Page |1

Republic of the Philippines

OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE
Sablayan Occidental Mindoro
Website: [Link] Email address: omsc_9747@[Link]
Tele/Fax: (043) 457-0231

College of Criminal Justice Education

Second Semester A.Y. 2024- 2025

Name: _______________________________ Date: _____________________

Course, Year & Section: ___________________

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Hand- out # 3 (Midterm)

Lesson 3: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society across time
2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of society about dominant scientific thought
3. Analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle
East, and Africa.

What is Revolution?
 Revolution- denotes to a drastic change in what is established, believed and embraced by society.
I. Copernican Revolution
1. Pre Copernican-Revolution
 The Revolution led by Copernicus came about in response to a question that could not be answered by
the geocentric model of the universe.
 The geocentric model is also known as geocentrism popularized by the thinker Ptolemy in 140 AD,
was a description of the universe with the earth as the center.
[Link] (610- 546 BC)-
 Drew the first map of the world with the earth taking the shape of a cylinder floating in the
center of universe.
 Anaximander believed that the Sun and Moon were not solid objects like we see them today.
Instead, he imagined them as huge, fiery rings surrounding the Earth. These rings had
openings, and the light we see from the Sun and Moon was thought to come through these
gaps. He believed they rotated around the Earth, creating day and night. While this idea was
later proven wrong, it was an early attempt to explain how the sky worked.
[Link] (510 - 495 BC)
 Pythagoras, a student of Anaximander, was one of the first to suggest that Earth is a sphere
instead of a flat or cylindrical shape. He reached this conclusion by observing two things:
o Constellations – As travelers moved north or south, they saw different stars in the night
sky. This suggested that Earth’s surface was curved.
o Earth’s Shadow on the Moon – During a lunar eclipse, Earth casts a shadow on the
Moon, and this shadow is always circular, which only a spherical object can create.
[Link] (410 - 348 BC)
 Plato, influenced by Pythagoras, believed the universe was made of perfect geometric shapes
and that everything moved in circular paths around Earth.
 However, his model couldn't explain why planets sometimes appear to move backward in the
sky—a phenomenon called retrograde motion.
[Link] (384 - 322 BC)
 Aristotle, a student of Plato, believed Earth was at the center of the universe, with the Sun,
Moon, and stars attached to transparent, crystal-like spheres that moved around it.
 Even though this idea was later proven wrong, it influenced many scholars and led to further
discoveries about the universe.
[Link] (100- 170 AD.)
 Ptolemy improved the geocentric model by explaining that planets move in small circles
(epicycles) while orbiting Earth. This helped explain their unusual movements, like retrograde
motion.
 His model was widely accepted for centuries, as people believed Earth was still, and
everything revolved around it until the heliocentric model later replaced it.

OMSC-Form-OFC-09 Eff. Date: 01-07-22 Rev 01

 Page |2

2. Copernican Heliocentric
 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1548) introduced the heliocentric model, which placed the Sun at the center
instead of Earth.
 He proposed that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, challenging the long-held geocentric view.
 His idea revolutionized astronomy, paving the way for modern science.
Copernican Heliocentric
 Copernicus noticed that planets sometimes appear to move backward (retrograde motion), which the
geocentric model couldn't explain properly.
 Unconvinced by the idea that Earth was the center of the universe, he searched for a better explanation.
 He then proposed the heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center and stating that Earth and other
planets orbit around it, changing how people understood the cosmos.
Copernican Heliocentricism
 Copernicus explained his heliocentric model in his book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium ("On
the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres"), challenging the geocentric view.
 His model revolutionized astronomy, offering a more accurate explanation of planetary motion and
sparking the Scientific Revolution.
 Though initially met with resistance, his ideas laid the foundation for modern astronomy and
influenced later scientists like Kepler and Galileo.
3. Tycho Brahe
 Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer in the late 16th century, made detailed observations of the stars and
planets without using a telescope.
 His precise data helped Johannes Kepler develop the laws of planetary motion, which explained how
planets move around the Sun.
4. Johannes Kepler
 Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, introduced his laws of planetary motion in 1609.
 He discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits, not perfect circles, with the Sun at one focus.
 Kepler’s work, based on Tycho Brahe’s observations, provided the mathematical foundation for
understanding how planets move, shaping modern astronomy.
5. Galileo Galilei
 Galileo, an Italian scientist, published a book in 1632 supporting the heliocentric model.
 Using a telescope he built, he observed the Moon’s craters, sunspots, and Jupiter’s moons.
 His discoveries proved that not everything orbits Earth, providing strong evidence for Copernicus’s
heliocentric theory.
6. Sir Isaac Newton
 Isaac Newton was the first to provide mathematical proof for the ideas of Copernicus, Brahe, and
Kepler.
 In his book Philosophice Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he explained the laws of motion and
universal gravitation, showing that planets move according to natural forces.
 His work firmly established heliocentrism as the foundation of modern astronomy.
Key Figures in Scientific Revolution
1. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)
 Italian monk, philosopher, and astronomer who supported Copernicus's heliocentric theory.
He believed in a vast, infinite universe with many worlds beyond our solar system.
For his ideas, which challenged the Church’s teachings, he was executed in 1600, making him a martyr
for science and free thought.-p
2. Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
 Was a Dutch scientist known as the "Father of Microbiology.
 Using powerful microscopes he built, he was the first to observe and describe bacteria, along with other
tiny organisms like protozoa and sperm cells.
 His discoveries opened the world of microbiology, changing how we understand life at the microscopic
3. Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
 is known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry" for his experiments and use of the scientific method.
He formulated Boyle’s Law, which explains the relationship between gas pressure and volume.
His work helped separate chemistry from alchemy, making it a true scientific discipline
4. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
 Was a strong advocate of the empirical method and inductive reasoning.
 He believed that knowledge should come from observation and experience, not just tradition or logic.
 His ideas laid the foundation for the modern scientific method, emphasizing experimentation and
evidence-based conclusions.
5. Rene Descartes
 was a French mathematician and philosopher who used deductive reasoning and the scientific
method to solve problems.
His ideas on human consciousness and rational thought influenced philosophy until the 20th century.

OMSC-Form-OFC-09 Eff. Date: 01-07-22 Rev 01

 Page |3

Famous for "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"), he emphasized reason as the foundation of
knowledge.
II. Darwinian Revolution
1. Pre- Darwinian Belief-
 Evolution in biology explains how species change gradually over many generations, showing that all life is
connected through gradual transformations.
 It has been controversial because it conflicts with creationism, which holds that the universe and life were
created by a divine being.
 Despite debates, evolution is widely accepted in science due to strong evidence from fossils, genetics, and
observations in nature.
Carolus Linnaeus
 an 18th-century botanist, developed the binomial classification system, which is still used today to
name and organize species
 .He followed Judeo-Christian creationism, believing that his system reflected a fixed, unchanging order
in nature as designed by a divine creator.
2. Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution
 The Darwinian Revolution was a controversial shift in science, challenging traditional beliefs about life.
 In his book On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin introduced the theory of evolution.
 He proposed natural selection, where only the fittest organisms survive and pass their traits to future
generations.
 Charles Darwin
 Charles Darwin, a 19th-century scientist, traveled the world studying nature.
 He observed that organisms have unique traits that help them survive in their environments.
 These observations led him to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
 Darwin's observations emphasized adaptation, where organisms develop traits that improve their
survival in their environment.
 These structural changes help species thrive, reproduce, and pass on beneficial traits to future
generations.
 Darwin’s study of the Galápagos Islands revealed unique adaptations in species.
 For example, finches developed different beak shapes, each suited to their specific food sources and
habitats.
 This supported his theory of evolution by natural selection.
 Darwin Finches
 While studying birds on the Galápagos Islands, Darwin discovered different variations of finches.
 He observed that variations are differences in physical traits within a species, such as beak shape,
which help organisms adapt to their environment.
 The birds later nicknamed "Darwin's Finches" became iconic examples illustrating the concept that
organisms adapt to their environment.
 Each of Darwin's finches showcased a unique beak design tailored to the specific type of food available
in its environment. This specialization is a clear demonstration of adaptation for survival.
 The variations in beak shapes among Darwin's finches can be traced back to genetic differences. Birds
with beaks better suited to the available food sources were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing
on their advantageous traits.
3. Natural Selection
 Natural selection, proposed by Charles Darwin, is a key mechanism of evolution.
 It happens when helpful traits become more common in a species over generations because they
improve survival and reproduction.
Key Components of Natural Selection
1. Variation
 Means that individuals in a natural population have different traits due to genetic diversity.
 For example, in snow leopards, some have lighter coats, while others have darker or more spotted
patterns, helping them blend into their environment.
2. Heritability
 Means that certain traits can be passed down from parents to offspring through genes.
 For example, snow leopards inherit coat color from their parents, so lighter or darker coats can be
passed to the next generation.
3. Selective Pressures
 Selective pressures are environmental factors that favor traits helping organisms survive and
reproduce.
 For example, snow leopards' coat color helps them blend into their habitat—lighter coats work in
snowy areas, while darker coats help in forested region.
4. Survival and Reproduction
 Organisms with helpful traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass those traits to their
offspring.

OMSC-Form-OFC-09 Eff. Date: 01-07-22 Rev 01

 Page |4

 For example, snow leopards with better camouflage can hunt more effectively and avoid predators,
increasing their chances of reproducing. Over time, this leads to more leopards with the adaptive coat
color in the population.
Role in Evolution
 Natural selection drives adaptation and evolution, helping species develop traits that improve survival
and reproduction.
 Over time, favorable traits accumulate, making organisms better suited to their environment.
 Natural selection allows better-adapted organisms to survive and reproduce, gradually shaping species
through evolution over time.
 Mutations which lead to variation also lead to natural selection
o Natural selection, often called "Survival of the Fittest," happens when beneficial mutations
help organisms survive and reproduce, while those with less favorable traits struggle to
survive.
o Organisms with stronger traits survive and pass these traits to their offspring.
o Meanwhile, organisms with weaker traits do not survive and cannot pass on their traits. Over
time, this leads to the evolution of a species.
4. Artificial Selection
 Artificial selection has led to the creation of diverse dog breeds, each tailored for specific purposes.
Border Collies were bred for intelligence and agility to excel in herding, while Bulldogs were bred for
their unique appearance and temperament. This showcases how human-driven selection shapes the
traits of domesticated animals over generations.
 Artificial selection has significantly shaped our cultivated crops. Wild mustard was selectively bred to
produce different vegetables like broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage, each developed by emphasizing
specific traits.
 This process demonstrates how human intervention has transformed plants over generations to better
suit our needs.
How do Adaptations come about?
Adaptation
 Adaptations are beneficial traits that develop over generations through natural selection.
 These heritable traits improve an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction in its environment,
ensuring its continued success over time.
 Adaptations develop over hundreds, thousands, or even millions of years through gradual evolutionary
processes. If an organism cannot adapt to environmental changes, it may struggle to survive and
eventually die. If an entire species fails to adapt, it risks extinction, as it will no longer be able to
compete for resources or cope with environmental pressures
 Selective Breeding
 Selective breeding is when animals are bred on purpose to bring about desired traits.
 Some breeds of dogs are selectively bred for their aggressiveness, however, this sometimes produces
dogs that are too aggressive and cannot be controlled.
Mutation
 A mutation is a random change in an organism's genetic information.
 Good mutations can help an organism survive and thrive, while bad mutations can harm the organism,
sometimes leading to death.
 Mutations are a key part of evolution, as they introduce new traits that can be tested by natural
selection.
Good or Beneficial Mutation
 The Black Jaguar is an example of a beneficial color mutation known as melanism.
 This mutation enhances the jaguar's ability to blend into the night landscape, making it a more effective
hunter in dense forests and low-light environments.
 As a result, this adaptation increases its chances of survival and reproduction.
Bad or Harmful Mutation
 A two-headed calf is an example of a harmful mutation, often caused by genetic abnormalities during
development.
 This condition, known as polycephaly, typically results in severe health issues, making it difficult for
the calf to eat, move, or survive for long.
 In most cases, animals with such mutations do not live beyond a few days.
 Evolution
 Evolution is the long-term result of adaptations accumulating over generations.
 As mutations introduce new traits, variations arise within populations
 Through natural selection, organisms with traits that enhance survival and reproduction pass those traits
on to future generations. Over time, these gradual changes lead to the development of new species better
suited to their environment.
III. Freudian Revolution
1. Sigmund Freud

OMSC-Form-OFC-09 Eff. Date: 01-07-22 Rev 01

 Page |5

 Sigmund Freud, born in Austria, spent most of his life in Vienna, where he developed his
groundbreaking theories on the human mind.
 After earning his medical degree in 1881, he trained as a neurologist and later established a private
practice focusing on patients with psychological disorders.
 His work laid the foundation for psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious mind to
understand human behavior.
2. Psychoanalytic Theory- Structure of Personality ( Tripartite Personality)
 The Id- the ID is based on the pleasure principle. It refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-
oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification.
 The Ego- the Ego is the moderator between the Id and Superego which seeks compromises to pacify
both. It can be viewed as our “sense of time and place”. (reality principle)
 The Superego- Conscience of man”-Superego internalizes society and parental standards of “good”
and “bad”; “right” and “wrong” behavior.
3. Level of Awareness
 Conscious Level-It consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given time.
 Preconscious Level-Also called “available memory” that encompasses all experiences that are not
conscious at the moment but can be retrieved into awareness, either spontaneously or with a minimum of
effort.
 Unconscious Level-It is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind. It is the storehouse for
primitive instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that
they have been repressed or unconsciously pushed into the unconscious mind.


ROSANA F. RODRIGUEZ, RN, MAN

Permanent Faculty
Consultation hours- TTh 2:30 – 4:00
Venue: IQA Office

OMSC-Form-OFC-09 Eff. Date: 01-07-22 Rev 01