Overview of Biology 241
Biology 241 deals with energy flow in biological systems:
Unit 1: Molecular Energy Transformations
Unit 2: Cellular Energy Transformations
A. Organotrophy
B. Phototrophy
Unit 3: Energy Allocation in Organisms
Unit 4: Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Fenton et al. 5th Ed. (2023): 5.1 through 5.7
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Learning Objectives
1. Explain how energy is transferred when in redox reactions; given a
reaction, identify which molecules are oxidized and which are reduced
2. Explain why glucose is an important source of energy and why it is
oxidized in a series of reactions, rather than all at once
3. Explain the role of glycolysis in energy transformation as well as
production of intermediates for further metabolic reactions
4. Describe the conserved pathways/mechanisms for transforming/using
energy within a cell/organism (ATP/reducing power/gradients)
5. Describe the different types of chemical energy used by the cell to
perform work (e.g., ATP, proton motive force, NADH/NADPH/FADH2)
and explain the role of electron carrier molecules in metabolic
pathways
6. Describe the three pathways by which glucose is oxidized in aerobic
respiration (glycolysis; citric acid (Krebs) cycle; electron transport
chain & chemiosmosis) and be able to diagram the relationship among
these three pathways
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Learning Objectives
7. For the three pathways, you do not need to memorize all the
reactions, but you do need to know:
• what the starting molecules for these processes are;
• what molecules are produced;
• how ATP is made in this step (i.e., by what process?);
• what is the main accomplishment of the pathway?;
• Where most of the energy that was originally present in glucose
is at the end of each process;
• where in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells these pathways occur;
• how are the pathways similar in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
and how are they different?
8. Explain how pyruvate oxidation allows for aerobic respiration to
proceed in the presence of oxygen
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Learning Objectives
9. Explain the process of chemiosmosis:
• Explain why electrons flow along the series of membrane-bound
complexes that make up the electron transport chain (ETC)
• Describe and be able to diagram how the flow of electrons along
the ETC creates a proton motive force
• Describe and be able to diagram how the proton motive force is
used to produce ATP via ATP synthase
• Explain why oxygen is required for aerobic respiration
• Given a scenario involving blockage or breakdown of electron
flow along the ETC, be able to predict the effect on the overall
process of respiration
• Explain the benefit obtained by organisms that can use aerobic
respiration in terms of overall ATP production per unit of glucose
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Learning Objectives
10. For fermentation: you do not need to memorize the reactions, but
you do need to be able to:
• Describe and be able to diagram one example of each pathway
(what are the starting molecules for the process; what
molecules are produced; by what process is ATP made in this
process)
• Explain the benefit obtained by organisms that can use the
pathway
• Explain whether the process occurs in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells and where in each type of cell it occurs
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Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 à 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + “Energy”
Generally, aerobic respiration is a
reaction, where glucose is burned in oxygen to produce CO2, H2O with the
release of heat
Specifically, aerobic respiration is a series of
reactions that release the free energy of glucose and transfers some of the
released energy to other molecules
F 5.4 © 2024
Coupled Redox Reactions
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 à 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + “Energy”
Non-polar covalent (C-C, C-H, O=O) bonds in the reactants
Polar covalent (C=O, O-H) bonds in the products
Bonding electrons shared equally between the carbon atoms in glucose
have moved farther away from the C nuclei
Bonding electrons shared equally between the oxygen atoms in O2 have
moved closer to the O nuclei
F 5.3 © 2024
Electron Carrier (Redox) Coenzymes
Biological redox reactions generate
that is stored in electron carriers:
NAD+ + 2 e- + 2 H+ à NADH + H+
NADP+ + 2 e- + 2 H+ à NADPH + H+
FAD + 2 e- + 2 H+ à FADH2
We can think of reduced electron carriers as
+ H+
F 5.5 © 2024
Chemoorganotrophy Overview
Glucose*
Glycolysis
Pyruvate Pyruvate
Pyruvate Reduction
Oxidation (Fermentation)
Acetyl-CoA Organic Acids
Krebs Cycle “Reduction
Potential”
CO2
Oxidative Oxidative
Phosphorylation Phosphorylation
(Anaerobic (Aerobic
Respiration) Respiration)
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Glycolysis:
Overview
F 5.9 © 2024
Glycolysis: Simplified
F 5.8 © 2024
Electron Carriers Are Reduced
glyceraldehyde-3-P + Pi
NAD+
NADH + H+
1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate
F 5.9 Step 6 © 2024
ATP is generated by:
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
F 5.10 and F 5.9 Step 10 © 2024
Glycolysis is partial glucose oxidation
1. Not much ATP has been made
•
2. The cell needs to remove pyruvate
•
3. We need to restore NAD+
•
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Fermentation is the Anaerobic Reduction of
Pyruvate
In many eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms, if
oxygen is limiting, pyruvate enters a fermentation
pathway:
F 5.21 © 2024
Pyruvate is Reduced in Fermentation
F 5.22 © 2024
Eukaryotes Oxidize Pyruvate in the
Mitochondrion
F 5.7 © 2024
Eukaryotes Transport Pyruvate into the
Mitochondrial Matrix
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Pyruvate Oxidation (Bridge Reaction)
Pyruvate is oxidized to
Acetyl-CoA in the matrix
F 5.7 © 2024
Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: Overview
F 5.13 © 2024
Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: Simplified
F 5.12 © 2024
Citric Acid (Krebs)
Cycle: NOT Just
Glucose
F 5.19 © 2024
The Protein Complexes of the Electron
Transport Chain (ETC)
F 5.14 © 2024
Electron Flow is REDOX Driven
F 5.15 © 2024
The ETC Pumps Protons
F 5.14 © 2024
Complexes I and II
1.
2.
3.
F 5.14 © 2024
Ubiquinone (UQ) is a Hydrophobic
Electron Taxi
1.
2.
3.
F 5.14 © 2024
Complex III, Cytochrome c, and Complex IV
1.
2.
3.
4.
F 5.14 © 2024
The ETC Generates an Electrochemical
Gradient
[H+] is lowered in the matrix when they are:
1.
2.
The H+ electrochemical gradient is called:
F 5.14 © 2024
Proton Motive Force is Used for
Chemiosmosis
1.
2.
F 5.14 © 2024
ATP Synthase
ADP + Pi ATP DG = +52 kJ/mol
3H+out 3H+in DG = -57 kJ/mol
F 5.16 DG = -5 kJ/mol © 2024
ATP Yields
Total ATP made in aerobic
respiration = ~32 ATP. Can be
as high as 38 ATP. Why the
variation?
F 5.18 © 2024
Metabolic Integration
• If you don’t need ATP:
– Glucose can be stored as a polymer
– Triglycerides can be generated for even longer-term
storage
• If you need ATP, these processes can be
reversed
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Putting the Hetero in
Chemoorganoheterotroph
• Organisms need Carbon for macromolecules
–
• Acetyl-CoA can be used to generate these
macromolecules instead of going through the
Krebs cycle
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Aerobic Respiration - Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic organisms do not have membrane-bound
organelles, i.e., no mitochondria
All metabolism occurs in the
And on the
Otherwise, it is “the same”
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