. quae tenes, puer? cur taces?
5. cum quibus ad urbem ambulabis, filia?

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186 CHAPTER SIX

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the meaning and use of quod and quamquam
 how the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod declines
 how a relative clause works, and what the antecedent is
 the forms and use of the the interrogative pronoun

NUMERALS
Cardinal numbers (one, two, etc.) tell you how many there are of something.
Ordinal numbers (first, second, etc.) tell you the order things come in. The only
ordinal number you need for GCSE is primus (first).
The cardinal numbers 1–10, 100 and 1000 and their corresponding Roman
numerals are given below. They have numerous derivatives in modern European
languages.

unus una unum one I

duo duae duo two II
tres tria three III
quattuor four IV or IIII
quinque five V
sex six VI
septem seven VII
octo eight VIII
novem nine IX
decem ten X

centum 100 C

mille pl milia 1000 M

unus, duo and tres decline as below; the other numbers do not decline, except mille,
which declines in the plural.

one

m f n

nom unus una unum

acc unum unam unum
gen unius unius unius
dat uni uni uni
abl uno una uno

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 NUMERALS 187

unus is 2-1-2 except in the genitive and dative, which have in all three genders the
distinctive -ius and -i endings we met with the pronouns is (eius and ei) and qui
(cuius and cui).

two

m f n

nom duo duae duo

acc duos duas duo
gen duorum duarum duorum
dat duobus duabus duobus
abl duobus duabus duobus

duo has a few parts in common with 2-1-2.

three

m/f n

nom tres tria

acc tres tria
gen trium trium
dat tribus tribus
abl tribus tribus

tres is 3-3 in declension.

Numbers normally come before their nouns, as in English: e.g. duae feminae,
quattuor villae, etc.
mille in the singular can be used with a noun in any case, but its plural milia
is followed by a genitive (literally thousands of . . .). milia declines like the neuter
of tres.

e.g. Romani mille milites ceperunt.

The Romans captured a thousand soldiers.

Romani decem milia militum ceperunt.

The Romans captured ten thousand soldiers.

Hannibal cum milibus militum advenit.

Hannibal arrived with thousands of soldiers.

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188 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.16
Give as many derivatives as you can from:
1. octo
2. centum
3. tres
4. unus
5. quinque

Exercise 6.17
Translate into English:
1. fratres nostri novem horas dormiebant.
2. servus malus sex cives bonos necavit.
3. senex laetus tria milia librorum in villa sua habet.
4. Roma regnum unius viri numquam erit.
5. vidistine decem naves quae heri advenerunt?
6. prima hora Roma discessimus.
7. statim tradite mihi duos gladios, pueri!
8. de bellis Romanorum centum libros legi.
9. erant in insula quattuor magna templa.
10. septem duces ad septem portas urbis pugnabant.

Exercise 6.18
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The soldiers fought bravely for five hours.
2. I will soon arrive with four thousand soldiers.
3. We shall be able to defend the city for one year.
4. The woman lived in Rome with her two daughters.
5. Did you find the eight horses which suddenly fled, slave?

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 NUMERALS 189

Exercise 6.19

Servius Tullius: flaming child

During the reign of the fifth king of Rome a dramatic omen marks out a slave-boy as
heir to the throne.

erat inter servos regis puer cuius nomen Servius Tullius erat. puer olim in regia
dormiebat. servi media nocte? ecce!? flammas circum caput eius subito viderunt.
servi perterriti erant et clamores eorum regem uxoremque eius mox excitaverunt.
puer tamen tacebat et adhuc dormiebat. servus unus aquam ad puerum portabat.
5 regina tamen eum retinuit. ‘noli’ clamavit ‘flammas restinguere! noli timere! noli
eum movere! flammae signum a deis sunt.’ flammae a puero mox discesserunt.

Servius -i Tullius -i m Servius Tullius

regia -ae f palace
flamma -ae f flame
perterritus -a -um terrified
3 uxor -oris f wife
excito -are -avi I stir, I wake (someone) up
adhuc still
retineo -ere -ui I hold (someone) back
noli + inf don’t . . .!
5 restinguo -ere I put out, I extinguish
moveo -ere I move
signum -i n sign, signal

post miraculum regina regi ‘videsne, marite,’ inquit ‘hunc puerum, cui dei
flammas miserunt? donum a deis est. lux regno nostro olim erit patriamque
suam servabit. regiam fortiter custodiet. eum igitur statim libera! eum inter filios
10 nostros educare debemus.’ puer igitur in regia velut filius regis habitabat. omnia
discebat quae filius regis discere debet. filiam regis tandem in matrimonium duxit
et post mortem regis cives Romani Servium Tullium novum regem legerunt.
regnum multos annos bene regebat.

miraculum -i n miracle, omen

hunc this (m acc sg)
lux lucis f light
libero -are -avi I set free
10 educo -are I bring up, I educate
velut just like, as if
disco -ere I learn
in matrimonium duco I marry

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190 CHAPTER SIX

TIME EXPRESSIONS (3):

‘TIME WITHIN WHICH’
We saw in Chapter Two that a time how long expression uses the accusative:

e.g. septem horas dormiebam.

I was sleeping for seven hours.

In Chapter Four we met time when expressions, which use the ablative:

e.g. cives media nocte fugerunt.

The citizens fled in the middle of the night.

There is a third type of time expression: time within which. This kind of expression
is best translated into English using within or during. Like time when, time within
which is expressed with the ablative.

e.g. urbem tribus horis capiemus.

We shall capture the city within three hours.

uno anno duo itinera longa feci.

I made two long journeys during one year.

Although they both use the ablative case, time when and time within which
expressions are clearly distinguishable if they use numbers: time when uses an
ordinal number like primus whereas time within which uses a cardinal number like
unus.

e.g feminae prima hora advenient.

The women will arrive at the first hour.* (time when)

feminae una hora advenient.

The women will arrive within one hour. (time within which)

* The Romans divided up the day into twenty-four hours, twelve of daylight and
twelve of night. The length of the hours therefore changed according to the
season: a daylight ‘hour’ was, for example, c. 75 minutes in midsummer and c. 45
minutes in midwinter.

Note how none of these expressions use prepositions for the words for, in, during,
within (etc.): they simply use the different cases. (One exception is that per can be
added to accusatives for emphasis: per decem horas dormiebam = I was asleep for
ten whole hours.)

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 TIME EXPRESSIONS (3): ‘TIME WITHIN WHICH’ 191

Exercise 6.20
Translate into English:
1. multas terras decem annis vincetis.
2. Romanos quattuor horis superavimus.
3. regnum tuum nobis uno anno trade, rex!
4. omnes cives duabus horis fugere iussi.
5. iuvenis laetus sex epistulas una nocte scripsit.

Exercise 6.21
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. The sailors will arrive at the island within three hours.
2. The Romans built new walls within two years.
3. Our friends sent help within five hours.
4. The evil men killed the king during the night.
5. A crowd of angry citizens destroyed the temple within one hour.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 the numbers 1–10, 100 and 1000
 how the numbers 1–4 and the plural of mille decline
 the difference between a cardinal number and an ordinal number
 the case used for time within which expressions

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192 CHAPTER SIX

THE VERB I GO: eo

The verb eo (I go) is very common and is irregular, as in many other languages
(compare English: I go, I went). This irregularity is most obvious in the present tense.

present tense

sg 1 eo I go or I am going
2 is you (sg) go you (sg) are going
3 it he/she/it goes he/she/it is going

pl 1 imus we go we are going

2 itis you (pl) go you (pl) are going
3 eunt they go they are going

imperative 2 sg i go (sg)!
2 pl ite go (pl)!

infinitive ire to go

Other tenses use the usual endings with the stem i-:

future ibo, ibis, ibit, etc.

imperfect ibam, ibas, ibat, etc.

The perfect stem (which the pluperfect uses too) can be either i- or iv-. When eo is
used in compound verbs, the shorter form is always used.

perfect ii, iisti, iit, etc. or ivi, ivisti, ivit, etc.

pluperfect ieram, ieras, ierat, etc. or iveram, iveras, iverat, etc.

Exercise 6.22
Translate into English:
1. ibimus
2. eunt
3. iit
4. iverant
5. ite
6. ibam
7. imus
8. iimus
9. i
10. ibunt

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 THE VERB I GO: EO 193

Exercise 6.23
Translate into Latin :
1. She goes.
2. They went.
3. We go.
4. He will go.
5. We had gone.
6. You (sg) will go.
7. You (sg) go.
8. To go.
9. They were going.
10. I went.

Exercise 6.24
Translate into English :
1. nonne Romam cras ibimus?
2. iuvenis miser per vias lente it.
3. ad parvam insulam numquam iveramus.
4. magna turba civium saevorum in forum celeriter ivit.
5. ecce! tres milites in villam senis eunt. quid invenient?

Exercise 6.25
S&C
Translate into Latin :
1. Go into the garden at once, mistress!
2. My sons were afraid to go to new places.
3. Many of the citizens are going towards the gate.
4. Surely you won’t go to the city today, daughter?
5. Where did you go yesterday, husband?

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194 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.26

Tarquinius seizes the throne

A disgruntled son of the former king plots to wrest the kingdom away from Servius
Tullius, the slave-boy who had been blessed by the omen of the fire.

Servius Tullius rex Romae erat. bene regebat et Romani eum amabant. Lucius
Tarquinius tamen, filius Tarquinii Prisci, qui rex antea fuerat, ei invidebat. uxor
eius, Tullia nomine – filia Servii Tullii erat – iram iuvenis incitabat. ‘pater tuus,
marite,’ inquit ‘rex Romae erat. tu igitur rex esse debebas. pater meus tamen servus
5 olim erat. regnum tuum recipe! Romam libera!’ verba ferocia uxoris Tarquinio
facile persuaserunt.

Servius -i Tullius -i m Servius Tullius (sixth king of Rome)

Lucius -i Tarquinius -i m Lucius Tarquinius
Tarquinius -i Priscus -i m Tarquinius Priscus (fifth king)
antea before, earlier
2 invideo -ere I envy (+ dat)
Tullia -ae f Tullia
ira -ae f anger
incito -are I rouse, I stir up
recipio -ere I take back
6 persuadeo -ere -suasi I persuade (+ dat)

Tarquinius regem publice iudicare et dona senatoribus divitibus dare coepit. deinde
milites collegit et ad curiam iit. in sella sedit et senatores iussit ad se regem vocare.
‘Servius’ irate clamavit ‘servus et filius servi est. ego princeps et filius regis sum. vos,
10 senatores, eum regem non legistis: femina mala, mater mea, eum regem fecit.
Servius agros vestros plebi dare cupit. regnum Romanum delebit!’

publice publicly, in public

iudico -are I criticise
dives -itis rich
coepi (irreg pf) I began
8 collego -ere collegi I collect, I gather (people) together
curia -ae f senate-house
sella -ae f throne
princeps -ipis m (here) prince
plebs plebis f the common people, the masses

Servius rex de verbis malis Tarquinii audivit et ad curiam festinavit. iuvenis tamen
senem cepit et ad terram ferociter iecit. amici regis statim fugerunt; amici iuvenis
Servium celeriter necaverunt. tum Tullia ad curiam currum agebat. maritum regem
15 salutare cupivit. auriga eius subito corpus Servii in via vidit. ‘consiste, domina!’
clamavit ‘patrem tuum in via video.’ Tullia tamen non constitit; equos flagellavit;
currum super corpus patris egit.

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 THE VERB I GO: EO 195

iacio -ere ieci I thow

currum chariot (acc sg)
ago agere egi I drive
auriga -ae m charioteer, driver
15 corpus -oris n body
consisto -ere constiti I halt, I stop
flagello -are -avi I whip
super (+ acc) over

nomen viae hodie Vicus Sceleratus est: scelere saevo Tarquinius regnum
obtinuerat, scelere saevo Tullia patrem suam foedaverat. Tarquinius iussit cives
20 corpus Servii in via relinquere. ‘necabo eum qui senem malum sepeliet’ irate
clamavit. Romani igitur Tarquinio regi cognomen Superbum dederunt.

Vicus Sceleratus Street of Crime

scelus -eris n crime
obtineo -ere -ui I obtain, I gain
foedo -are -avi I defile, I mistreat
20 sepelio -ire I bury
cognomen -inis n extra name
Superbus -i m Superbus (the Proud, the Arrogant)

PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (1)

Latin often joins a prefix onto another word (most frequently a verb) to focus its
meaning, creating a compound. We have already met several:

venio I come
invenio I find lit I come into/upon
advenio I arrive lit I come to

pugno I fight
oppugno I attack originally ob-pugno: lit I bring the fight to

sum I am
possum I can, I am able originally potis-sum, shortened to
pot-sum: lit I am powerful enough to

facilis easy
difficilis difficult originally dis-facilis: lit not-easy;
note the vowel change from fac- to -fic-

Some common prefixes are as follows; we have already met many of these as
prepositions:

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196 CHAPTER SIX

a-/ab- away, from

ad- to, towards
e-/ex- out of, from, out
in- into, in, onto
re- back (only used as a prefix)
trans- across (also used as a preposition, + acc)

At GCSE you are expected to be able to work out compound verbs formed when
these prefixes are attached to verbs you already know:

e.g. reduco I lead back

ineo I go in(to), I enter
transeo I go across, I cross

It is common to find both a preposition and the corresponding prefix used in quick
succession. In such instances, the preposition and the prefix simply reinforce each
another, and only one is translated:

nuntius in villam iniit.

lit The messenger went in into the villa.
i.e. The messenger went into the villa.

Alternatively, the prefix in a compound verb can supply new information that is not
revealed by the rest of the sentence:

pueri in viam exierunt.

The boys went out (e.g. of the house) into the street.

Exercise 6.27
Translate into English:
1. puellas in hortum statim exire iussi.
2. dux multos milites trans mare secum transportavit.
3. quae sunt nomina duorum senum qui in templum nunc ineunt?
4. fratrem stultum a taberna puellisque abduximus.
5. pater servum in villam revocavit.

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 PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (1) 197

Figure 6.1 Tullia drives her chariot over the body of her father. After a painting of
E. Hildebrandt (Photo by ullstein bild/ullstein bild via Getty Images)

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198 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.28
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. Go away, boys! Your mother is now asleep.
2. Why did the women not enter the temple?
3. Lead me back to my country, boy!
4. My son will order the old men to go out into the forum.
5. Did you lead the soldiers towards the wood, messenger?

PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (2):

NEW VERBS
Below is a table of new compound verbs listed beneath their parent verbs.
The logic behind the meaning of a compound verb is usually fairly straightforward.
Occasionally though the meaning is not just the sum of the prefix and the verb, and
needs to be explained.
For example, pereo means I die, I perish rather than I go through, as you might have
expected: the thought process is that you have gone through your life when you perish.

capio capere cepi I take, I catch, I capture

accipio accipere accepi I accept, I take in, I receive
(lit I take to [myself])
eo ire ii or ivi I go
pereo perire perii* I die, I perish
(lit I go through [life])
redeo redire redii* I go back, I come back, I return
fugio fugere fugi I run away, I flee
effugio effugere effugi I escape
(lit I flee out [to a successful conclusion])
specto spectare spectavi I look at, I watch
exspecto exspectare exspectavi I wait for, I expect (lit I watch out [for])
sum esse fui I am
absum abesse afui I am absent, I am away, I am distant from
adsum adesse adfui I am here, I am present
venio venire veni I come
convenio convenire conveni I come together, I gather, I meet
(=cum + venio; cum changes to con)

* Remember that although uncompounded forms of eo can have either i- or iv- as

the perfect stem, compounded forms of eo always have the shorter version.

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 PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (2): NEW VERBS 199

As you will have noticed from the above table, adding a prefix to a verb often results
in a slight modification of spelling.
Note the following changes that make pronunciation easier:

ad + capio = accipio
re + eo = redeo
ex + fugio = effugio

Note too the vowel change that has taken place in forming accipio: the -a- of capio
has become -i- in the compound form: -cipio. Compare the same vowel change
between facilis and its compound form difficilis.
This vowel change also occurs with compouds of iacio (I throw), which we met
in the last story:

iacio iacere ieci I throw

inicio inicere inieci I throw in(to)/on(to)
eicio eicere eieci I throw out

Exercise 6.29
Translate into English:
1. domina dona pulchra laete accepit.
2. filii mei diu afuerant, sed tandem redierunt.
3. turba irata ad villam ducis conveniebat: is effugere non poterat.
4. omnes qui aderant clamores senis tristis audiverunt.
5. nuntium multas horas exspectabamus. is tandem advenit. ‘rex’ inquit ‘periit
et cives eum in Tiberim iniecerunt.’

Tiberis acc Tiberim m the Tiber (river in Rome)

Exercise 6.30
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. Many brave soldiers had gathered in the forum.
2. Four young men perished in the middle of the night.
3. We shall receive help from the gods.
4. I escaped, but the Romans captured my brother.
5. Your husband will be here tomorrow, mistress.

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200 CHAPTER SIX

PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (3)

Note the following, which are all compounds of one sort or another. Some are based
on new items of vocabulary. Others are based on words you already know, or are
alternative compound forms of the same parent verb:

ascendo -ere -i I climb

descendo -ere -i I go down, I come down

prope (+ acc) near

appropinquo -are -avi I approach, I come near to (usually + dat)

terreo -ere -ui I frighten

perterritus -a -um terrified (lit thoroughly* frightened)

* The meaning thoroughly here comes from per, which normally means through.
The two meanings are not as unconnected as it first appears: compare the phrase wet
through, which means thoroughly wet. Something done thoroughly has been done
right through.

intellego -ere intellexi I understand, I realise

(inter-lego, lit I distinguish/choose between [things])

interficio -ere interfeci I kill

(inter-facio, lit I make someone be amongst [the dead]; note the vowel change)

Finally, some compound verbs are encountered more frequently than their parent
verbs:

conspicio -ere conspexi I catch sight of, I notice

constituo -ere constitui I decide
persuadeo -ere persuasi I persuade (+ dat)
respondeo -ere -i I reply

Note that out of the compound verbs we have now met, the following are mixed
conjugation (see p119): accipio, effugio, (iacio), inicio, eicio, interficio, conspicio.

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 PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (3) 201

Exercise 6.31
Translate into English :
1. ancilla perterrita ‘hostes nunc adsunt, domine!’ subito clamavit.
2. verba quae rex dixerat intellegere non poteramus.
3. puella fratrem prope portam exspectabat.
4. cur silvae numquam appropinquas, puer?
5. omnes de monte cras descendemus.
6. iuvenis malus in villam cucurrit et dominum interfecit.
7. conspexistine milites Romanos, pater?
8. insulam relinquere et Romae habitare constitueramus.
9. epistula amicorum patri meo non persuadebit.
10. frater ‘Romam ibo’ inquit ‘et ducem interficiam’. ego non respondi.

Exercise 6.32
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. I quickly approached the huge temple.
2. My mother’s serious words persuaded me.
3. Our mistress is building a large house near the wood.
4. We suddenly caught sight of the soldiers and decided to flee.
5. The foolish young man will not understand the leader’s plan.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 how the verb I go (eo) is conjugated
 that Latin often forms a compound verb by adding a prefix to a verb
 the lists of new compound verbs on pp198–200
 the ways in which spelling can be modified in compound verbs

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202 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.33

Tarquinius Superbus buys some odd books

A visitor arrives at the palace claiming that the books she wants to sell contain divine
prophecies.

anus pauper incognitaque olim villam Tarquinii Superbi intravit. militibus ‘donum’
inquit ‘habeo quod regi dare cupio. donum regnum eius servabit.’ milites verbis eius
non credebant. eam tamen ad regem duxerunt. anus diu tacebat. tum e sacco suo
novem libros extraxit. ‘o rex magne,’ inquit ‘hos libros in quibus sunt
5 verba deorum vendere cupio. libri regnum tuum per multos annos defendent
patriamque contra hostes feroces custodient. eos emere cupis?’ Tarquinius ei non
credebat. rex tamen propter paupertatem feminae benigne respondit. ‘quantam
pecuniam cupis, femina bona?’ rogavit. anus magnum pretium poposcit. rex diu
risit. anus igitur tres libros in ignem statim iniecit. ‘sex’ inquit ‘libros eodem pretio
10 emes?’ Tarquinius magna voce iterum risit. deinde anus tres alios libros in ignem
iniecit. ‘libros reliquos eodem pretio emere cupis?’ constantia feminae regi tandem
persuasit. Tarquinius igitur tres libros magno pretio emit. anus laeta discessit. rex
libros in templo posuit. Romani consilium eorum in magnis periculis semper
petebant.

anus old woman (f nom sg)

pauper -eris poor
incognitus -a -um unknown
Tarquinius -i Superbus -i m Tarquinius Superbus (7th king of Rome)
1 intro -are -avi I enter
saccus -i m bag
hos these (m acc pl)
vendo -ere -idi I sell
emere -ere emi I buy
7 propter (+ acc) on account of
paupertas -atis f poverty
benignus -a -um kind
quantus -a -um how much . . .?
pretium -i n price
8 posco -ere poposci I demand
ignis -is m fire
eodem the same (n abl sg)
vox vocis f voice
iterum again
10 alios other (m acc pl)
reliquus -a -um remaining
constantia -ae f persistence, determination
 Tarquinius Superbus will not be glossed again.

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 PREFIXES AND COMPOUNDS (3) 203

Exercise 6.34

Tarquinius Superbus gives some advice

A father sends a message to his son by actions rather than words.

erat bellum longum inter Romanos Gabinosque. Romani Gabios superare non
poterant. tum Tarquinius Superbus rex et Sextus filius eius consilium callidum
ceperunt. Sextus Gabios transfugit. civibus Gabinis ‘Roma’ inquit ‘fugio quod
pater meus me saeve punit. accipite me, cives!’ Gabini verbis eius credebant et
5 eum in urbem accipere constituerunt. iuvenis mox multos amicos multamque
potestatem inter Gabinos habebat.

Gabini -orum m pl Gabians (people of Gabii)

Gabii -orum m pl Gabii (city near Rome)
callidus -a -um clever
transfugio -ere -i I go over to, I flee to
6 potestas -atis f power

filius nuntium ad patrem suum mox misit quod nova mandata cupiebat. nuntius
Romam festinavit et in regiam Tarquinii venit. ‘filius tuus, rex,’ inquit ‘omnia
paravit; quid nunc facere debet?’ Tarquinius non respondit sed in hortum exiit.
deinde per hortum ambulavit et baculo longo summa capita papaverum decussit.
10 nulla verba dixit. deinde nuntium ad filium remisit. nuntius non intellexit sed
Gabios rediit. Sexto facta regis nuntiavit. filius ambages patris statim intellexit.
postridie milites iussit principes Gabinorum colligere. tum omnes necavit.

mandatum -i n order, instruction

regia -ae f palace
baculum -i n stick
summus -a -um highest, top (of)
9 papaver -eris n poppy
decutio -ere decussi I knock off
nulla no (adj; n acc pl)
factum -i n deed
nuntio -are -avi I announce
11 ambages -um f pl hints, obscure indications
postridie (on) the next day
princeps -ipis m leader, chief
colligo -ere I collect, I gather together

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204 CHAPTER SIX

TIME CLAUSES: ubi and postquam

We have already met several types of subordinate clause:
 causal clauses with quod (because)
 concessive clauses with quamquam (although)
 relative clauses with qui, quae, quod (who, which)

Another type of subordinate clause is a time clause. Two words commonly used to
introduce a time clause are:

ubi when (also where)*

postquam after (an action)

* We have already met ubi as a question word meaning where?. When not in a
question, ubi can mean either when or where. If you see ubi in a sentence that is
not a question, work out from the context whether it means when or where.

e.g. ubi verba nuntii audivi ad villam ambulavi.

When I heard the messenger’s words I walked to the house.

ad villam ubi senex habitabat ambulavi.

I walked to the house where the old man lived.

A first important point to note is that ubi and postquam are not followed by a
pluperfect tense verb in Latin, even though you may choose to translate using one in
English: the logic is simply after X happened, Y happened (not In a situation where
X had already happened . . .). Rather than the pluperfect, Latin uses the perfect
tense:

e.g. postquam rex advenit cives ad forum festinaverunt.

After the king (had) arrived the citizens hurried to the forum.

Secondly, if a time clause refers to the future, Latin uses a future tense (showing,
logically, when the action happens), but this is translated into natural English with a
present tense. We call this a hidden future.

e.g. ubi ad insulam navigabit, templum inveniet.

lit When he will sail to the island, he will find a temple.
i.e. When he sails to the island he will find a temple.

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 TIME CL AUSES: UBI AND POSTQUAM 205

Exercise 6.35
Translate into English :
1. postquam regem interfecimus ab urbe statim discessimus.
2. ubi ea intelleges, perterrita eris.
3. domina lacrimavit ubi epistulam tristem legit.
4. ad silvam ubi milites me exspectabant celeriter cucurri.
5. dei postquam verba regis audiverunt irati erant.

Exercise 6.36
S&C
Translate into Latin:
1. After I received the letter I decided to go to Rome.
2. When we arrive at the island we are always happy.
3. The boys ran into the house after their father shouted angrily.
4. When you arrive in Rome, soldier, you will want to stay for a long time.
5. The young men were able to understand everything after they read the book.

REVISION CHECKPOINT
Make sure you know:
 that ubi when not in a question can mean either when or where
 that ubi and postquam are never followed by a pluperfect tense
 the way in which English often uses a hidden future (resembling the present
tense) when talking about future events: e.g. when you go . . .

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206 CHAPTER SIX

Exercise 6.37

Tarquinius Superbus sends his sons to Delphi

An omen in Rome leads to a consultation of the oracle, but a second question

weighs more heavily on the minds of those consulting.
Tarquinius Superbus rex et servi sui ingentem serpentem in regia olim viderunt.
omnes qui aderant perterriti statim fugerunt. deinde rex duos filios ad se vocavit.
‘iram deorum’ inquit ‘timeo. ad Graeciam ite, filii! Delphos petite et consilium
Apollinis quaerite!’ rex amicum cum eis misit Brutum, filium sororis suae.
5 quamquam filii regis Brutum propter stultitiam eius non amabant, tres iuvenes
una discesserunt. trans mare ad Graeciam celeriter navigaverunt.

serpens -entis m/f snake

regia -ae f palace
Graecia -ae f Greece
Delphi -orum m pl Delphi (oracle in central Greece)
4 Apollo -inis m Apollo (god of prophecy)
Brutus -i m Brutus
soror -oris f sister
propter (+ acc) on account of
stultitia -ae f stupidity, foolishness
6 una together

Figure 6.2 Denarius issued in 54 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, descendant of the

Brutus in Exercises 6.37 and 6.38, depicting his ancestor as consul and surrounded by
lictors (bodyguards). (Photo by: Photo12/UIG via Getty Images)

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 TIME CL AUSES: UBI AND POSTQUAM 207

ubi Delphos advenerunt templum Apollinis statim intraverunt. oraculum de

serpente consulerunt. tum filii ad patrem redire debebant. invidia tamen eos vicit
et ‘magne deus,’ rogaverunt ‘quis ex nobis post mortem patris rex Romae erit?’
10 sacerdos statim respondit: ‘is summum imperium Romae habebit qui primus
osculum matri dabit.’ fratres igitur, postquam verba dei audiverunt, Romam ad
matrem suam celeriter redierunt. Brutus tamen, qui verba dei audiverat et
consilium Apollinis intellexerat, ad terram cecidit et terrae osculum dedit. ‘terra’
sibi inquit ‘mater omnium est.’ deinde Romam rediit.

oraculum -i n oracle
consulo -ere -ui I consult, I seek the advice of
invidia -ae f envy
sacerdos -otis f priestess
10 summus -a -um (here) greatest
imperium -i n power
osculum -i n kiss

Exercise 6.38

The birth of the Roman Republic

A terrible crime leads to a popular uprising against Tarquinius Superbus.

Tarquinius Superbus multos hostes vicerat, multa templa aedificaverat. propter

tamen ingentes impensas cives Romani laeti non erant. rex Rutulos oppugnare
constituit quod Rutuli multum pecuniae habebant. tum tamen regis filius, cuius
nomen Sextus Tarquinius erat, scelus malum fecit. iuvenis feminam nobilem,
5 Lucretiam nomine, saeve stupravit. quamquam maritus veniam ei dedit, Lucretia
propter magnum pudorem se necavit. maritus igitur et amici eius, inter quos fuit
Brutus, ultionem iuraverunt. Brutus ‘ecce!’ irate clamavit ‘quam mali sunt reges!
propter (+ acc) on account of
impensa -ae f expenditure, expense
Rutuli -orum m pl Rutulians (people near Rome)
Sextus -i Tarquinius -i m Sextus Tarquinius
4 scelus -eris n crime
nobilis -e noble, aristocratic
Lucretia -ae f Lucretia
stupro -are -avi I rape
veniam do I forgive, I pardon (+ dat)
6 pudor -oris m shame, sense of shame
Brutus -i m Brutus
ultio -onis f revenge
iuro -are -avi I swear
quam! how . . .! (exclamation)

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208 CHAPTER SIX

cives Romani, iuro, regem alium non habebunt.’ Brutus Romanos celeriter
incitavit. cives ad se vocavit qui Tarquinium nunc oderant. milites qui cum rege
10 Rutulos oppugnabant mox eum reliquerunt. Tarquinius timebat et Romam
festinavit. Romani tamen portas clauserunt et eum reppulerunt. ‘Roma nostra
nunc est,’ laete clamaverunt, ‘et nos cives urbem nunc regemus.’ pro rege igitur
legerunt duos consules, inter quos fuit Brutus. Romani libertatem obtinuerant.

alium another (m acc sg)

incito -are -avi I stir up, I rouse
oderant (irreg) (they) hated
claudo -ere clausi I close, I shut
11 repello -ere reppuli I drive back, I drive away
pro (+ abl) (here) instead of
consul -ulis m consul (one of two chief magistrates in
Rome)
libertas -atis f freedom
13 obtineo -ere -ui I obtain

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 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER SIX GRAMMAR 209

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER SIX GRAMMAR

Pluperfect tense (I had . . .):

 endings: -eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant

 endings added to perfect stem (= third principal part minus -i)
 describes events that had already happened by a certain point in past
quod, quamquam, ubi, postquam:

 used to introduce different types of subordinate clause: causal (quod),

concessive (quamquam) or temporal (ubi, postquam)
Relative pronoun (qui, quae, quod) and relative clause:

 meaning: who, which; forms on p181

 used in relative clause which gives more detail about a noun already
mentioned (the antecedent)
 must agree with the antecedent in number and gender; but case depends on
role it is doing within the relative clause
 interrogative version quis?, quid? used in questions: who?, what?
Numerals:

 one (unus), two (duo), three (tres) and plural of thousand (mille, pl milia)
decline; others do not
‘Time within which’ expressions:

 use ablative case, e.g. septem annis = within seven years

eo (I go):

present: eo, is, it, imus, itis, eunt

future: ibo etc.
imperfect: ibam etc.
perfect: ivi or ii (-ii in compounds) etc.
pluperfect: iveram or ieram (-ieram in compounds) etc.
infinitive: ire
imperative: i! (sg); ite! (pl)
Prefixes & compounds:

 compounds sometimes require spelling changes e.g. redeo, accipio

 corresponding preposition can be used as well as prefix to reinforce the
meaning

prefix can add a new detail not already in sentence e.g. I ran out into the
street.

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210 CHAPTER SIX

CHAPTER SIX VOCABULARY

absum abesse afui I am absent, I am away, I am distant (from)

accipio -ere accepi I accept, I take in, I receive
adsum adesse adfui I am here, I am present
appropinquo -are -avi I approach, I come near (to, + dat)
conspicio -ere conspexi I catch sight of, I notice
constituo -uere -ui I decide
convenio -ire -i I come together, I gather, I meet
cupio -ere -ivi I want, I desire
descendo -ere -i I go down, I come down
dico -ere dixi I say, I speak, I tell
effugio -ere -i I escape
emo -ere emi I buy
eo ire i(v)i I go
exspecto -are -avi I wait for, I expect
hostis -is m enemy (usu pl)
iacio -ere ieci I throw
(in compounds -icio, e.g. eicio
[I throw out], inicio [I throw in])
intellego -ere intellexi I understand, I realise
interficio -ere interfeci I kill
intro -are -avi I enter
ira -ae f anger
libero -are -avi I set free
nuntio -are -avi I announce, I report
pereo -ire -ii I die, I perish
persuadeo -ere persuasi I persuade (+ dat)
perterritus -a -um terrified
postquam after, when
prope (+ acc) near
quamquam although
qui quae quod who, which
quis? quid? who?, what?
quod because
re- . . . back (prefix for verbs)
redeo -ire -ii I go back, I come back, I return
respondeo -ere -i I reply
senator -oris m senator
servo -are -avi I save, I protect, I keep
trans (+ acc, or as prefix) across
ubi (not question) when, where
uxor -oris f wife
vendo -ere -idi I sell

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 CHAPTER SIX VOCABUL ARY 211

unus una unum I one

duo duae duo II two
tres n tria III three
quattuor IV or IIII four
quinque V five
sex VI six
septem VII seven
octo VIII eight
novem IX nine
decem X ten
centum C hundred
mille pl milia M thousand

50 new words

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN
PRACTICE SENTENCES

The GCSE Latin exam will include the option of translating some simple sentences
into Latin.
The vocabulary tested in this section will come from a list of 125 Latin words, all
of which you have now met. A summary list is below; you should check grammar
details for each word in the Latin–English vocabulary at the back of the book.

a/ab (+ abl) dico longus rogo

ad (+ acc) diu magnus saepe
advenio domina malus saevus
aedifico dominus maritus saluto
ager donum mitto scribo
ambulo dormio multus semper
amicus duco murus servo
ancilla e/ex (+ abl) nauta servus
annus epistula navigo silva
aqua et neco statim
arma facio non subito
audio femina novus sum
auxilium festino nuntio supero
bene filia nuntius taberna
bibo filius paro taceo
bonus forum parvus tandem
cado fugio patria templum
capio gladius pecunia teneo
cena habeo periculum terreo
cibus habito peto timeo
clamo hora pono trado
consilium hortus porta traho
conspicio in (+ acc) porto venio
constituo in (+ abl) possum via
contra (+ acc) intro puella villa
cum (+ abl) invenio puer vinco
cur? invito quando? vinum
curro ira -que vir
custodio iratus regina voco
dea laboro regnum
defendo laetus rego
deus libertus relinquo

212

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN PRACTICE SENTENCES 213

The sentences will test the following areas of grammar:

Accidence (word forms):

 The forms of regular verbs in the present, imperfect and perfect tenses
 The infinitive of regular verbs
 The present and imperfect tenses of the verbs sum and possum
 The forms of regular nouns of the first and second declensions
 The forms of 2-1-2 adjectives like laetus -a -um

Syntax (grammatical rules):

 Standard uses of the cases

 Use of the accusative case to express ‘time how long’
 The cases taken by prepositions contained in the list above
 Direct statements and direct questions

The following exercises provide practice for this part of the GCSE exam. Each
sentence is marked out of either 3 or 4, as shown. (One mark per word; but a
prepositional phrase, e.g. in the garden, counts as one mark.)

Exercise EL.1
a) The slaves are not working. (3)
b) We suddenly ran into the temple. (3)
c) The husband was writing a letter in the garden. (4)

Exercise EL.2
a) I am not able to sleep. (3)
b) You (sg) immediately entered the house. (3)
c) Many messengers were in the marketplace. (4)

Exercise EL.3
a) I caught sight of the woman in the street. (3)
b) We caught sight of the great danger. (3)
c) The freedmen defended the gate with swords. (4)

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214 ENGLISH TO L ATIN PRACTICE SENTENCES

Exercise EL.4
a) Why are you (pl) afraid of the mistress? (3)
b) They carried the food into the wood. (3)
c) We often used to drink wine in the inn. (4)

Exercise EL.5
a) He was silent for many hours. (3)
b) You (sg) have sent a good gift. (3)
c) I protected the master’s money for a long time. (4)

Exercise EL.6
a) The plan is bad. (3)
b) You (pl) were building the new temple. (3)
c) We decided to hand over the weapons to the boy. (4)

Exercise EL.7
a) The goddesses are cruel. (3)
b) I greeted the happy master. (3)
c) The angry men called the slave-girls. (4)

Exercise EL.8
a) The girl suddenly fell. (3)
b) You (sg) always prepare the dinner. (3)
c) The master’s anger was savage. (4)

Exercise EL.9
a) The women walked into the fields. (3)
b) We ask the gods for help. (3)
c) He ruled well for many years. (4)

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN PRACTICE SENTENCES 215

Exercise EL.10
a) The queen often shouts. (3)
b) When did the sailors arrive? (3)
c) The bad water killed the girl. (4)

Exercise EL.11
a) You (pl) have conquered a large kingdom. (3)
b) He leads the daughter into the garden. (3)
c) I was guarding the small gate against the men. (4)

Exercise EL.12
a) We built long walls. (3)
b) I am seeking help from the man. (3)
c) He was finally able to drink the wine. (4)

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 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

NOUNS
First and second declensions
first declension second declension

girl master war

f endings m n endings

sg nom puella -a dominus* bellum -us (-um if n)

acc puellam -am dominum bellum -um
gen puellae -ae domini belli -i
dat puellae -ae domino bello -o
abl puella -a (long) domino bello -o
(*voc domine)

pl nom puellae -ae domini bella -i (-a if n)

acc puellas -as dominos bella -os (-a if n)
gen puellarum -arum dominorum bellorum -orum
dat puellis -is dominis bellis -is
abl puellis -is dominis bellis -is
 First declension nouns are nearly all feminine, but nauta (sailor) is
masculine. There is no neuter variant in the first declension.
 dea (goddess) and filia (daughter) have dative and ablative plural deabus,
filiabus, to distinguish from equivalent parts of deus (god) and filius (son).
 Second declension nouns ending -us or -ius are the only ones with a vocative
singular different from the nominative.
 filius has vocative fili, nuntius has vocative nunti.
 Second declension masculine nouns with nominative singular ending in -r
behave as if -us has disappeared. Hence vir (man), acc virum; puer (boy),
acc puerum. Most others ending in -er drop the e in the other cases
(reflecting pronunciation in practice): ager (field), acc agrum; liber
(book), librum.

216

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 NOUNS 217

Third declension
king shout ship name

m m f n endings

sg nom rex clamor navis nomen -

acc regem clamorem navem nomen -em (as nom if n)
gen regis clamoris navis nominis -is
dat regi clamori navi nomini -i
abl rege clamore nave nomine -e

pl nom reges clamores naves nomina -es (-a if n)

acc reges clamores naves nomina -es (-a if n)
gen regum clamorum navium nominum -um or -ium
dat regibus clamoribus navibus nominibus -ibus
abl regibus clamoribus navibus nominibus -ibus

There is a wide range of possibilities for the nominative singular, but other endings
attach to the genitive stem. This and the gender need to be learned.
 The genitive plural is normally -um, but sometimes -ium. The genitive plural
usually ends up one syllable longer than the nominative singular. If the noun
‘increases’ by a syllable from the nominative to the genitive singular (as most
do), it does not increase again in the plural, so the genitive plural is -um. If
(like navis) it does not increase in the singular, it does so in the plural, so the
genitive plural is -ium. But there are exceptions:
i) single-syllable nouns ending in two consonants increase twice: urbs (city),
urbis, gen pl urbium; similarly mons (mountain), nox (night) [x counts
double]; but not rex.
ii) a few nouns that would be expected to increase in the genitive plural do
not do so: frater (brother), gen sg fratris, gen pl fratrum; similarly iuvenis
(young man), mater (mother), pater (pater), senex (old man).
 Note that mare (sea) is slightly irregular, having abl sg mari (to avoid
confusion with nom/acc) and nom/acc pl maria.

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218 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

ADJECTIVES
first and second declension (2-1-2, i.e. like dominus – puella – bellum)
happy
m f n
sg nom laetus* laeta laetum
acc laetum laetam laetum
gen laeti laetae laeti
dat laeto laetae laeto
abl laeto laeta laeto
(*voc laete)
pl nom laeti laetae laeta
acc laetos laetas laeta
gen laetorum laetarum laetorum
dat laetis laetis laetis
abl laetis laetis laetis
 miser (miserable) keeps the e like puer does, hence m acc sg miserum, f nom
sg misera;
 pulcher (beautiful) drops the e like liber does, hence m acc sg pulchrum, f
nom sg pulchra.
third declension (3-3)
brave huge
m/f n m/f n
sg nom fortis forte ingens ingens
acc fortem forte ingentem ingens
gen fortis fortis ingentis ingentis
dat forti forti ingenti ingenti
abl forti forti ingenti ingenti

pl nom fortes fortia ingentes ingentia

acc fortes fortia ingentes ingentia
gen fortium fortium ingentium ingentium
dat fortibus fortibus ingentibus ingentibus
abl fortibus fortibus ingentibus ingentibus
 Note that the ablative singular ending is -i, not -e as in third declension nouns.
 celer (swift) behaves as if it had started celeris (and does so in the feminine,
here unusually different from the masculine):
m f n
sg nom celer celeris celere
acc celerem celerem celere

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 ADVERBS 219

ADVERBS
2-1-2 adjectives form their adverb by adding -e to the stem:

adjective adverb
laetus laete happily

Third declension adjectives normally add -iter to the stem:

fortis fortiter bravely

A few third declension adjectives ending -is instead use their neuter singular (-e) as
adverb:

facilis facile easily

Note the following irregular adverb:

bene well

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220 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

NUMERALS
Arabic Roman
1 I unus, una, unum
2 II duo, duae, duo
3 III tres, tria
4 IV (or IIII ) quattuor
5 V quinque
6 VI sex
7 VII septem
8 VIII octo
9 IX novem
10 X decem
100 C centum
1000 M mille, pl milia
The small numbers unus, duo and tres decline as follows:
one
m f n

nom unus una unum

acc unum unam unum
gen unius unius unius
dat uni uni uni
abl uno una uno
 This is basically 2-1-2, but with the distinctive genitive -ius and dative -i
across all three genders (like most pronouns).
two
m f n
nom duo duae duo
acc duos (or duo) duas duo
gen duorum duarum duorum
dat duobus duabus duobus
abl duobus duabus duobus
 This has a few parts in common with 2-1-2 pl.
three
m and f n
nom tres tria
acc tres tria
gen trium trium
dat tribus tribus
abl tribus tribus
 This is third declension plural.
 milia (plural of mille = 1000) declines like tria.

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 PRONOUNS 221

PRONOUNS
Summary of pronouns for basic recognition:

ego (acc me) I (me)

nos we (us)
tu you (sg)
vos you (pl)
is, ea, id he, she, it (pl they, them)
se himself/herself/itself/themselves (reflexive)
qui who (relative)
quis? who?
quid? what?

Personal pronouns

person: first second third reflexive

I, me, we, us you him/her/it(self), pl themselves

sg nom ego tu -
acc me te se
gen mei tui sui
dat mihi tibi sibi
abl me te se

pl nom nos vos -

acc nos vos se
gen nostrum vestrum sui
dat nobis vobis sibi
abl nobis vobis se
 For the associated possessives meus, noster, tuus, vester, suus and eius see
pp222–3.
 Note that se cannot be translated in isolation, but only in context: it refers
back to the subject of the sentence.

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222 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

third person non-reflexive

he, she, it, pl they, them

m f n

sg nom is ea id
acc eum eam id
gen eius eius eius
dat ei eiei
abl eo ea eo

pl nom ei eae ea
acc eos eas ea
gen eorum earum eorum
dat eis eis eis
abl eis eis eis
 Note the distinctive genitive and dative singular endings (-ius and -i) across
all three genders (used also for other pronouns).

Possessives
A possessive indicates who something belongs to (e.g. my, your, his). Most of these
are 2-1-2 adjectives, which agree in number/gender/case with the thing possessed
(not the possessor).

first person

my

m f n

sg nom meus* mea meum

acc meum meam meum
etc etc etc
(*voc mi)

our

sg nom noster nostra nostrum

acc nostrum nostram nostrum
etc etc etc

second person

your (belonging to you sg)

sg nom tuus tua tuum

acc tuum tuam tuum
etc etc etc

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 PRONOUNS 223

your (belonging to you pl)

sg nom vester vestra vestrum

acc vestrum vestram vestrum
etc etc etc

In the third person it is a bit more complicated.

(1) If the possessive refers back to the subject of the sentence or clause, the 2-1-2
adjective suus is used (like the associated reflexive pronoun se, suus cannot be
translated in isolation but only in context):

third person reflexive

his/her/its/their (own) (belonging to the subject of the sentence/clause)

m f n

sg nom suus sua suum

acc suum suam suum
etc etc etc
 As with the first and second person possessive adjectives, the number and
gender are those of the thing possessed, not the possessor. (Thus it is NOT
the case that the masculine means his, the feminine her, and the plural their:
any part of suus can mean any of these, depending on the number and
gender of the subject.)

(2) If his/her/its/their refers to someone other than the subject of the sentence or
clause, there is no adjective available and so the genitive of the pronoun is, ea, id is
used instead: literally of him, of her, of it, of them. This time the number and gender
are those of the possessor (not the thing possessed), though in the singular all three
genders are the same anyway (eius).
 Note carefully that the ending of the possessive eius is the distinctive -ius
genitive of a pronoun (not the masculine nominative singular of a 2-1-2
adjective, as it is with suus).

third person non-reflexive

his/her/its (belonging to someone not the subject of the sentence/clause)

m f n

sg eius eius eius

their (belonging to people not the subject of the sentence/clause)

pl eorum earum eorum

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224 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

Relative pronoun: who, which

who, which
m f n
sg nom qui quae quod
acc quem quam quod
gen cuius cuius cuius
dat cui cui cui
abl quo qua quo
pl nom qui quae quae
acc quos quas quae
gen quorum quarum quorum
dat quibus quibus quibus
abl quibus quibus quibus
 This is used in relative clauses (servus quem heri vidi = the slave whom I saw
yesterday).

Interrogative pronoun: who? what?

who? what?
m f n
sg nom quis quis quid
acc quem quam quid
(other parts the same as the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod)
 This is used in direct questions (where it comes first word in the sentence).

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are followed by either the accusative or the ablative. They often focus
more closely a meaning the case already has. Prepositions with the accusative mostly
indicate motion towards or through, whilst those with the ablative mostly indicate
either a position of rest in a place or going away from it.
(1) Prepositions with the accusative:
ad to, towards, at
circum around
contra against
in into, onto
inter among, between
per through, along
post after, behind
prope near
trans across

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 VERBS 225

(2) Prepositions with the ablative:

a/ab* from, away from, by

cum with
de from, down from, about
e/ex* from, out of
in in, on

* the forms ab and ex are used if the next word begins with a vowel or h
 Note that in can be used with either accusative or ablative according to
meaning.
 With the names of towns and cities, no preposition is used, but the case is
what it would have been if the preposition had been there: hence Romam
(acc) = to Rome, Roma (abl) = from Rome. This idiom must be distinguished
from the use of the locative, meaning in/at a place, e.g. Romae (in Rome).
 Many prepositions are also used as prefixes to form compound verbs: a/ab-,
ad-, e/ex-, in-, trans-. Note also a prefix that is not found as a preposition:
re- (back), e.g. revenimus = we came back.

VERBS
 The present tense describes something that is happening now or is currently
true.
 The future tense describes something that will happen in the future.
 The imperfect and perfect tenses both describe something that happened in
the past. The imperfect typically denotes an incomplete, repeated or long-
lasting action (X was happening/used to happen). The perfect is either a
simple past tense describing a completed action (X happened); or a ‘true
perfect’ (X has happened, implying that the effects continue).
 The pluperfect describes something that had already happened by some
point in the past.
 Regular verbs of all conjugations use the imperfect endings -bam, -bas, -bat
etc. but there are two different ways of forming the future: first and second
use -bo, -bis, -bit etc. (hence portabo, monebo); third and fourth use -am, -es,
-et etc. (hence traham, audiam).
 The characteristic vowel(s) for each conjugation precede -bam in the
imperfect tense (first a, second e, third e, fourth ie).
 The perfect and pluperfect of all verbs use the perfect stem (the third
principal part minus -i) with perfect endings -i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, -erunt,
and pluperfect -eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant.
 Verbs of ‘mixed’ third/fourth conjugation (e.g. capio, sometimes called ‘three
and a half’), count as third because of their infinitive (-ere), and often also have
perfect stems, which look like third (e.g. cep-), but form their present (3 pl
capiunt), future (capiam, capies etc.) and imperfect (capiebam) like fourth.

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226 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

Verb tenses

conjugation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th mixed 3rd/4th

present I carry I warn I drag I hear I take

sg 1 porto moneo traho audio capio

2 portas mones trahis audis capis
3 portat monet trahit audit capit

pl 1 portamus monemus trahimus audimus capimus

2 portatis monetis trahitis auditis capitis
3 portant monent trahunt audiunt capiunt

future I shall carry I shall warn I shall drag I shall hear I shall take

sg 1 portabo monebo traham audiam capiam

2 portabis monebis trahes audies capies
3 portabit monebit trahet audiet capiet

pl 1 portabimus monebimus trahemus audiemus capiemus

2 portabitis monebitis trahetis audietis capietis
3 portabunt monebunt trahent audient capient

imperfect I was carrying I was warning I was dragging I was hearing I was taking

sg 1 portabam monebam trahebam audiebam capiebam

2 portabas monebas trahebas audiebas capiebas
3 portabat monebat trahebat audiebat capiebat

pl 1 portabamus monebamus trahebamus audiebamus capiebamus

2 portabatis monebatis trahebatis audiebatis capiebatis
3 portabant monebant trahebant audiebant capiebant

perfect I (have) carried I (have) warned I (have) dragged I (have) heard I took, I have taken

sg 1 portavi monui traxi audivi cepi

2 portavisti monuisiti traxisti audivisti cepisti
3 portavit monuit traxit audivit cepit

pl 1 portavimus monuimus traximus audivimus cepimus

2 portavistis monuistis traxistis audivistis cepistis
3 portaverunt monuerunt traxerunt audiverunt ceperunt

pluperfect I had carried I had warned I had dragged I had heard I had taken

sg 1 portaveram monueram traxeram audiveram ceperam

2 portaveras monueras traxeras audiveras ceperas
3 portaverat monuerat traxerat audiverat ceperat

pl 1 portaveramus monueramus traxeramus audiveramus ceperamus

2 portaveratis monueratis traxeratis audiveratis ceperatis
3 portaverant monuerant traxerant audiverant ceperant

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 VERBS 227

Imperatives
conjugation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th mixed 3rd/4th

carry! warn! drag! hear! take!

sg porta mone trahe audi cape

pl portate monete trahite audite capite

Infinitives
conjugation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th mixed 3rd/4th

to carry to warn to drag to hear to take

portare monere trahere audire capere

 The infinitives of second and third conjugations look the same, but note that
the first e is long in second conjugation, short in third.

Irregular verbs
sum = I am (the verb to be) possum = I am able eo = I go

present
sg 1 sum possum eo
2 es potes is
3 est potest it

pl 1 sumus possumus imus

2 estis potestis itis
3 sunt possunt eunt

infinitive esse posse ire

future
sg 1 ero potero ibo
2 eris poteris ibis
3 erit poterit ibit

pl 1 erimus poterimus ibimus

2 eritis poteritis ibitis
3 erunt poterunt ibunt

imperfect
sg 1 eram poteram ibam
2 eras poteras ibas
3 erat poterat ibat

pl 1 eramus poteramus ibamus

2 eratis poteratis ibatis
3 erant poterant ibant

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228 REFERENCE GRAMMAR

perfect
sg 1 fui potui i(v)i
2 fuisti potuisti i(vi)sti
etc etc etc

pluperfect
sg 1 fueram potueram i(v)eram
2 fueras potueras i(v)eras
etc etc etc
 possum is a compound of sum, using as prefix an original adjective potis
(able), abbreviated to pot-, which changes to pos- before another s; the
perfect and pluperfect of both verbs are regular (possum has perfect potui,
abbreviated from original potfui).
 the imperative forms of eo are: i (sg), ite (pl).

Important irregular principal parts

accipio accipere accepi I accept, I receive
ascendo ascendere ascendi I climb
cado cadere cecidi I fall
capio capere cepi I take, I capture
conspicio conspicere conspexi I catch sight of
constituo constituere constitui I decide
credo credere credidi I believe, I trust (+ dat)
curro currere cucurri I run
defendo defendere defendi I defend
deleo delere delevi I destroy
dico dicere dixi I say
discedo discedere discessi I depart, I leave
do dare dedi I give
duco ducere duxi I lead
emo emere emi I buy
eo ire i(v)i I go
facio facere feci I make, I do
fugio fugere fugi I run away
iacio iacere ieci I throw
intellego intellegere intellexi I understand
iubeo iubere iussi I order
lego legere legi I read, I choose
maneo manere mansi I remain, I stay
mitto mittere misi I send
persuadeo persuadere persuasi I persuade (+ dat)
peto petere petivi I seek
pono ponere posui I place
possum posse potui I am able
promitto promittere promisi I promise
quaero quaerere quaesivi I search for, I ask
rego regere rexi I rule
relinquo relinquere reliqui I leave
respondeo respondere respondi I reply
rideo ridere risi I laugh, I smile
scribo scribere scripsi I write
sedeo sedere sedi I sit

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 VERBS 229

sum esse fui I am

traho trahere traxi I drag
venio venire veni I come
video videre vidi I see
vinco vincere vici I conquer

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 GLOSSARY OF GRAMMAR
TERMS

ablative case expressing by, with, from; conjunction word joining clauses, phrases or
used with prepositions expressing words together (e.g. and, but, therefore).
motion away from, or being in a place. consonant letter representing a sound that
accusative case of direct object; used with can only be used together with a vowel.
prepositions expressing motion towards. dative case of indirect object, often
adjective word describing a noun (with translated to or for.
which in Latin it agrees in number, declension one of the patterns (three main
gender and case). ones, also used for adjectives) by which
adverb word describing a verb (or an nouns change their endings.
adjective, or another adverb). decline go through the different parts of a
agree have the same number (agreement of noun, pronoun or adjective in case order.
subject and verb); have the same direct object noun or pronoun on the
number, gender and case (agreement of receiving end of action of verb.
noun and adjective). direct speech actual words of a speaker,
ambiguous can mean more than one thing. usually enclosed by inverted commas.
antecedent noun or pronoun in main clause ending last part of a word, added to the
to which relative pronoun refers back. stem to give more information and show
case form of a noun, pronoun or adjective its job in the sentence.
that shows the job it does in the feminine one of the three genders, for
sentence (e.g. accusative for direct females or things imagined as female.
object); cases are arranged in the order future tense of verb referring to something
nominative, (vocative), accusative, that will happen in the future.
genitive, dative, ablative. gender one of three categories (masculine,
causal clause subordinate clause stating feminine, neuter) into which nouns and
why something happened, introduced by pronouns are put according to their
quod (= because). actual or imagined sex or lack of it.
clause part of a sentence with its own genitive case expressing possession or
subject and verb. definition, often translated of.
complement another nominative word or gerundive adjective formed from verb,
phrase describing the subject, usually expressing the idea needing to be done;
with the verb to be. used with ad to express purpose.
compound verb with prefix (e.g. exire = to imperative form of verb used for direct
go out). command.
concessive clause subordinate clause stating imperfect tense of verb referring to
why something might have been expected incomplete, extended or repeated action
not to happen (but nevertheless did), in the past.
introduced by quamquam (= although). indeclinable does not change its endings.
conjugate go through the different parts of indirect indirect object is person or thing in
a verb (e.g. porto, portas, portat etc). the dative indirectly affected by object of
conjugation one of the four main patterns verb, e.g. I gave the money (direct
by which verbs change their endings. object) to the old man (indirect object).

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 GLOSSARY OF GRAMMAR TERMS 231

infinitive form of verb introduced by to, focus more closely the meaning of the
expressing the basic meaning (e.g. case (e.g. into).
currere = to run). present tense of a verb referring to
irregular word that does not follow one of something that is happening now.
the standard declensions or principal parts set of parts of a verb from
conjugations. which you can work out all necessary
literally translated in a way corresponding information about it. So far we have met
closely to the Latin words, but which three: present tense (first person
needs to be modified to produce natural singular), infinitive, perfect tense (first
English. person singular).
locative special case ending of some nouns pronoun word that stands instead of a
(usually names of cities) expressing at noun (e.g. he, she, they), avoiding the
or in. need to repeat it.
main clause clause that makes sense on its reflexive word referring back to the subject
own, and expresses the main point of a of the verb.
sentence (as distinct from subordinate relative clause subordinate clause
clause). describing or giving further information
masculine one of the three genders, for about a person or thing just mentioned
males or things imagined as male. in the main clause, introduced by the
negative expressing that something is not relative pronoun qui, quae, quod.
the case or should not happen. sentence group of words with subject and
neuter one of the three genders, for things verb (and often other elements), which
imagined as neither male nor female. can stand on its own (as distinct from
nominative case used for subject of sentence. phrase or subordinate clause).
noun word naming a person, place or thing singular just one (as distinct from plural).
(e.g. urbs = city; a proper noun with a stem the part of a word that stays the same:
capital letter gives its actual name e.g. different endings are added to give more
Roma = Rome). information and show the job it does in
number singular or plural. the sentence.
numerals numbers. subject noun or pronoun in the nominative
object noun or pronoun acted upon by case, expressing who or what does the
a verb. action.
part of speech category of word (noun, subordinate of secondary importance to
adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, something else; a subordinate clause
preposition, conjunction). cannot stand alone but only makes sense
perfect tense of verb referring to a in relation to the main clause.
completed action in the past. supply provide in translation a word that
person term for the subject of verb: first is not separately represented in Latin but
person = I, we; second person = you, worked out from the grammar and
third person = he, she, it, they (or a noun context (e.g. multa dixit = he said many
replacing one of these). things).
phrase group of words not containing a syllable part of a word forming a spoken
finite verb (as distinct from clause). unit, usually consisting of a vowel with
pluperfect tense of verb referring to consonants before or after or both.
something that had already happened by tense form of a verb showing when the
a particular point in the past. action takes place (in the past, present
plural more than one. or future).
possessive adjective or pronoun expressing verb word expressing an action.
who or what something belongs to. vocative case used for addressing someone
prefix word or syllable added to the or something.
beginning of another word. vowel letter representing a sound that can
preposition word used with a noun or be spoken by itself: a, e, i, o, u, y (but y
pronoun in the accusative or ablative to is rare in Latin).

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN
VOCABUL ARY

For further information about a word, check it in the Latin to English vocabulary.

able, be possum, posse, potui

about de (+ abl)
absent, be absum, abesse, afui
accept accipio, accipere, accepi
across trans (+ acc)
advice consilium -i n 2
advise moneo, monere, monui
afraid (of), be timeo, timere, timui
after (prep) post (+ acc)
after (conj) postquam
against contra (+ acc)
all omnis -e
along per (+ acc)
although quamquam
always semper
among inter (+ acc)
and et; -que (attached to the second word)
and so igitur (not first word)
anger ira -ae f 1
angry iratus -a -um
announce nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi
answer (reply) respondeo, respondere, respondi
approach appropinquo, appropinquare, appropinquavi (+ dat)
arms, armour arma -orum n 2 pl
around circum (+ acc)
arrive advenio, advenire, adveni
ask (a question) rogo, rogare, rogavi
ask for rogo, rogare, rogavi; peto, petere, petivi
at ad (+ acc)
at last tandem
at once statim
attack oppugno, oppugnare, oppugnavi
away, be absum, abesse, afui
away from a/ab (+ abl)

back (prefix) re-, e.g. revenio (come back)

bad malus -a -um
be sum, esse, fui

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY 233

be absent/away absum, abesse, afui

be here/present adsum, adesse, adfui
beautiful pulcher -chra -chrum
because quod
behind post (+ acc)
believe credo, credere, credidi (+ dat)
between inter (+ acc)
big magnus -a -um
block of flats insula -ae f 1
book liber -bri m 2
boy puer -eri m 2
brave fortis -e
bravely fortiter
brother frater -tris m 3
build aedifico, aedificare, aedificavi
but sed
buy emo, emere, emi
by a/ab (+ abl)

call voco, vocare, vocavi

camp castra -orum n 2 pl
can (be able) possum, posse, potui
capture capio, capere, cepi
carry porto, portare, portavi
catch capio, capere, cepi
catch sight of conspicio, conspicere, conspexi
chance, by forte
choose lego, legere, legi
citizen civis -is m/f 3
city urbs, urbis f 3
climb ascendo, ascendere, ascendi
come venio, venire, veni
come down descendo, descendere, descendi
come near to appropinquo, appropinquare, appropinquavi (+ dat)
come together convenio, covenire, conveni
conquer vinco, vincere, vici
country (native land) patria -ae f 1
crowd turba -ae f 1
cruel crudelis -e; saevus -a -um
cry lacrimo, lacrimare, lacrimavi

danger periculum -i n 2
daughter filia -ae (dat/abl pl filiabus) f 1
death mors, mortis f 3
decide constituo, constituere, constitui
defeat vinco, vincere, vici
defend defendo, defendere, defendi
depart (from) discedo, discedere, discessi (+ prep + abl)
descend descendo, descendere, descendi
desire cupio, cupere, cupivi
destroy deleo, delere, delevi

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234 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY

difficult difficilis -e
dinner cena -ae f 1
discover invenio, invenire, inveni
distant (from), be absum, abesse, afui (+ abl)
do facio, facere, feci
down from de (+ abl)
drag traho, trahere, traxi
drink bibo, bibere, bibi

earth terra -ae f 1

easily facile
easy facilis -e
eat consumo, consumere, consumpsi
eight octo
enemy hostis -is m 3 (usu pl)
enter intro, intrare, intravi
escape effugio, effugere, effugi
every omnis -e
everyone (all the people) omnes -ium pl
everything (all things) omnia -ium pl
evil malus -a -um
ex-slave libertus -i m 2

fall cado, cadere, cecidi

fast celer -eris -ere
father pater -tris m 3
fear timeo, timere, timui
ferocious ferox gen -ocis
field ager, agri m 2
fierce ferox gen -ocis
fight pugno, pugnare, pugnavi
finally tandem
find invenio, invenire, inveni
first (adj) primus -a -um
five quinque
flee fugio, fugere, fugi
food cibus -i m 2
foolish stultus -a -um
for (giving explanation) enim (not first word)
for (length of time) use acc
for (the benefit of) use dat
forum forum -i n 2
four quattuor
freedman libertus -i m 2
friend amicus -i m 2
frighten terreo, terrere, terrui
frightened, very perterritus -a -um
from a/ab (+ abl); de (+ abl); e/ex (+ abl)

garden hortus -i m 2
gate porta -ae f 1

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY 235

gather (meet, assemble) convenio, convenire, conveni

gift donum -i n 2
girl puella -ae f 1
give do, dare, dedi
go eo, ire, i(v)i
go back redeo, redire, redii
go down descendo, descendere, descendi
go out exeo, exire, exii
god deus -i m 2
goddess dea -ae (dat/abl pl deabus) f 1
good bonus -a -um
great magnus -a -um
greet saluto, salutare, salutavi
ground terra -ae f 1
guard custodio, custodire, custodivi

hand over trado, tradere, tradidi

handsome pulcher -chra -chrum
happy laetus -a -um
have habeo, habere, habui
he is, gen eius
head caput -itis n 3
hear audio, audire, audivi
heaven caelum -i n 2
heavy gravis -e
help auxilium -i n 2
her, her own (refl) suus -a -um
herself (refl) se
here, be adsum, adesse, adfui
highest (part of) summus -a -um
himself (refl) se
his, his own (refl) suus -a -um
hold teneo, tenere, tenui; habeo, habere, habui
homeland patria -ae f 1
horse equus -i m 2
hour hora -ae f 1
house villa -ae f 1
however tamen (not first word)
huge ingens gen -entis
hundred centum
hurry festino, festinare, festinavi
husband maritus -i m 2

I ego, gen mei

idea consilium -i n 2
immediately statim
in in (+ abl)
inn taberna -ae f 1
into in (+ acc)
invite invito, invitare, invitavi
is it (the case that)? -ne (attached to first word of question)

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236 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY

island insula -ae f 1

it id, gen eius

journey iter -ineris n 3

keep servo, servare, servavi

kill neco, necare, necavi; interficio, interficere, interfeci
king rex, regis m 3
kingdom regnum -i n 2

land terra -ae f 1

large magnus -a -um
laugh rideo, ridere, risi
lead duco, ducere, duxi
leader dux, ducis m 3
leave (something behind) relinquo, relinquere, reliqui
leave (depart from) discedo, discedere, discessi (+ prep + abl)
letter epistula -ae f 1
life vita -ae f 1
like amo, amare, amavi
listen (to) audio, audire, audivi
little parvus -a -um
live (dwell) habito, habitare, habitavi
long longus -a -um
long time, for a diu
look! ecce
look at specto, spectare, spectavi
look for quaero, quaerere, quaesivi
love (verb) amo, amare, amavi
love (noun) amor -oris m 3

make facio, facere, feci

make for peto, petere, petivi
man vir, viri m 2
many multi -ae -a
market-place forum -i n 2
master dominus -i m 2
meal cena -ae f 1
meet convenio, convenire, conveni
message nuntius -i m 2
messenger nuntius -i m 2
middle (mid part of, adj) medius -a -um
miserable miser -era -erum
mistress domina -ae f 1
money pecunia -ae f 1
mother mater -tris f 3
mountain mons, montis m 3
much (adj) multus -a -um; or as n noun + gen, e.g. multum
pecuniae (much money)
must debeo, debere, debui
my meus -a -um

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY 237

name nomen -inis n 3

near prope (+ acc)
never numquam
new novus -a -um
next (then, after that) deinde
night nox, noctis f 3
nine novem
noise clamor -oris m 3
not non
notice conspicio, conspicere, conspexi
now nunc

often saepe
old man senex -is m 3
on in (+ abl)
once (some time ago) olim
once, at statim
one unus -a -um
onto in (+ acc)
order (to do something) iubeo, iubere, iussi (+ acc + inf)
ought debeo, debere, debui
our noster -tra -trum
out of e/ex (+ abl)
overcome, overpower supero, superare, superavi
owe debeo, debere, debui

peace pax, pacis f 3

perish pereo, perire, perii
persuade persuadeo, persuadere, persuasi (+ dat)
place (verb) pono, ponere, posui
place (noun) locus -i m 2, with n 2 pl loca
plan consilium -i n 2
prepare paro, parare, paravi
present (gift) donum -i n 2
present, be adsum, adesse, adfui
protect servo, servare, servavi
provide paro, parare, paravi
punish punio, punire, punivi
put pono, ponere, posui

queen regina -ae f 1

quick celer -eris -ere
quickly celeriter
quiet, be taceo, tacere, tacui

read lego, legere, legi

realise intellego, intellegere, intellexi
receive accipio, accipere, accepi
remain maneo, manere, mansi
reply respondeo, respondere, respondi
report nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi

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238 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY

return (go back) redeo, redire, redii

road via -ae f 1
Roman Romanus -a -um
Romans Romani -orum m 2 pl
Rome Roma -ae loc Romae (in/at Rome) f 1
rule (be king) rego, regere, rexi
run curro, currere, cucurri
run away fugio, fugere, fugi

sad tristis -e; miser -era -erum

sail navigo, navigare, navigavi
sailor nauta -ae m 1
savage saevus -a -um
save servo, servare, servavi
say dico, dicere, dixi
says/said, he/she inquit, pl inquiunt (interrupting quoted speech)
sea mare, maris n 3
search for quaero, quaerere, quaesivi
see video, videre, vidi
see! ecce
seek peto, petere, petivi
sell vendo, vendere, vendidi
senator senator -oris m 3
send mitto, mittere, misi
serious gravis -e
set free libero, liberare, liberavi
set up pono, ponere, posui
seven septem
she ea, gen eius
ship navis -is f 3
shop taberna -ae f 1
should debeo, debere, debui
shout (verb) clamo, clamare, clamavi
shout, shouting (noun) clamor -oris m 3
silent, be taceo, tacere, tacui
sit sedeo, sedere, sedi
six sex
sky caelum -i n 2
slave servus -i m 2
slave-girl, slave-woman ancilla -ae f 1
sleep dormio, dormire, dormivi
small parvus -a -um
smile rideo, ridere, risi
soldier miles -itis m 3
son filius -i m 2
soon mox
speak dico, dicere, dixi
stay maneo, manere, mansi
street via -ae f 1
stupid stultus -a -um
suddenly subito

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 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY 239

surely? nonne
surely . . . not? num
sword gladius -i m 2

take capio, capere, cepi

take (someone somewhere) duco, ducere, duxi
tell (inform) dico, dicere, dixi (+ dat)
tell (order) iubeo, iubere, iussi (+ acc + inf)
temple templum -i n 2
ten decem
terrified perterritus -a -um
their, their own (refl) suus -a -um
themselves (refl) se
then (at that time) tum
then (next) deinde
therefore igitur (not first word)
thousand mille, pl milia
three tres, tria
through per (+ acc)
throw iacio, iacere, ieci
to ad (+ acc)
today hodie
tomorrow cras
top (part of, adj) summus -a -um
towards ad (+ acc)
trust credo, credere, credidi (+ dat)
two duo, duae, duo

understand intellego, intellegere, intellexi

used to use imperfect tense

victorious, be vinco, vincere, vici

villa villa -ae f 1

wait maneo, manere, mansi

wait for exspecto, exspectare, exspectavi
walk ambulo, ambulare, ambulavi
wall murus -i m 2
want cupio, cupere, cupivi
war bellum -i n 2
warn moneo, monere, monui
watch specto, spectare, spectavi
water aqua -ae f 1
way via -ae f 1
we nos, gen nostrum
weapons arma -orum n 2 pl
weep lacrimo, lacrimare, lacrimavi
well bene
what? quid
when? quando
when (at the time when) ubi

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240 ENGLISH TO L ATIN VOCABUL ARY

when (after) postquam

where (at)?, (in the place) where ubi
where from? unde
where to? quo
which (the one which) qui, quae, quod
who? quis
who (the one who) qui, quae, quod
why? cur
wife uxor -oris f 3
win (be victorious) vinco, vincere, vici
wine vinum -i n 2
with (accompanied by) cum (+ abl)
with (using, by means of) use abl, without prep
within (a length of time) use abl, without prep
woman femina -ae f 1
wood (forest) silva -ae f 1
word verbum -i n 2
work laboro, laborare, laboravi
wretched miser -era -erum
write scribo, scribere, scripsi

year annus -i m 2
yesterday heri
you (sg) tu, gen tui
you (pl) vos, gen vestrum
young man iuvenis -is m 3
your (of you sg) tuus -a -um
your (of you pl) vester -tra -trum

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 L ATIN TO ENGLISH
VOCABUL ARY

The second column has further information about each word:

 Verbs are shown with principal parts: present tense (first person singular) in
the first column, then infinitive (showing conjugation, e.g. 3rd) and perfect
tense (first person singular). Note that 3rd* = mixed 3rd/4th conjugation:
these verbs count as 3rd because of infinitive -ere, but form present,
imperfect and future tenses like 4th.
 Nouns are shown with genitive singular, gender, and declension (e.g. 3).
 Adjectives are given with feminine and neuter. If only one other form is
given, it is the neuter (and the feminine is the same as the masculine). Third
declension adjectives of the ingens type are shown instead with the genitive
singular (for the stem).
 Common irregular forms are cross-referenced.
 The chapter where the word forms part of the learning vocabulary is shown
in square brackets.
 For explanation of abbreviations, see the list on pages xiv–xv.

a/ab + abl, or as prefix prep from, away from, by

(as prefix = away) [2]
absum abesse, afui verb irreg be absent, be away,
be distant from [6]
accepi (perfect of accipio)
accipio accipere, accepi verb 3rd* accept, take in,
receive [6]
ad + acc, or as prefix prep to, towards, at [1]
adsum adesse, adfui verb irreg be here, be present [6]
advenio advenire, adveni verb 4th arrive [3]
aedifico aedificare, aedificavi verb 1st build [3]
ager agri noun m 2 field [2]
ambulo ambulare, ambulavi verb 1st walk [1]
amicus amici noun m 2 friend [1]
amo amare, amavi verb 1st love, like [1]
amor amoris noun m 3 love [4]
ancilla ancillae noun f 1 slave-girl, slave-
woman [1]
annus anni noun m 2 year [2]

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242 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY

appropinquo appropinquare, verb 1st approach, come near

appropinquavi to (usu + dat) [6]
aqua aquae noun f 1 water [2]
arma armorum noun n 2 pl arms, weapons [2]
ascendo ascendere, ascendi verb 3rd climb [5]
audio audire, audivi verb 4th hear, listen to [2]
auxilium auxilii noun n 2 help [2]
bellum belli noun n 2 war [2]
bene indecl adv well [5]
bibo bibere, bibi verb 3rd drink [2]
bonus bona, bonum adj good [3]
cado cadere, cecidi verb 3rd fall [3]
caelum caeli noun n 2 sky, heaven [4]
capio capere, cepi verb 3rd* take, catch, capture [4]
caput capitis noun n 3 head [4]
cecidi (perfect of cado)
celer celeris, celere adj quick, fast [5]
cena cenae noun f 1 dinner, meal [3]
centum indecl num 100 [6]
cepi (perfect of capio)
cibus cibi noun m 2 food [1]
circum + acc prep around [1]
civis civis noun m/f 3 citizen [5]
clamo clamare, clamavi verb 1st shout [1]
clamor clamoris noun m 3 shout, shouting,
noise [4]
consilium consilii noun n 2 plan, idea, advice [3]
conspexi (perfect of conspicio)
conspicio conspicere, conspexi verb 3rd* catch sight of, notice [6]
constituo constituere, constitui verb 3rd decide [6]
consumo consumere, consumpsi verb 3rd eat [3]
contra + acc prep against [1]
convenio convenire, conveni verb 4th come together,
gather, meet [6]
cras indecl adv tomorrow [5]
credo credere, credidi verb 3rd believe, trust
(+ dat) [5]
cucurri (perfect of curro)
cum + abl prep with [2]
cupio cupere, cupivi verb 3rd* want, desire [6]
cur? indecl adv why? [4]
curro currere, cucurri verb 3rd run [3]
custodio custodire, custodivi verb 4th guard [2]
de + abl prep from, down from,
about [2]
dea deae noun f 1 goddess [1]
debeo debere, debui verb 2nd ought, should, must;
owe [3]
decem indecl num ten [2]

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 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY 243

dedi (perfect of do)

defendo defendere, defendi verb 3rd defend [5]
deinde indecl adv then, next [3]
deleo delere, delevi verb 2nd destroy [3]
descendo descendere, descendi verb 3rd go down, come
down [6]
deus dei noun m 2 god [1]
dico dicere, dixi verb 3rd say, speak, tell [6]
difficilis difficile adj difficult [5]
discedo discedere, discessi verb 3rd depart, leave [3]
diu indecl adv for a long time [3]
dixi (perfect of dico)
do dare, dedi verb 1st give [2]
domina dominae noun f 1 mistress [3]
dominus domini noun m 2 master [1]
donum doni noun n 2 gift, present [2]
dormio dormire, dormivi verb 4th sleep [2]
duco ducere, duxi verb 3rd lead, take [2]
duo duae, duo num two [6]
dux ducis noun m 3 leader [4]
duxi (perfect of duco)
e/ex + abl, or as prefix prep from, out of, out [2]
ecce! indecl interjection look! see! [5]
effugio effugere, effugi verb 3rd* escape [6]
ego mei pron I, me [4]
emo emere, emi verb 3rd buy [6]
enim indecl conj for [5]
eo ire, i(v)i verb irreg go [6]
epistula epistulae noun f 1 letter [1]
equus equi noun m 2 horse [1]
et indecl conj and, even [1]
exspecto exspectare, exspectavi verb 1st wait for, expect [6]
facilis facile adj easy [5]
facio facere, feci verb 3rd* make, do [4]
feci (perfect of facio)
femina feminae noun f 1 woman [1]
ferox gen ferocis adj fierce, ferocious [5]
festino festinare, festinavi verb 1st hurry [3]
filia filiae noun f 1 daughter [5]
filius filii noun m 2 son [5]
forte indecl adv by chance [5]
fortis forte adj brave [5]
forum fori noun n 2 forum, marketplace [3]
frater fratris noun m 3 brother [4]
fugio fugere, fugi verb 3rd* run away, flee [4]
fui (perfect of sum)
gladius gladii noun m 2 sword [1]
gravis grave adj heavy, serious [5]

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244 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY

habeo habere, habui verb 2nd have, hold [2]

habito habitare, habitavi verb 1st live, dwell [3]
heri indecl adv yesterday [5]
hodie indecl adv today [5]
hora horae noun f 1 hour [2]
hortus horti noun m 2 garden [1]
hostis hostis noun m 3 enemy (usu pl) [6]
iacio iacere, ieci verb 3rd* throw [6]
(in compounds -icio, e.g. eicio [throw out], inicio [throw in])
ieci (perfect of iacio)
igitur indecl conj therefore, and so [5]
ii (= ivi, perfect of eo)
in + acc/abl, or as prefix prep (+ acc) into, onto; [1]
(+ abl) in, on [2]
ingens gen ingentis adj huge [5]
inquit pl inquiunt verb irreg (s/he) says, (s/he)
said [2]
insula insulae noun f 1 island; block of flats [1]
intellego intellegere, intellexi verb 3rd understand, realise [6]
inter + acc prep among, between [3]
interficio interficere, interfeci verb 3rd* kill [6]
intro intrare, intravi verb 1st enter [6]
invenio invenire, inveni verb 4th find [2]
invito invitare, invitavi verb 1st invite [3]
ira irae noun f 1 anger [6]
iratus irata, iratum adj angry [3]
is ea, id pron he, she, it, pl they [5]
iter itineris noun n 3 journey [4]
iubeo iubere, iussi verb 2nd order [2]
iussi (perfect of iubeo)
iuvenis iuvenis noun m 3 young man [4]
ivi (perfect of eo)
laboro laborare, laboravi verb 1st work, toil [1]
lacrimo lacrimare, lacrimavi verb 1st weep, cry [3]
laetus laeta, laetum adj happy [3]
lego legere, legi verb 3rd read, choose [2]
liber libri noun m 2 book [2]
libero liberare, liberavi verb 1st set free [6]
libertus liberti noun m 2 freedman, ex-slave [3]
locus loci (pl is n: loca) noun m/n 2 place [5]
longus longa, longum adj long [4]
magnus magna, magnum adj big, large, great [3]
malus mala, malum adj bad, evil [3]
maneo manere, mansi verb 2nd remain, stay [3]
mansi (perfect of maneo)
mare maris noun n 3 sea [4]
maritus mariti noun m 2 husband [4]
mater matris noun f 3 mother [4]

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 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY 245

medius media, medium adj middle (of) [4]

meus mea, meum adj my [4]
miles militis noun m 3 soldier [4]
mille pl milia num 1000 [6]
miser misera, miserum adj miserable, wretched,
sad [3]
misi (perfect of mitto)
mitto mittere, misi verb 3rd send [2]
moneo monere, monui verb 2nd warn, advise [2]
mons montis noun m 3 mountain [6]
mors mortis noun f 3 death [5]
mox indecl adv soon [5]
multus multa, multum adj much, pl many [3]
murus muri noun m 2 wall [2]
nauta nautae noun m 1 sailor [3]
navigo navigare, navigavi verb 1st sail [1]
navis navis noun f 3 ship [4]
-ne . . . ? indecl adv makes a question,
e.g. is it? [4]
neco necare, necavi verb 1st kill [1]
nomen nominis noun n 3 name [4]
non indecl adv not [1]
nonne . . . ? indecl adv surely . . . ? [4]
nos nostrum pron we, us [5]
noster nostra, nostrum adj our [5]
novem indecl num nine [6]
novus nova, novum adj new [3]
nox noctis noun f 3 night [4]
num . . . ? indecl adv surely . . . not? [4]
numquam indecl adv never [5]
nunc indecl adv now [1]
nuntio nuntiare, nuntiavi verb 1st announce, report [6]
nuntius nuntii noun m 2 messenger, message,
news [1]
octo indecl num eight [6]
olim indecl adv once, some time ago [5]
omnis omne adj all, every [5]
oppugno oppugnare, oppugnavi verb 1st attack [3]
paro parare, paravi verb 1st prepare, provide [1]
parvus parva, parvum adj small [3]
pater patris noun m 3 father [4]
patria patriae noun f 1 country, homeland [3]
pax pacis noun f 3 peace [5]
pecunia pecuniae noun f 1 money [1]
per + acc prep through, along [1]
pereo perire, perii verb irreg die, perish [6]
periculum periculi noun n 2 danger [2]
persuadeo persuadere, persuasi verb 2nd persuade (+ dat) [6]
perterritus perterrita, perterritum adj terrified [6]

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246 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY

peto petere, petivi verb 3rd seek, beg/ask for,

make for [4]
pono ponere, posui verb 3rd place, put, set up [5]
porta portae noun f 1 gate [3]
porto portare, portavi verb 1st carry, bear, take [1]
possum posse, potui verb irreg can, be able [3]
post + acc prep after, behind [4]
postquam indecl conj after, when [6]
posui (perfect of pono)
potui (perfect of possum)
primus prima, primum adj first [4]
prope + acc prep near [6]
puella puellae noun f 1 girl [1]
puer pueri noun m 2 boy [2]
pugno pugnare, pugnavi verb 1st fight [1]
pulcher pulchra, pulchrum adj beautiful, handsome [3]
punio punire, punivi verb 4th punish [2]
quaero quaerere, quaesivi verb 3rd search for, look for,
ask [3]
quamquam indecl conj although [6]
quando? indecl adv when? [4]
quattuor indecl num four [6]
-que indecl conj and (before word it
is attached to) [3]
qui quae, quod pron who, which [6]
quinque indecl num five [2]
quis? quid? pron who? what? [6]
quo? indecl adv (question) where to? [4]
quod indecl conj because [6]
re- indecl prefix . . . back [6]
redeo redire, redii verb irreg go back, come back,
return [6]
regina reginae noun f 1 queen [4]
regnum regni noun n 2 kingdom [4]
rego regere, rexi verb 3rd rule, reign [5]
relinquo relinquere, reliqui verb 3rd leave, leave behind [4]
respondeo respondere, respondi verb 2nd reply [6]
rex regis noun 3 m king [4]
rideo ridere, risi verb 2nd laugh, smile [4]
risi (perfect of rideo)
rogo rogare, rogavi verb 1st ask, ask for [5]
Roma Romae (Romae = at/in noun f 1 Rome [1]
Rome)
Romanus Romana, Romanum adj Roman [3]
saepe indecl adv often [5]
saevus saeva, saevum adj savage, cruel [5]
saluto salutare, salutavi verb 1st greet [1]
scribo scribere, scripsi verb 3rd write [2]
scripsi (perfect of scribo)

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 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY 247

se sui refl pron himself, herself,

itself, themselves [5]
sed indecl conj but [1]
sedeo sedere, sedi verb 2nd sit [2]
semper indecl adv always [1]
senator senatoris noun m 3 senator [6]
senex senis noun m 3 old man [4]
septem indecl num seven [6]
servo servare, servavi verb 1st save, protect, keep [6]
servus servi noun m 2 slave [1]
sex indecl num six [6]
silva silvae noun f 1 wood, forest [5]
specto spectare, spectavi verb 1st look at, watch [4]
statim indecl adv at once, immediately [3]
stultus stulta, stultum adj stupid, foolish [3]
subito indecl adv suddenly [3]
sum esse, fui verb irreg be [1]
supero superare, superavi verb 1st overcome,
overpower [5]
suus sua, suum adj his, her, its, their
(own) (refl) [5]
taberna tabernae noun f 1 shop, inn [2]
taceo tacere, tacui verb 2nd be silent, be quiet [5]
tamen indecl adv however [5]
tandem indecl adv at last, finally [3]
templum templi noun n 2 temple [2]
teneo tenere, tenui verb 2nd hold [5]
terra terrae noun f 1 earth, ground, land,
country [3]
terreo terrere, terrui verb 2nd frighten [2]
timeo timere, timui verb 2nd fear, be afraid [2]
trado tradere, tradidi verb 3rd hand over, hand
down [5]
traho trahere, traxi verb 3rd drag [2]
trans + acc, or as prefix prep across [6]
traxi (perfect of traho)
tres tria num three [6]
tristis triste adj sad [5]
tu tui pron you (sg) [4]
tum indecl adv then, at that time [5]
turba turbae noun f 1 crowd [4]
tuus tua, tuum adj your (of you sg),
yours [4]
ubi indecl adv (question) where? [4]
(not question) when,
where [6]
unde indecl adv (question) where
from? [4]
unus una, unum num one [6]
urbs urbis noun f 3 city, town [4]

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248 L ATIN TO ENGLISH VOCABUL ARY

uxor uxoris noun f 3 wife [6]

vendo vendere, vendidi verb 3rd sell [6]
venio venire, veni verb 4th come [2]
verbum verbi noun n 2 word [2]
vester vestra, vestrum adj your (of you pl),
yours [5]
via viae noun f 1 road, street, way [3]
vici (perfect of vinco)
video videre, vidi verb 2nd see [2]
villa villae noun f 1 house, country villa [1]
vinco vincere, vici verb 3rd conquer, win, be
victorious [5]
vinum vini noun n 2 wine [2]
vir viri noun m 2 man, male [2]
voco vocare, vocavi verb 1st call [1]
vos vestrum pron you (pl) [5]

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 INDEX

ablative case 31–3, 122, 190 imperative 82

accusative case 11–14, 18, 23, 54 imperfect tense 60–5
adjectives, first & second declension 73–4, infinitive 49–50
80 inflection 5–7
adjectives, third declension 150–2 interrogative pronoun 185
adjectives, agreement and uses of 75–7
adverbs from adjectives 155–6 linking sentences 142
adverbs, time 20, 86, 133, 141
agreement of nouns and adjectives 75–6, mixed conjugation verbs 119
79–80
alphabet 1 nominative case 11–14, 18, 22
numerals 186–7
capital letters 1
cases, use of: summary 34 perfect tense 91–9
causal clauses (because) 179 person endings 7
cities and prepositions 52 personal pronouns 124–5, 144–5,
complement 22 161–4
compound verbs 65–6, 134, 195–200 pluperfect tense 174–5
concessive clauses (although) 179 possessive adjectives 13, 124–5,
conjugations 8–9, 42, 44, 48, 119 144–5, 165–6
conjunctions 20, 142 possum 65–6, 99, 134, 175
prefixes and compound verbs
dative case 29–30 195–200
declension, gender, case 11 prepositions with ablative 32–3
derivatives 2–4 prepositions with accusative 23
direct commands 82 present tense 8–9, 42–4, 48
direct questions 115–16, 185 principal parts 50–1, 102
pronunciation 2
English to Latin GCSE -style sentences punctuation 1–2
212–15
eo 192 question words 115–16
questions 115–16, 185
first conjugation verbs 8–9
first declension nouns 11, 18, 27–31 relative pronoun and clauses
fourth conjugation verbs 48 181–4
future tense 130–4
second conjugation verbs 42
gender and declension 79–80 second declension nouns 11, 18,
genitive case 27–8, 77 27–31, 35–7
genitive, partitive 77 subordinate clauses 179, 183, 204
glossary of grammar terms 230–1 sum 22, 64, 99, 134, 175

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250 INDEX

third conjugation verbs 44 time expressions:

third declension nouns 104–9, 111–12 time how long 54
third person possessives 165–6 time when 122
third person pronoun (non-reflexive) time within which 190
161–2
third person pronoun (reflexive) 163–4 vocative case 83–4
time adverbs 20, 86, 133, 141
time clauses 204 word order 5–6, 13–14

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 251

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252

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 253

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254

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