Measuring Empowerment in Families

Whose Children Have Emotional Disabilities:

A Brief Questionnaire
Paul E. Koren, Neal DeChillo, and Barbara J. Friesen
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Portland State University, Portland, Oregon

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ABSTRACT: This paper describes the development and empirical examination of

a brief questionnaire for assessing empowerment in families whose children have
emotional disabilities. The questionnaire is based on a two-dimensional conceptual
framework of empowerment derived from the literature. One dimension reflects
empowerment with respect to the family, service system, and larger community and
political environment; the other dimension reflects the expression of empowerment
as attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors. The paper outlines the questionnaire's
conceptual basis, describes its development, and presents analyses of reliability and
validity based on 440 responses of family members. Applications of the instrument
in both research and service delivery are discussed.

Family empowerment is increasingly seen as a central goal of efforts to improve

services for families whose children have disabilities. The emergence of this
concept reflects recent developments in the consumer, practice, and research
communities. Among these developments are the growth of the consumer
movement with its emphasis on self-help and self-reliance (Moxley, Raider, &
Cohen, 1989), the widespread application of practice models that focus on family
strengths rather than deficits (Cochran, 1987; Dunst, Trivette, & Deal, 1988;
Poertner & Ronnau, 1992), the explicit incorporation of empowerment values
within public policies and programs (Gallagher, Trohanis, & Clifford, 1989;
Stroul & Friedman, 1988), and the increasing recognition that services can be
delivered in ways that either promote or inhibit self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977,
1982; Dunst & Paget, 1991; Dunst & Trivette, 1987). The concept of family
empowerment has also benefited from the synergistic effect that comes from
many different disciplines focusing on one idea at the same time. Virtually all
the helping professions that serve families of children with disabilities have
adopted this concept to some degree, and thus it is beginning to emerge as a
common value across disciplines.

REHABILITATION PSYCHOLOGY Vol. 3 7 , N o . 4 , 1992

© 1992 by the Division of Rehabilitation Psychology of the American Psychological Association
Published by Springer Publishing Company, Inc., 536 Broadway, New York, NY 10012

305
 306 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

Although empowerment has broad appeal as a general concept, it has proven

to be somewhat elusive as a research construct. Much recent discussion has been
directed toward defining and delineating its general dimensions (Conger &
Kanungo, 1988; Parsons, 1991; Simon, 1990; Staples, 1990) and its specific
applicability to children and families (Dunst & Paget, 1991; Dunst & Trivette,
1987; Hegar, 1989). Empowerment has been variously described as both a
process and a state, as both an individual and collective characteristic, as an
attitude, perception, ability, knowledge and action, and as a phenomenon that
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can be manifested in a range of circumstances and environments. At present, the

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literature is beginning to show some general consensus on broad definitions of

empowerment; however, there is little agreement about what specific dimen-
sions or aspects distinguish it from other constructs.
Perhaps because of this ambiguity, attempts to measure empowerment have
lagged far behind discussions of its importance. With the exception of measures
that address some aspects of family empowerment, such as strengths (Dunst,
Trivette, & Deal, 1988), no scales have been developed to provide a general
picture of family members' empowerment. The need for such measures is
especially important in view of the increasing number of service delivery models
that feature empowerment as a major goal (Friesen & Koroloff, 1992). Efforts
to evaluate such programs lack suitable measures with which to gauge success
and often must rely on measures that are based on more traditional views of
family functioning.
In this paper we describe the development and empirical examination of a 34-
item scale, the Family Empowerment Scale (FES), designed to assess empow-
erment in parents and other family caretakers whose children have emotional
disabilities. The impetus of the scale's development was the need for a brief, self-
administered measure that could provide a "snapshot" view of empowerment at
one point in time. Item content was based on a conceptual framework consisting
of two key dimensions: the level of empowerment and the way it is expressed.
In the following discussion, we present this framework and its derivation from
the literature, discuss the process of scale development, including the use of
parent focus groups, and report on the scale's reliability and validity.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Over the last 15 years numerous authors have offered definitions of empow-
erment. The major themes of these definitions include: the reduction of power-
lessness (Solomon, 1976); gaining, developing, seizing, enabling or giving
power (Staples, 1990); the ability to influence people, organizations, and the
environment affecting one's life (Cochran, 1987; Hasenfeld, 1987; Vanderslice,
1984); attaining control over one's life and democratic participation in the life
of one's community (Berger & Neuhaus, 1977; Katz, 1984; Rappaport, 1981;
Rappaport, Swift, & Hess, 1984; Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988). These
definitions encompass both a process as well as a state of empowerment
 Empowerment Questionnaire 307

(Gutierrez & Ortega, 1991; Parsons, 1991) and describe both an individual and
group phenomenon (Staples, 1990).
Gutierrez and Ortega (1991) and Dodd and Gutierrez (1990) discuss three
levels of empowerment. According to Gutierrez and Ortega (1991), the personal
level is concerned with the individual's "feelings of personal power and self-
efficacy" (p.24); the interpersonal level is concerned with an individual's ability
to influence others; and political empowerment is concerned with "social action
and social change... with the additional goal being the transfer of power between
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groups in society" (p. 25). Solomon's (1976) three sources of powerlessness

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reflect similar levels. Solomon describes negative self evaluations which are the
attitudes of oppressed people; negative experiences in the interaction between
the victims of oppression and the outside systems which impinge upon them; and
the larger environmental systems which consistently block and deny effective
action by powerless groups. In discussing levels at which advocacy occurs,
Friesen (1989) also suggests a framework that involves the case, the service, and
the community/political levels. Caspary (1980) notes that a personal sense of
powerlessness may be one of the major obstacles to political involvement,
implying that personal empowerment precedes political empowerment. These
two latter authors suggest that there may be a developmental sequence from a
case or personal focus to action involving larger systems.
In addition to levels of empowerment, another dimension reflected in the
literature is the way in which empowerment is expressed. Staples (1990) asserts
that, "In addition to transformations in consciousness, beliefs, and attitudes,
empowerment requires practical knowledge, solid information, real competen-
cies, concrete skills, material resources, genuine opportunities, and tangible
results" (p. 38). Kieffer (1981), reporting the results of qualitative interviews
with individuals who emerged as local leaders, described four conditions
necessary for empowerment to occur: a personal attitude, or sense of self, that
promotes active social involvement; a knowledge, or capacity, for critical
analysis of the social and political systems which defines one's environment; an
ability to develop action strategies and cultivate resources for attainment of
one's goals; and an ability to act in concert with others to define and attain
collective goals.
To date, efforts to measure empowerment in a quantitative manner have been
limited to a few studies. Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) examined the
relationship between citizen participation and psychological empowerment as
measured by 11 scales selected from the published literature. These scales
assessed different aspects of personality, cognition, or motivation that were
considered by the authors as indicative of empowerment. Their findings gener-
ally showed a convergence across measures in demonstrating that greater
participation in community activities was associated with higher levels of
empowerment. Gutierrez and Ortega (1991) developed three measures to assess
different aspects of empowerment among Latinos. Two of their measures
focused on political empowerment, commitment and ethnic activism, and the
third measure focused on personal empowerment, conceptualized as change
 308 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

strategy. The three measures were used to test the effects of group interventions
designed to increase empowerment and were found to reflect the intervention
conditions as predicted. These studies provide support for measuring empower-
ment as amulti-faceted construct and suggest that such measures can be sensitive
to conditions that are plausibly indicative of empowerment. However, no studies
to date have produced instruments that are designed to be used as general
empowerment measures, and none has developed measures that focus specifi-
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cally on empowerment in families whose members have disabilities.

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INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT

Conceptual Framework

The development of the empowerment measure described in this paper began

with the formation of a conceptual framework to serve as a guide for writing
items. The framework is based upon the literature cited above, discussions with
families who have children with serious emotional disabilities, and the contri-
butions of staff from the Research and Training Center on Family Support and
Children's Mental Health (RTC) who have ongoing contact with families. The
framework focuses on different aspects of empowerment as states rather than
causative conditions or processes. These states are not necessarily assumed to be
constant; rather, they may change over time in response to experiences, new
conditions, or evolving circumstances. This perspective is reflected in Staples'
(1990) general definition of empowerment as: "...the ongoing capacity of
individuals or groups to act on their own behalf to achieve a greater measure of
control over their lives and destinies" (p. 30).
The framework consists of two dimensions: (1) the level of empowerment,
and (2) the way that empowerment is expressed. With regard to the first
dimension, empowerment can occur at three levels: (a) Family, that is, the
immediate situation at home. This primarily involves the parent's management
of day-to-day situations; (b) Service System, that is, professionals and agencies
that provide services to the parent's own child. This primarily involves the
parent's actively working with the service system to get services that are needed
by his or her child; (c) Community/Political, that is, legislative bodies, policy
makers, agencies, and community members who are concerned with or who
influence services for children with emotional disorders and their families. This
primarily involves the parent's advocacy for improved services for children in
general, rather than specifically for her/his own child.
With regard to the second dimension, empowerment can again be expressed in
three ways: (a) Attitudes, what a parent feels and believes; (b) Knowledge, what
a parent knows and can potentially do; and (c) Behaviors, what a parent actually
does. Each of these types of expressions can occur within each category of the level
dimension. For example, empowerment with respect to the service system can be
manifested as an attitude, e.g., "Professionals should ask me what services I want
 Empowerment Questionnaire 309

for my child"; as knowledge, e.g., "I know what steps to take when I am concerned
my child is receiving poor services"; and as a behavior, e.g., "I tell professionals
what I think about services being provided to my child." Thus, combining the three
categories on the two dimensions results in nine possible combinations, reflecting
how empowerment may be experienced or expressed at a given point in time.

Scale Construction
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The development of the Family Empowerment Scale (FES) followed standard

scale construction techniques (Carmines &Zeller, 1979; Dawis, 1987; DeVellis,
1991). An item pool was generated to measure concepts related to each of the nine
cells in the framework, and from this pool, three to four items per cell were
selected on the basis of clarity, simplicity of wording, and relevance of content.
Since the planned number of items per cell was very small, an effort was made
to select items of rather similar substantive content in order to maximize
homogeneity within cells (Dawis, 1987). The instrument that resulted from this
process consisted of 28 items, each of which contained a statement, e.g., "I feel
my family life is under control," and five response alternatives ranging from "not
true at all," scored as 1, to "very true," scored as 5.
Pilot testing of the instrument was conducted with 94 parents of children with
emotional disabilities. They were contacted through local parent support groups
and through a national conference attended by a large number of family
members. In addition to completing the instrument, 29 of these parents partici-
pated in focus groups that addressed issues of readability, clarity, and content of
items. Each focus group consisted of approximately seven parents who received
child care, dinner and a consultation fee for participation. Based on feedback
from the focus groups as well as analyses of responses from the 94 completed
questionnaires, revisions were made in existing items, and other items were
added. The current version of the instrument consists of 34 items (see Figure 1).
Because the literature emphasizes distinctions among personal, interper-
sonal, and political levels of empowerment, the scoring strategy is designed to
reflect the categories of the Level Dimension, i.e., Family, Service System, and
Community/Political. Scoring is accomplished by summing responses from
items within the Family (12 items), Service System (12 items), and Community/
Political (10 items) categories to yield three subscores.

Data Collection

To obtain a sufficiently large sample for analyses of reliability and validity,

we collected data from several sources. First, parent organizations in four
locations, Wisconsin, Oregon, Mississippi, and the District of Columbia, were
asked to distribute questionnaire booklets to their members. These were organi-
zations for parents whose children have emotional, behavioral, or mental
disorders. The focus of the organizations is on providing services to families
 310 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

whose children have mental health problems; however, membership may

include families whose children have multiple disabilities. The questionnaire
booklets included the FES, a measure of parent-professional collaboration (not
discussed here), and questions about the child and family. The latter questions
asked about demographic characteristics, e.g., income, education, age, family
structure, as well as information on child diagnosis, living arrangements,
custody, and certain parental activities related to empowerment. The Research
and Training Center (RTC) prepared questionnaire packets with postage, and the
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participating parent organizations addressed and mailed the packets to then-

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members. Approximately two weeks later they also sent a follow-up postcard as
a reminder. Questionnaires were completed anonymously and returned directly
to the RTC in business-reply envelopes included in the packet. Respondents were
offered two complimentary RTC publications for their participation; their
anonymity was maintained by returning the questionnaire and order form in
separate envelopes. In order to allow for the possibility of examining test-retest
reliability, a box on the publication order form was included by which family
members could indicate a willingness to complete another questionnaire in
several weeks. The distribution of questionnaires occurred in June and July,
1992. A total of 369 questionnaires were distributed in Oregon, 820 in Wiscon-
sin, 231 in Mississippi and 50 in Washington, DC. As of early August, 378
questionnaires had been returned for an overall return rate of 26%.
Questionnaires were also sent to 283 family members who had participated
in a previous survey conducted by the RTC and who had indicated a willingness
to participate in additional research. These individuals lived in 31 states and the
Virgin Islands; henceforth, they will be referred to as the RTC sample. Question-
naire booklets were sent to them directly from the RTC using the same incentive
and follow-up procedure described above. The questionnaires were mailed in
June, 1992, and by early August, 116had been returned forareturn rate of41%.
To obtain data for test-retest reliability, a second wave of questionnaires was
sent to respondents who were part of the Oregon and RTC samples and who had
expressed interest in additional research participation. This mailing occurred
approximately four weeks after the first questionnaire booklet had been returned.
By early August, 107 of 179 (60%) respondents who had children under the age
of 21 had returned the second questionnaire. Because both questionnaire waves
were anonymous, matches forpurposes of calculating test-retest reliability were
made on the basis of child and family demographic characteristics and ZIP code.
The analyses reported in this paper are based on 440 parents who reported
having children under the age of 21. Parents of children 21 and older were
excluded from the sample in order to limit the focus of analyses to issues relevant
to minor children. The great majority of parents in the sample were female (94 %),
white (92%), and the biological or adoptive parent of the child (89%). The mean
age was 40 (SD = 6.6) years. Over three-quarters (79%) had completed high
school and 36% had completed college. Just over one-quarter (28%) lived in
single parent households; 14% reported an annual gross household income below
$10,000, and 21% had household incomes greater than $50,000.
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Level
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Family Service System Community/Political

- I feel confident in my ability to help my • I feel that I have a right to approve all - 1 feel 1 can have a part in improving
child grow and develop. (4) services my child receives. (1) services for children in my community. (3)
• I feel my family life is under control, (9) - My opinion is just as important as - I believe that other parents and 1 can
• I believe I can solve problems with my child professionals' opinions in deciding what have an influence on services for children.
Attitudes
when they happen. (21) services my child needs. (18) (17)
- I feel I am a good parent. (34) - Professionals should ask me what services -1 feel that my knowledge and experience
I want for my child. (32) as a parent can be used to improve
services for children and families. (25)
- I know what to do when problems arise - 1 know the steps to take when I am -1 understand how the service system for
with my child. (7) concerned my child is receiving poor children is organized. (10)
E • I am able to get information to help me services. (5) -1 have ideas about the ideal service
x better understand my child. (16) - I am able to make good decisions about system for children. (14)
P - When I need help with problems in my what services my child needs. (11) -1 know how to get agency administrators
r Knowledge family, I am able to ask for help from others. - I am able to work with agencies and or legislators to listen to me. (22)
(26) professionals to decide what services my -1 know what the rights of parents and
e -1 have a good understanding of my child's child needs. (12) children are under the special education
s disorder. (33) - I know what services my child needs. (23) laws. (24)
s - I have a good understanding of the service
i system that my child is involved in. (30)
o - When problems arise with my child, I -1 make sure that professionals understand -1 get in touch with my legislators when
n handle them pretty well. (2) my opinions about what services my child important bills or issues concerning
• I make efforts to learn new ways to help my needs. (6) children are pending. (8)
child grow and develop. (27) • I make sure I stay in regular contact with -1 help other families get the services they
- When dealing with my child, 1 focus on the professionals who are providing services to need. (15)
Behaviors good things as well as the problems. (29) my child. (13) - I tell people in agencies and government
• When faced with a problem involving my - I tell professionals what I think about how services for children can be improved.
child, I decide what to do and then do it. services being provided to my child. (19) (20)
(31) - When necessary, I take the initiative in
looking for services for my child and family.
(28)

Figure 1. Conceptual framework and item stems for Family Empowerment Scale. (Numbers in parentheses indicate item numbers.)
 312 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

The children were predominantly white (85%), male (74%), with a mean age
of 13.2 (SD = 3.9) years. Over three-quarters (76%) of the children lived with
their biological or adoptive family at the time of the survey, 5% with extended
or foster family, and the remainder lived in nonfamily settings, e.g., residential
treatment, psychiatric hospitals, group homes, or juvenile justice settings. The
majority of the children were in the custody of the survey respondent (85%) and
the remainder were in state custody (7%) or in the custody of a person other than
the respondent (8%). The most frequently reported children's diagnoses were:
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attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (55%), learning disability (36%), emo-

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tional disorder (33%), conduct disorder (20%), developmental disorder (18%),

oppositional disorder (17%), and depression (16%). Many children (70%) had
multiple diagnoses or conditions.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

The analyses described here focus on the reliability and validity of the FES
from several perspectives. Reliability was addressed through an examination of
the internal consistency and temporal stability of instrument subscores. Validity
was addressed through panel ratings of item content with respect to the
empowerment framework, factor analysis of item responses, and an analysis of
group differentiation on the basis of subscores.

Reliability

Internal Consistency. The internal consistency of FES subscores was exam-

ined through the computation of alpha coefficients (Cronbach, 1951) for the
three subscores based on the Level Dimension of the conceptual framework:
Family, Service System, and Community/Political. These coefficients, pre-
sented in Table 1, ranged from .87 to .88. They compare well with generally
accepted standards of reliability whereby alpha coefficients of .70 are considered
minimum (Nunnally, 1978) and coefficients of .80 to .90 are considered
substantial (DeVellis, 1991).
Test-Retest, Reliability. Another reliability issue concerns the stability or
constancy of responses across time, generally known as test-retest reliability. The
examination of this issue is somewhat clouded by the difficulty of distinguishing
Table 1. Reliability Coefficients for the Level Dimension
Subscores of the Family Empowerment Scale (FES)

Internal Consistency Test-Retest

Subscore (n = 440) (n = 107)

Family .88 .83

Service System .87 .77
Community/Political .88 .85
 Empowerment Questionnaire 313

temporal variability in item responses, i.e., error across measurement occasions,

from natural fluctuations in the phenomenon itself (Kelly & McGrath, 1988). That
is, a completely reliable measure of empowerment might still show instability
across time due to real changes in how empowerment is manifested or experienced.
The relevancy of this issue was reflected in our discussions with parents who
frequently commented that their feelings of empowerment varied with the events
of the moment. A frustrating experience with a service provider or an especially
good parenting experience could have a marked effect on these feelings.
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We examined test-retest reliability by correlating two sets of matched item

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subscores based on responses from 107 family members who completed the FES
a second time, three to four weeks following the initial administration. These
Pearson correlations ranged from .77 to .85 and are presented in Table 1. The
strength of these correlations provide some support for the stability of subscores
over a short interval of time. Since a systematic increase or decrease in one set
of test-retest scores would not be reflected in a correlational analysis, we also
compared the two sets of subscores with paired / tests for mean differences. No
significant differences were found, suggesting that the subscores did not
systematically increase or decrease over the time interval.

Validity

Independent Item Ratings. The correspondence of instrument content to

underlying theoretical constructs is a key issue in assessing validity. One
perspective on this correspondence in the FES was obtained through independent
ratings of items made on the basis of construct definitions. Twenty-five
professionals who either were Graduate School of Social Work faculty or
provided services to families and children served as raters. All had advanced
degrees in the social or behavioral sciences, and none had prior familiarity with
the relationship of items to the conceptual framework. Raters were given an
overview of the empowerment framework, including definitions, and a form with
which to classify items into the categories of each dimension. Two major issues
were of interest here: the agreement among raters in classifying items, and the
agreement of raters with the classification scheme of the conceptual framework.
To assess agreement among raters, kappa coefficients for multiple raters
(Fleiss, 1981) were computed for each category of the Level Dimension and
across all three categories. The coefficients were .83, .70, and .77 for the Family,
Service System, and Community/Political categories, respectively; the overall
coefficient was .77. Because kappa coefficients above .75 are considered
indicative of substantial agreement, these findings suggest that raters classified
items in a largely similar fashion.
To assess agreement with the original item classification scheme, kappa
coefficients were computed between each rater and the item classification
scheme across categories for the Level Dimension. Coefficients ranged from .47
to 1.00; 84% of the coefficients exceeded .75 and the average was .83. Thus most
 314 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

raters provided ratings that were in substantial agreement with the classification
scheme. Taken together these two analyses of independent ratings provide
support for the correspondence of FES item content to the constructs underlying
the instrument.
Factor A nalysis. Another perspective on this same issue was obtained through
factor analysis of item responses. Of interest here was the correspondence of the
factor structure to the conceptual framework and the contribution of items to
factors representing their respective categories. The analysis used the principle
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axis method of factor extraction with squared multiple correlations as communality

estimates and the Varimax method of factor rotation. The number of factors to
rotate was determined on the basis of a scree test (Cattell, 1966; Gorsuch, 1974)
which indicated four major factors accounting for 52% of the variance. Table 2
presents factor loadings above .40 ordered by size of loadings, item numbers,
and associated framework categories.
Factor I was defined by a strong core of items measuring parents' efforts to
advocate for and improve services for children and families in general. The items
here were concerned with parents contacting legislators and agency administra-
tors, providing help to other families, and holding strong beliefs that they can
have an influence on improving services. This factor corresponds well to the
Community/Political category of the empowerment framework.
Factors II and IV were both defined by items measuring empowerment with
respect to the service system. The major items loading on Factor II measured
parents' knowledge in working with agencies and professionals to obtain
services for their children. Specific item content in Factor II focused on parents'
understanding of the service system and self-confidence in their decisions and
capabilities. Factor IV was characterized by an emphasis on the inherent right
of parents to make decisions about their children. This factor was concerned with
what parents believe and, to some extent, what they do, whereas Factor II was
primarily concerned with what parents know. Both correspond to the Service
System category of the conceptual framework.
Factor III focused on empowerment within the family and has the closest
correspondence to the Family category of the conceptual framework. It was
defined by a strong core of items measuring confidence with respect to parenting
and the ability to handle problems when they arise.
The findings from the factor analysis generally provided support for the
correspondence of items to the Level Dimension of the conceptual framework.
The strongest factors were defined largely by items that were associated with
only one category on this dimension, Family, Service System, or Community/
Political. In contrast, the correspondence of factors to the Expression Dimension
of the framework was minimal. Only one factor, Factor II, was defined by a core
of items from one category of this dimension, the Knowledge Category. For the
most part, empirical distinctions among attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors
were overshadowed by stronger differences among the levels of empowerment.
In this respect, the findings from the factor analysis support the strategy of
deriving subscores based on the Level Dimension of the instrument.
 Empowerment Questionnaire 315

It is worth noting here that although the factor analysis produced independent
or uncorrelated factors under the constraints of an orthogonal model, the
subscores themselves are not independent. The zero-order correlations of the
Family subscore with the Service System and Community/Political subscores
were .77 and .63, respectively. The correlation of the Service System subscore
with the Community/Political subscore was .71. Thus, the findings of the factor

Table 2. Factor Loadings a .40 for Family Empowerment

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Scale (FES) Items (N = 440)

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Dimension Factor1
Item Level' Expression11 I II III IV

20 Comm Beh 67
22 Comm Know 60 .44
15 Comm Beh 60
25 Comm Att .58
3 Comm Att .58
8 Comm Beh .57
17 Comm Att 56
14 Comm Know 49
16 Fam Know .49 45
26 Fam Know .41

5 Sys Know .65

30 Sys Know .62
12 Sys Know .56
10 Comm Know .48 55
11 Sys Know .54
23 Sys Know 48 .43
6 Sys Beh 46
24 Comm Know 41 .46
13 Sys Beh .46

4 Fam Att .70

2 Fam Beh 66
34 Fam Att .60
7 Fam Know .43 .59
21 Fam Att .58
9 Fam Att .57
29 Fam Beh .56
31 Fam Beh .47 .47
33 Fam Know .40

18 Sys Att .57

32 Sys Att .49
27 Fam Beh .47
19 Sys Beh .47

"Level: Fam = Family, Sys = Service System, Comm = Community/

Political
••Expression. Att = Attitude, Know = Knowledge, Beh = Behavior
'Eigenvalues for the four factors are 11 71, 1 80. 1 14, and .95,
respectively
 316 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

analysis should be viewed as evidence for the distinctiveness of the item groups
representing the Level categories of the framework, not as an indication that the
categories or their respective subscores are independent.
Group Differentiation. The capacity of a measure to empirically differentiate
known groups assumed to differ on the measure's underlying construct can be
viewed as evidence of construct validity. In the context of empowerment, a
measure might be considered as demonstrating validity if scores were markedly
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different between one group that behaviorally exhibited high empowerment and
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another group that did not show such characteristics. We did not have indepen-
dently derived indicators of empowerment within our sample, since all data were
based on a single method, the self-report of parents. However, the questionnaire
did include two checklists of activities which served as behavioral indicators of
empowerment, particularly of the community/political type. Parents were asked
to indicate whether or not they participated in each listed activity.
Activities were combined into six logical types: (1) advisory activities:
parents who served on a task force or agency board concerned with children's
mental health issues; (2) political activities: parents who contacted legislators or
provided legislative testimony regarding children's mental health issues within
the last year; (3) legal activities: parents who were involved in a formal complaint
or court action with respect to services for children within the last year; (4)
assistance activities: parents who assisted other parents in dealing with the
service system within the last year; (5) organizing activities: parents who helped
to organize a group to advocate for or discuss children's mental health issues
within the year; and (6) participant activities: parents who became involved in
children's mental health issues by giving a speech, writing an article, sending a
letter to a newspaper, or attending a meeting or hearing within the last year.
Parents were assigned a dichotomous score (Yes/No) for each activity type based
on their responses to the checklist.
For each activity type, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
used to compare those who engaged in that type of activity with those who did
not. The dependent variables were the three FES subscores, Family, Service
System, and Community/Political. Table 3 summarizes the results.
The multivariate effects for all six activity types were significant, suggesting
that the subscores in combination discriminated parents who were involved in
each activity from those who were not. In all groups, univariate F tests of
individual FES subscores were also significant, with higher empowerment
scores on the Family, Service System, and Community/Political categories
associated with involvement in activities that were indicative of empowerment.
In the legal activities comparison, the Community/Political subscore was
significant at /x.001, the Family subscore at/x.01, and the Service System
subscore at/x.05. The lower significance level of the Service System subscore
is understandable since legal actions in the disability area are often taken in
response to difficulties in obtaining services for one's own child, which may be
reflected in relatively low empowerment with respect to the service system. The
Community/Political subscore, on the other hand, measures a different set of
 Empowerment Questionnaire 317

attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors, some of which may be a product of

activities associated with legal or complaint procedures. Overall, the results of
this analysis provide some evidence for the validity of FES subscores in
discriminating groups of parents who differ on activities that are particularly
community focused. The analysis did not address the issue of group discrimina-
tion with respect to activities that focus more on the family or service system.
This issue awaits future research.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
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DISCUSSION

Empirical analyses of the Family Empowerment Scale (FES) suggest that key
aspects of parents' and other family caregivers' empowerment can be measured
in a valid and reliable fashion. As efforts to refine and measure the concept of
empowerment continue, several questions merit careful examination.
Table 3. Summary of MANOVA Results (N = 440)

Community/
Family Service System Political
Activity" Subscore Subscore Subscore Multivariate F*

Advisory. Yes (n = 86) 49.89 53.56 41.37 43.58***

Advisory: No (n = 354) 45.83 48.60 31 44
F 22 18*** 36.60*** 123.76***

Political: Yes (n = 135) 48 78 52.59 39.61 52 80***

Political: No (n = 305) 45.66 48.24 30.62
F 17.57*** 38.40*** 141.41***

Legal- Yes (n = 106) 48.55 50.85 37.25 13 41***

Legal: No (n = 334) 46.01 49.17 32.15
F 9.88** 4.58* 31.84***

Assisting: Yes (n = 265) 48.46 51.37 36.76 48.30***

Assisting- No (n = 175) 43.84 46.85 28.26
F 46.04*** 47 43*** 142.74***

Organizing: Yes (n = 79) 50.62 53.03 40.52

Organizing: No (n = 361) 45.75 48.82 31.82 29.26***
F 30.58*** 24.14*** 82.55***

Participating- Yes (n = 185) 48.63 51.47 37.26 27.91***

Participating: No (n = 255) 45.16 48.19 30.56
F 25.31*** 24.21*** 80.70***
*p < 05
•*p < .01
***p < .001
'Values are means of each subscore, subscores are based on sums of item responses; F rows are univanate
tests of each subscore
*F approximation of Hotelling's T2
 318 Koren, DeChillo, and Friesen

First, there should be careful scrutiny of the idea that parents of children with
emotional disabilities may go through a developmental process with regard to
empowerment. According to this notion, parents are likely to focus first on
immediate family concerns with regard to their child's development and/or
behavior, then turn their attention to securing the information and services they
need to address their child's needs, after which they may engage in individual
or collective action to assist other families and address the needs of all children.
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Although this idea has been proposed by a number of authors (e.g., Friesen, 1989;
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Fine & Borden, 1989), it has not yet been subjected to systematic study.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that for some family members, difficulty in
obtaining appropriate services for their children is a galvanizing experience
leading to involvement in the community/political arena.
Another issue that needs further examination is the degree to which each of
the three levels (Family, Service System, and Community/Political) is differen-
tially responsive to targeted interventions. Although the results of our instrument
development efforts with the FES suggest three distinct categories, we do not yet
have good information about the degree to which changes in one category relate
to, or are stimulated by, changes in another. In other words, does increased
empowerment in one category tend to result in increased empowerment in other
categories, perhaps because of greater assertiveness, self-confidence, or feelings
of self-efficacy, or is each category relatively independent?
Future research with the FES might include further exploration of the means
by which parents gain empowerment, and the various paths through which their
empowerment may be pursued and developed. For example, some parents have
told us that a particularly good relationship with a service provider has been
instrumental in their becoming more empowered. However, other parents have
reported that poor services have also had a similar effect by serving as an impetus
to actively search for better resources. In the process, they have discovered inner
strengths and abilities, thus becoming more empowered. Clearly, the process of
becoming empowered is a multifaceted one, and little is known about it.
Our own investigations with the FES will include topics such as the degree to
which family members' empowerment scores increase over time and in compari-
son to others as a result of their systematic involvement in assessment, service
planning and implementation for their own children, and whether collaborative
transactions with professionals are associated with greater parent empowerment.
Other research under way will examine the extent to which family members who
receive consultation and training designed specifically to increase their effec-
tiveness as members of boards, task forces and other planning and decision-
making bodies show an increase in empowerment as a result of this intervention.
The results of this study support the use of the FES to assess the effectiveness
of interventions or programs designed to increase the empowerment of parents
or other family caregivers. Use of the FES should also help program designers
to more clearly specify which aspects of their programs are meant to promote
family empowerment and at which levels, i.e., Family, Service System or
Community/Political. The FES may also be useful with other populations,
 Empowerment Questionnaire 319

perhaps with modifications to include issues central to other disability groups,

especially those involving minor children.
Concepts related to empowerment are playing an increasingly important role
in shaping services for families whose children have disabilities. Although
family empowerment is often stated as a program goal, the concept often lacks
specificity and the efficacy of interventions designed to "empower" have largely
been untested. The theoretical development of the construct of empowerment
should go hand in hand with operationalization and measurement. The Family
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Empowerment Scale represents a step in this direction.

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Acknowledgments. This work was supported with funding from the National Institute
on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, U.S. Department of Education and the
National Institute of Mental Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(NIDRRgrantnumberH133B9OOO7 -92). The authors would like to acknowledge Nancy
Koroloff, Ph.D.; Judy Mayer, M.S.W.; Kathy Richards, M.S.W.; Kathryn Schultze,
B.S.; Richard Vosler-Hunter, M.S.W.; Colleen Wagner, B.A.; and the family members
who participated in the focus groups for their contributions to the development of the
empowerment framework and questionnaire; Mississippi Families As Allies, the
Oregon Family Support Network and Wisconsin Family Ties for their cooperation in the
distribution of questionnaires; and Catherine Riddell, B.A., for her assistance in the
preparation of this manuscript.

Offprints. Requests for offprints and the instrument and all other correspondence should
be directed to Paul E. Koren, Portland State University, P.O. Box 751, Portland, Oregon,
97207-0751.