EXPERIMENT NO-01

Date of Performance: 06/01/2025

Lab Objective:
The objective is to understand the different networking devices and their layers
based on OSI model. To learn about the working, function, advantages,
disadvantages & identifying the various networking devices.

Lab Outcome:
Ability to identify the network devices, their position in layers of the OSI model,
understanding the advantages & disadvantages of those devices. To implement
applications of network devices in real world.

Theory:
Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate & interact with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters,
bridges, switches, routers, gateways & brouters help manage & direct data flow in a
network.

01. Routers
- A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks.
- One or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a
router.
- By sending data packets to intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between
different networks & permits several devices to share an Internet connection.

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- Illustration:

- Working of Router:
1. Receiving Data – When a device sends data, the router receives it & checks
the destination address in the packet.
2. Routing Decision – The router uses its routing table, which list the best
paths to different network destinations, to determine where to send the data
next.
3. Forwarding Data – The router forwards the packet to the appropriate next-
hop device or network.
4. Network Segmentation – Routers help segment networks, providing
security by controlling traffic between different subnets.
- Types of Routers:
o Broadband Routers – Used to do connect computers or to the internet.
o Wireless routers – Used to create a wireless signal at office or home.
o Edge routers – Located at the edges, (connected to Internet Service
Providers) & distribute packets across multiple packets.
- Functions of router:
1. Routing – Directs data packets between different networks based on their
destination IP address.
2. Network Address Translation (NAT) – Translates private IP addresses in a
local network to a public IP address for internet access & vice versa.
3. Packet Filtering – Implements security rules by filtering incoming & outgoing
packets based on IP address, port, & protocol.
4. Traffic Management – Manages & optimizes data traffic between networks
to ensure efficient data delivery.
5. DHCP Server – Can assign IP addresses to devices on the local network
automatically.
6. Wi-Fi Access (in wireless routers) – Provides wireless internet connectivity
to devices using Wi-Fi.
7. Inter-network Communication – Enables communication between devices
on different networks.
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- Advantages of Router:
o Inter-network Connectivity
o Traffic Management
o Security
o Scalability
o Wireless Access
o DHCP Functionality
- Disadvantages of Router:
o Complexity
o Cost
o Security Risks
o Latency
o Maintenance
02. Brouter
- A brouter is a networking device that functions both as a bridge & a router.
- It can forward data between networks (serving as a bridge), but can also route
data to individual systems within a network (serving as a router).
- Illustration:

- Working of Brouter:
1. Bridging – It connects & filters traffic between two or more networks at the
data link layer (Layer 2) based on MAC addresses, similar to a bridge. For local
traffic within the same network, the brouter works like a bridge, forwarding
packets based on MAC addresses.
2. Routing – It operates at the network layer (Layer 3), routing data between
different network or subnets based on IP addresses, just like a router. For data
destined for different networks or subnets, the brouter acts like a router,
forwarding packets based on their IP addresses.
- Functions of Brouter:
1. Bridging
2. Routing
3. Combining Bridge & Router Functions
4. Protocol Filtering
5. Network Integration
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- Advantages of Brouter:
o Dual Functionality
o Network Segmentation
o Efficient Traffic Handling
o Protocol Compatibility
o Reduced Overhead
- Disadvantages of Brouter:
o Complexity
o Performance Limitations
o Higher Cost
o Limited Features
03. Bridge
- A Bridge is a network device that connects & filters traffic between two or more
network segments.
- It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
- It helps reduce network traffic by only forwarding data between segments when
necessary, improving overall network performance.
- They are relatively each to configure & focuses on MAC addresses.
- Illustration:

- Working of Bridge:
1. Learning – It learns the MAC addresses of devices on each segment by
observing incoming traffic & creates a MAC address table.
2. Filtering – When a data packet arrives, the bridge checks the destination
MAC address. If destination is on same segment, it filters (does not forward) the
packet. If destination is on different segment, it forwards the packet to the
correct segment.
3. Reducing Traffic – By forwarding only relevant traffic between segments,
the bridge reduces congestion & improves network efficiency.
- Functions of Bridge:
1. Filtering – It forwards or blocks data based on MAC addresses, ensuring
that packets are sent only to correct segment of network.
2. Learning – It dynamically learns & stores MAC addresses from devices on
each connected network segment, building a MAC address table.

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 3. Segmentation – Divides a large network into smaller segments to reduce
congestion & improve performance.
4. Traffic Isolation – It prevents unnecessary traffic from being sent to other
segments, improving overall network efficiency.
5. Collision Domain Separation – It reduces collisions by isolating segments
into separate collision domains, improving network reliability.
- Advantages of Bridge:
o Reduces Network Traffic
o Increases Network Efficiency
o Collision Domain Separation
o Simple Implementation
o Transparent to Users
- Disadvantages of Bridge:
o Limited Scalability
o Performance Issues
o No Routing Between Different Networks
o Not Suitable for Complex Networks
o Slower than Switches
04. Hub
- A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches (ex: the connector in star topology which connects different stations).
- Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. The
collision domain of all hosts connected through hub remains one.
- Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports & map destination
addresses, the routing table is used to send/broadcast information across all
ports.
- Types of Network Hubs:
o Active Hub
o Passive Hub
o Intelligent Hub
- Illustration:

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- Working of Hub:
1. Broadcasting data – When a device sends data to the hub, the hub
broadcasts the data to all other devices connected to it, regardless of intended
recipient.
2. No Intelligence – A hub does not inspect or filter the data, it simply forwards
the incoming signal to all connected devices.
3. Layer 1 Device – It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI
model, meaning it only deals with transmitting electrical signals or bits over the
network.
4. Collision Domain – Since all devices share same bandwidth, data collisions
can occur when multiple devices send data at the same time.
- Functions of Hub:
1. Data Broadcasting – A hub forwards data packets received from one device
to all other connected devices in the network.
2. Physical Layer Connectivity – It provides physical connectivity for devices
within a network, allowing them to communicate via cables (Ethernet).
3. Signal Amplification – It boosts the signal to ensure data can travel across
longer distances within the network.
4. Basic Data Transmission – As a Layer 1 device, it handles raw data (bits) &
transmits it without processing or filtering based on addresses.
- Advantages of Hubs:
o Simple & Inexpensive
o Easy to Use
o Supports Multiple Devices
o Provides Basic Functionality
- Disadvantages of Hubs:
o Network Congestion
o Collisions
o Lack of Security
o Limited Performance
o No intelligence
05. Modem
- A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is a device that enables
communication between computers and networks, typically over phone lines,
cable, or fiber-optic connections.
- It modulates digital data from a computer into an analog signal for transmission
and demodulates incoming analog signals back into digital data for the computer
to process.
- Modems are often used in conjunction with a router to allow multiple devices to
access the internet in a home or office network.
- Several types of Modems:
o Dial-up Modem: Used over telephone lines to connect to the internet at
slower speeds.

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 o DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Modem: Provides high-speed internet over
telephone lines.
o Cable Modem: Used for broadband internet over cable TV lines.
o Fiber Optic Modem: For ultra-high-speed internet via fiber-optic cables.
o Wireless Modem: Allows for a wireless internet connection, often used with
mobile broadband.
- Illustration:

- Working of Modem:
1. A modem works by converting digital data from a computer into an analog
signal for transmission (modulation) and then converting incoming analog
signals back into digital data (demodulation).
2. This allows digital devices to communicate over analog communication lines
like telephone lines or cable systems, enabling internet access.
3. The modem ensures that data can be sent and received efficiently between
your device and the network provider's infrastructure.
- Functions of Modem:
1. Modulation: Converts digital data from the computer into an analog signal
for transmission over communication lines.
2. Demodulation: Converts incoming analog signals back into digital data that
the computer can understand.
3. Data Compression: Reduces the size of data for faster transmission (in
some modems).
4. Error Correction: Ensures the integrity of data by detecting and correcting
transmission errors.
- Advantages of Modem:
o Internet Access: Enables connection to the internet via various
communication lines (phone, cable, fiber).
o Data Transmission: Facilitates data transfer between computers and
networks over long distances.
o Cost-Effective: Provides a relatively low-cost solution for internet
connectivity.
o Compatibility: Works with various types of networks (DSL, cable, fiber) for
broadband or dial-up services.
o Broad Coverage: Allows internet access in areas where other high-speed
options may not be available.
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- Disadvantages of Modem:
o Speed Limitations: Older modems, like dial-up, offer much slower speeds
compared to modern broadband options.
o Connection Instability: Modem connections can be prone to interruptions
or poor signal quality, especially on older networks.
o Limited Range: Some modems, particularly for dial-up or DSL, may have
limited coverage areas.
o Compatibility Issues: Some older modems may not be compatible with
newer technology or higher-speed internet services.
o Extra Hardware: Requires additional equipment (e.g., routers) to share the
connection across multiple devices.
06. Firewall
- A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
- It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network (e.g., a home or corporate
network) and untrusted external networks (e.g., the internet) to prevent
unauthorized access, cyberattacks, and data breaches.
- Firewalls can be hardware-based, software-based, or a combination of both.
- Illustration:

- Working of Firewall:
A firewall works by filtering network traffic based on rules defined by the
network administrator. It inspects data packets sent to and from a network and
determines whether to allow or block them based on factors such as:
1. IP Addresses: Allowing or blocking specific devices.
2. Ports and Protocols: Allowing or blocking certain types of communication
(e.g., web traffic on port 80).
3. Traffic Types: Monitoring and blocking malicious or unauthorized traffic
patterns.
It essentially acts as a gatekeeper, ensuring only authorized data enters or
leaves the network, preventing potential security threats.

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- Functions of Firewall:
1. Traffic Filtering: Blocks or allows data based on security rules (IP
addresses, ports, protocols).
2. Access Control: Restricts access to specific resources within a network.
3. Monitoring and Logging: Tracks and records network traffic for security
analysis and auditing.
4. Threat Prevention: Protects against unauthorized access, malware, and
cyberattacks.
5. Network Address Translation (NAT): Hides internal IP addresses to
enhance privacy and security.
- Advantages of Firewall:
o Enhanced Security: Protects networks from unauthorized access,
cyberattacks, and malware.
o Traffic Control: Filters and monitors incoming and outgoing traffic based
on security policies.
o Privacy Protection: Hides internal network addresses to prevent exposure
to external threats.
o Prevention of Unauthorized Access: Blocks unwanted users or devices
from accessing sensitive data.
o Compliance: Helps meet regulatory requirements for data security and
privacy.
- Disadvantages of Firewall:
o Complex Configuration: Misconfigurations can lead to security gaps or
block legitimate traffic.
o Performance Impact: Firewalls can introduce latency or slow down
network performance if not optimized.
o Limited Protection: Firewalls can't protect against internal threats or
certain types of attacks (e.g., phishing).
o Cost: Advanced firewalls may require investment in both hardware and
ongoing maintenance.
o False Positives/Negatives: Firewalls may block legitimate traffic (false
positives) or fail to block malicious traffic (false negatives).
07. Repeater
- A repeater is a device used to extend the range of a network or communication
signal.
- It works by receiving a weak or degraded signal, amplifying it, and retransmitting
it to a further distance.
- This is commonly used in networking, wireless communication, and
telecommunication systems to overcome distance limitations and ensure signal
strength over longer distances.

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- Illustration:

- Working of Repeater:
1. A repeater works by receiving a weak or distorted signal, amplifying it, and
then retransmitting the strengthened signal to extend its range.
2. It essentially "boosts" the signal to maintain its quality over longer distances,
ensuring consistent communication without loss of data or signal integrity.
- Functions of Repeater:
1. Signal Amplification: Boosts weak signals to restore signal strength over
long distances.
2. Signal Regeneration: Reconstructs degraded signals to ensure clear
transmission.
3. Distance Extension: Expands the coverage area of a network or
communication system.
4. Prevents Signal Loss: Maintains data integrity by preventing loss of
information over extended distances.
- Advantages of Repeater:
o Extended Range: Increases the transmission distance of signals in
networks and communication systems.
o Improved Signal Quality: Amplifies weak or degraded signals, ensuring
clearer communication.
o Cost-Effective: Helps avoid the need for additional network infrastructure
to cover larger areas.
o Prevents Data Loss: Ensures signal integrity over long distances, reducing
the risk of data loss.
o Versatile: Can be used in various systems like wireless networks,
telecommunication, and radio.
- Disadvantages of Repeater:
o Signal Noise Amplification: Amplifies not only the signal but also any
noise or interference present.
o Limited Bandwidth: Can reduce overall network bandwidth when used
extensively in large systems.
o Cost: Multiple repeaters may be needed in large areas, increasing
infrastructure costs.
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 o Signal Delay: Adds slight delays in signal transmission due to processing
time.
o No Data Processing: Repeaters only amplify signals and don't filter or
process data, so they can't correct errors or improve security.
08. Switch
- A switch is a networking device that connects multiple devices within a local area
network (LAN) and directs data traffic between them.
- It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, forwarding data
packets based on MAC addresses.
- A switch helps improve network efficiency by only sending data to the specific
device it is intended for, reducing unnecessary traffic.
- Illustration:

- Working of Switch:
1. A switch works by receiving data packets from devices on a network and
forwarding them only to the specific device (or port) they are intended for.
2. It does this by using MAC addresses to determine the correct destination.
3. The switch learns the MAC addresses of connected devices and builds a
MAC address table to efficiently direct traffic, reducing network congestion and
improving performance.
- Functions of Switch:
1. Traffic Forwarding: Directs data packets to the correct device using MAC
addresses.
2. Learning: Builds a MAC address table to remember device locations for
efficient data delivery.
3. Segmentation: Divides a network into smaller segments, reducing collisions
and improving performance.
4. Error Checking: Ensures that data is delivered correctly by detecting and
handling errors.
5. Broadcasting: Sends data to all devices in the network segment when the
destination is unknown.
- Advantages of Switch:
o Efficient Data Transfer: Directs data only to the intended device, reducing
network traffic and collisions.
o Improved Performance: Enhances network speed by creating separate
collision domains for each connected device.
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 o Scalability: Easily expands the network by adding more devices without
significantly affecting performance.
o Reduced Network Congestion: Minimizes unnecessary data transmission
compared to hubs.
o Security: Limits data exposure by sending traffic only to the device it is
meant for.
- Disadvantages of Switch:
o Cost: Switches can be more expensive than hubs, especially for larger
networks.
o Limited Range: A switch operates within a local area network (LAN) and
cannot route traffic between different networks.
o Complexity: Advanced configurations can be more complex and may
require specialized knowledge.
o Network Overload: Without proper management, large numbers of devices
on a switch can lead to network congestion or slowdowns.
o Power Consumption: Switches typically consume more power compared
to simpler network devices like hubs.
09. Gateway
- A gateway is a network device that acts as a bridge between two different
networks, often with different protocols.
- It translates and routes data between these networks, enabling communication.
- Gateways are commonly used to connect a local network (e.g., a home or office
network) to external networks like the internet.
- They work at various layers of the OSI model and can handle complex tasks like
protocol conversion and data encryption.
- Illustration:

- Working of Gateway:
1. A gateway works by receiving data from one network, translating it into a
format or protocol that the destination network can understand, and then
forwarding it accordingly.

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 2. It acts as an intermediary, handling different communication protocols
between networks. For example, it may convert data between an internal
network using one protocol and the internet using another.
3. Gateways enable seamless communication between networks with different
standards or technologies.
- Functions of Gateway:
1. Protocol Conversion: Translates data between different communication
protocols.
2. Routing: Directs data between different networks, such as from a local
network to the internet.
3. Traffic Filtering: Controls and secures data flow between networks, often
acting as a firewall.
4. Address Translation: Converts between different addressing schemes (e.g.,
IP address translation).
5. Data Encapsulation: Packages data in a format suitable for transmission
across the network.
- Advantages of Gateway:
o Protocol Compatibility: Enables communication between networks with
different protocols or architectures.
o Network Segmentation: Allows the connection of distinct networks,
enhancing management and security.
o Security: Can filter traffic and protect networks by controlling data flow
between different network types.
o Flexibility: Supports a wide range of network types and services, providing
a bridge for diverse systems.
o Data Translation: Facilitates seamless communication by converting data
formats and addressing schemes between networks.
- Disadvantages of Gateway:
o Complex Configuration: Setting up and managing a gateway can be
complex and require technical expertise.
o Performance Bottleneck: Gateways can slow down network traffic due to
data translation and processing tasks.
o Single Point of Failure: If the gateway fails, it can disrupt communication
between networks.
o Cost: Gateways, especially advanced ones, can be expensive to
implement and maintain.
o Security Risks: Improperly configured gateways may expose networks to
security vulnerabilities or unauthorized access.
10. NIC
- A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows a device,
such as a computer, to connect to a network (wired or wireless).
- It provides the necessary interface for communication with other devices on the
network by handling data transmission and reception.
- NICs typically have a unique MAC address for network identification.
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- Illustration:

- Working of NIC:
A Network Interface Card (NIC) works by converting data from the computer or
device into a format suitable for transmission over a network. Here's how it
works:
1. Data Transmission: When the computer wants to send data, the NIC converts
the digital data into a network-compatible signal (e.g., Ethernet for wired, radio
waves for wireless).
2. Network Communication: It transmits this signal through the network medium
(cable, Wi-Fi) to the destination device.
3. Data Reception: The NIC also receives incoming data from the network,
converts it into a usable digital format, and sends it to the computer's processor
or application.
4. Addressing: NICs use a unique MAC address to identify devices on the
network and ensure data reaches the correct destination.
- Functions of NIC:
1. Data Transmission and Reception: Converts and transmits data between
the computer and the network.
2. Unique Identification: Uses a MAC address to identify the device on the
network.
3. Network Connectivity: Provides the hardware interface for both wired
(Ethernet) and wireless (Wi-Fi) network connections.
4. Error Detection: Detects and corrects errors in transmitted data to ensure
reliable communication.
5. Data Framing: Frames data packets for transmission and ensures proper
format for network communication.

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- Advantages of NIC:
o Network Connectivity: Enables devices to connect to wired or wireless
networks.
o Unique Identification: Provides a unique MAC address for device
identification on the network.
o Improved Performance: Ensures fast and reliable data transmission and
reception.
o Compatibility: Supports a wide range of network protocols and devices.
o Error Handling: Detects and corrects transmission errors to improve data
integrity.
- Disadvantages of NIC:
o Limited Range (Wireless NICs): Wireless NICs have limited coverage and
signal strength.
o Hardware Dependency: Requires compatible drivers and hardware for
proper functioning.
o Performance Bottleneck: Can slow down if the network speed exceeds
the NIC's capacity.
o Security Risks: Exposes devices to security threats if not properly
configured (e.g., unsecured wireless connections).
o Cost: High-performance NICs, especially for specialized applications (e.g.,
high-speed networks), can be expensive.

Layer of
Device Function Description Example Use
OSI Model
Routes data
packets based
Routes data on IP
between different Layer 3 addresses, & Connecting a
Router networks (typically (Network can perform home network to
between subnets or Layer) NAT (Network internet via an ISP
the internet) Address
Translation) &
firewalling
Bridges traffic
between LANs Connecting
Combines features & also routes different network
Layer 2 &
Brouter of both bridges & data between segments &
Layer 3
routers networks, routing between
typically used in them
larger networks
Used to divide Connecting two
Connects two or Layer 2
large networks Ethernet networks
Bridge more network (Data Link
into smaller to extend
segments, filtering Layer)
segments & coverage
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 traffic based on reduce
MAC addresses collisions by
separating
traffic
Sends received
data to all
A basic networking
connected
device that Layer 1 Connecting
devices
Hub transmits data to all (Physical multiple devices in
(broadcast),
devices in a Layer) a simple network
leading to
network
collisions in
busy networks
Modulates &
Converts digital
demodulates
data from a
signals to Providing internet
computer to analog
Layer 1 & enable digital access via phone
Modem signals for
Layer 2 communication lines (dial-up) or
transmission over
over analog broadband
phone lines, & vice
phone lines or
versa
cable networks
Inspects
network traffic
Protects a network
based on
from unauthorized Protecting a home
predefined
access by Layer 3 & or corporate
Firewall security rules to
monitoring & Layer 4 network from
block malicious
controlling incoming cyber threats
activity or
& outgoing traffic
unauthorized
access
Receives weak
signals &
Amplifies or retransmits Extending the
Layer 1
regenerates signals them at higher range of a Wi-Fi
Repeater (Physical
to extend the range power to network or
Layer)
of a network maintain signal Ethernet network
strength over
longer distances
Provides
intelligent traffic
Directs data to management by Connecting
Layer 2
specific devices in forwarding data multiple devices in
Switch (Data Link
a network based on to only the a local area
Layer)
MAC addresses. destination network (LAN).
device, reducing
collisions.

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 Acts as a bridge
between
A device that
different Connecting a
connects two
network corporate intranet
different types of Layer 3 &
Gateway protocols (e.g., to the internet or
networks and above
connecting a two different
translates
TCP/IP network networks.
protocols.
to an SNA
network).
A hardware
component that
Provides the Enabling network
NIC allows a device
physical interface connectivity for
(Network Layer 1 & to communicate
for connecting a computers,
Interface Layer 2 over a network,
computer to a printers, and other
Card) either wired
network. devices.
(Ethernet) or
wireless (Wi-Fi).

LAB
PERFORMANCE JOURNAL ATTENDANCE TOTAL FACULTY
ETHICS
(7) (3) (3) (15) SIGN
(2)

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