Chapter 16 Feed Technology ‘The subject of feed technology deals with processing of feeds, fodders and. preparation of formula feeds for which the knowledge of nutritional requirements of various livestock and poultry, quality control of feed ingredients, feed plant management and the storage of feed ingredients and feeds are essential. Animal feed technology may also be defined as the application of physical, chemical, biochernical, biological and engineering, techniques to increase the nutrient utilization of feeds and fodders in animal system for the development of livestock and poultry and feed industry. Beginning of Feed Industry and Related Activities inthe US In the United States (US) early mills were buitt for grinding wheat and maize for human consumption rather than for livestock feed. Wheat and maize milling, meat, milk and oilseed processing industries were developed by then, The byproducts were considered to be of no ‘economical value and were dumped into the nearby rivers or streams. When such practice was stopped because of the pollution, efforts were made to explore means of eliminating the cost of disposal. By then proximate analysis system has come. Chemical analyses of the byproducts Tevealed their protein, mineral and vitamin contents. Thus the byproducts of milling, ete, found place in feeds for livestock and poultry proving ‘necessity is the mother of invention’. In 1875 Mr, John Barwell initiated the production of a calf meal at Blatchford of Waukegan, Llinois. It is credited with being the oldest feed manufacturing firm in the USA in continuous operation though the ‘ownership has changed hands. Ralston Purina company was founded in 1894 as the Robinson-Danforth commission company to manufacture horse and mule feed. Since then scores of other firms entered the feed business. Increased competition and declining profits in flour milling industry led many of them to take up feed manufacturing, The growth of commercial feed industry has been closely tied to the introduction of new byproducts. The Association of American Feed Fead Tosholegy Control Officials (AAFCO) defined 38 ingredients in its official publication published in 1911 and 440 in 1969 and more than 540 Ingredients in 1985 publication. American Feed Manufacturers ‘Association (AFMA) was founded in 1909 in Wisconsin and its name was, changed to American Feed Industry Association (APTA) in 1985. AFCO ‘was established in 1909. Linear programming, a mathematical procedure, was developed by George B. Dantzig in 1947. W.V. Waugh of USDA was the first to see the potential of this mathematical procedure and developed a least cost dairy feed in 1951, Later Robert F. Hutton of Pennsylvania State University played a leading role in introducing linear programming to feed industry. In North America and Europe, computers are controlling more processes and providing better quality control and operating efficiency. ‘Almost every function of feed manufacturing is computerized- formulation of feed, purchasing, process control, inventory, warehousing, billing or payroll. Totally computerized feed manufacturing plants ‘became a reality in 1975, Pelleting process was placed under the control of computers in the 1970's and in the 1980's proven automated systems were ‘used worldwide. Inflation and rising labour costs along with new technology encouraged automation. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was passed in 1906 in USA. In 1938 Food; Drug and Cosmetic Act was passed to control addition of poisonous or deleterious substances to any food except where required. The Delaney Amendment to the Pure Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act was passed in 1956. Tt sets a zero tolerance for any feed additive that is known fo produce cancer in man or animal. The Kefauve-Harris amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1962) required all firms manufacturing or mixing medicated feeds to register each plant. Later in 1965 FDA issued first good manufacturing practices (GMP’s) for ‘medicated feeds and started inspecting, feed mills. ‘Feed Production School (FPS) was established in 1950 and it appointed a committee in 1960 to work up definitions of feed terminology used by manufacturers. Terminology in the feed industry was set up in the following broad categories: 1. Feed ingredients 2. Finished feeds 3, Feed in (manufacturing process) 4. Processing terms. Definitions prepared by FPS definitions committee were modified by AFMA Production Council committee under the chairmanship of Gerald A. Karstins. ‘Feed Production School published the “Feed Production Handbook” with Dr. Harry B. Pfost, as Editor-in-chief. Subsequently, AFMA. published Feed Manufacturing Technology in 1970 and 1976, and the 1985 Edition was published by AFIA. Fourth edition has also been brought out 1990s, ‘Dr. Pfost served as Technical Editor and was a major chapter contributor to Ist and 2nd editions. It has been acknowledged that no Bo310 Princip of Animal Nutrition sind Fed Tecwoleg person has contributed more to the technology of feed manufacturing or has had more influence in moving the industry from the state-of-the-art to the state-of-the science than Harry Post, a Professor in the Department of Grain Science and Industry at Kansas State University, USA. Some of the AFCO De Complete feed: A nutritionally adequate feed for animals other than ‘humans; by specific formula compounded to be fed as the sole ration and is capable of maintaining life and/or promoting production without any additional substance, except water, being consumed. jons are Presented Here Concentrate: A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and intended to be further diluted and mixed to produce a supplement or a complete feed. Supplement: A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance or performance of the total and intended to be (1) fed undiluted as a supplement to other feeds, (2) offered free-choice with other parts of the ration separately available or (3) further diluted and mixed to produce a complete feed. Premix: A uniform mixture of one or diluent and /carrier. Premixes are used to fac the microingredients in a large mix. ore microingredients with te uniform dispersion of, Development of Feed Industry in India Feed industry came into existence in India in 1961 with the establishment of a feed plant in Ludhiana, Punjab. Compound Livestock Feed ‘Manufacturers Association (CLEMA) was formed on 8th June, 1967. It is the sole, national, representative body of compound animal feed manufacturers in India. It has about 115 members in the public, private and cooperative sectors with about 150 small, medium and large scale feed. mulls all over the country producing, nearly three million tonnes of compound feed per annum. The installed capacity of CLFMA members ppt together is around 6 million tonnes and capacity utilisation is about 50% (CLEMA, 1998). Compound feed also produced by other feed ‘manufacturers (non-members of CLFMA) and farmers directly and this ‘comes to around four million tonnes. ‘Activities of the CLEMA are 1, It is recognised by the Central and State Governments, Government department concerned and committees set up by them. Feed Tecnology 311 2. CLFMA’s views are solicited and considered by Central and State Governments while formulating and implementing policies concerning. not only the livestock feed industry but also the entize gamut of animal husbandry. 3. It conducts symposia on feed related problems and discuss them threadbare involving animal nutritionists and Feed Technologists Working in ICAR institutes and Veterinary Colleges to hammer out solutions. 4, Ttorganises orientation courses at Veterinary Colleges for the benefit of the students. 5. Itrepresents the problems of the feed industry to the Government. e.g. molasses supply, export and import of feedstffs (banning export of oilseed extractions, import of maize), import duty rates, excise duty, CVD on feed additives, etc 6. CLFMA publishes ‘Feed Trends’ a quarterly magazine and now Livestock & Feed Trends once in two months since 2002. 7. It instituted awards to honour the nutritionists who contributed substantially to the present day knowledge. These include Dr. [.S. Ichhponani, Dr. M. Raj Reddy, Dr. D. Anjaneya Prasad, Dr. V.R. Sadagopan. Excise Duty on Vitamin Premixes, Amino Acids and Coccidiostats Excise duty is applicable to all these since the customs authorities say vitamin premixes, amino acids, coccidiostats are not part of feed. CLFMA represented the government that all these are feed supplements and they have now become an integral part of feed and hence excise duty is not applicable. The Directorate General of Foreign Trade, Govt. of India has issued a policy circular (Nov. 25, 1999) stating that premixes containing. vitamins or provitamins, amino acids, coccidiostats, etc. are exclusively foF use in animal feed as supplements, Amino acids are not manufactured locally. They are imported. Hence import duty is justifiable. But why to levy the Counter Veiling Dut import duty sj y to levy ig Duty There is no central excise duty on manufacture of DCP for use as an ingredient in the manufacture of animal feed supplement. Molasses has excise dusty. . Sales-tax on Animal Feed In majority of States and Union Territories (UTs) no sales taxis levied on animal feed. Government of India in its recent decision to implement uniform sales tax in all States and UTs from April 2000, “Poultry feed and cattle feed including prawn feed” is brought under category IF (item no. 7) which attracts 4% floor sales tax.312 _ Principles of Animal Nutrition ard Feed Tecmoegy Unprocessed cereals, including rice, wheat; fresh meat; fish and livestock, fresh mk, eggs, etc. are forthrightly inchided under the category Iand are exempted from sales tax inal States and UTS. CLEMA represanted this issue and requested for 2e70 floor rate or exempted goods under category Ifor animal feeds. It stated that only 10% of these feeds are subjected to tax since 90% of feeds consumed by animals are either owa-mixed by farmers or custom-mixed;hence levying sles ax amounts to faxing the quality feed since home-mixed and customemixed feed is not scientific. PROCESSING OF FEEDS AND FORAGES ‘The Primary Reasons for Processing Feeds 1. To make more profit: Feed efficiency can be rdutinely improved as ‘much as 10% and occasionally by as much as 15 020% by changing the method of grain processing. 2. Toalterpmrtidlesie: Some feeds need to be reduced in size to increase their intake or digestibility. eg. grinding, In some instances, particle size is increased by pelleting or cubing to overcome dust problem, to prevent selectivity and to improve handling efficiency. 3. To change moisture content: "The moisture content ofa feedstuf may need to be changed to make it safer to store (reduced to 10% level), more palatable, more digestible, or to prepare it for other processes (moisture level is increased). 4. To change the density of feed: Bulky feeds (low density feeds) reduce feed intake. These are sometimes prepared forthe purpose of limiting energy intake. These are preferred in feeding of horses because they cause fewer digestive disturbances. Grains are flaked rather than ground or pelleted. Very bulky feeds ae pelleted or cubed to increase energy density and feed consumption. Transportation cost is reduced and storage space required is les. 5. To change palatabitty: Feeds are processed to increase acceptability and feed intake. Molasses, lavours and fats are added, Processing may be used to decrease palatability and limit feed consumption. Ex: salt feed mixtures. 6. To increase nutrient content: When used alone and in their natural state, fe feedstuffs meet the nutrient requirements ofthe animals 7. To increase nutrient availability: Stach (70-80% of DM) and protein appear to be less available in jowar than in other grains but new processing techniques produced dramatic improvements in the Feeding value ofjowar. ‘This is atiributed to a gelatinization of the starch granules, rendering Feet Technology 313, them more digestible. Pelleting of feeds increases the utilization of phosphorus for chicken and pigs. 8 "To detoxify or remove undesirable factors: Considerable control of gossypol (the yellow pigment of cotton seed that is toxic to simple- stomached animals) is possible by heating. Addition of iron salts rupture pigment gland and thus protect against egg discoloration, Heating soybeans destroys the factors that inhibit the digestive ‘enzymes, trypsin and chymotrypsin. The toxicity of linseed meal can bbe removed by adding two or three parts of water to the meal and allowing it to stand for 12 to 18 hours at a temperature between 22 to are. 9. To improve keeping qualities: High moisture grains may be preserved by either drying or chemical treatment (adding an organic acid), or they may be stored in oxygen limiting silos. Similarly green fodders are also conserved as silage. 10. To lesson moulds, salmonella, and other harmful substances: Sometimes feeds are subjected to a certain process to ensure safety and avoid contamination, especially from moulds and salmonella. Proper harvesting, drying and storage are important factors in lessening aflatoxin contamination and toxin production. Propionic and acetic acids will inhibit mould growth. Hence, they are used increasingly in the preservation of high-moisture grains. Treatment with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide will detoxify feeds. ‘These are cutting, crushing, shearing Particle size reduction procedures ‘and impact grinding. Cutting: Tt is reduction accomplished by pushing or forcing a thin sharp knife through the materials to be reduced. eg. Chaffing of green fodder, straw, hay. Crushing: It is accomplished by applying a compressive force to the particle to be reduced. Ball mills, percussion mills and jaw crushers are ‘examples of mills using the crushing principle. Shearing: Itis a combination of cutting and crushing: Ensilage cutter or rotary type knife and stationary bar cutter use the shear principle. Impact grinding: It is most commonly used for reducing particle size itt the feed industry. Hammer mills, Jet mills, Centrifugal input mills use this principle. Mills that are Commonly used in the Feed Industry 1. Hammer Mills: These mills use impact grinding principle to reduce the particle size of feeds. Hammer mills are used for grinding of both or ee314 Principe of Anial Nuttion and Fed Technology concentrates and forages. It has been used for facm, commercial and custom grinding for many years The hammer mil conte ofa cinder or rotor made up of several plates keyed to the main shaft or axle and these plates, near the edge, carry the hammers. Oulside the rotating cylinder is perforated steel sereen. The holes in this screen may be as small as 1/32" or as large as 2 oF more inches. Hammer mills may be ofthe single, double or triple reduction type with either rigid or swinging hammers. The double or tiple reduction types have knives or blunt discs on one side of the rotor to chop the longer stemmed materials such as maize fodder or alfalfa into small pieces before ‘they come in contact with the hammers. This type of mill is usually fed from a central opehing. So the material being reduced will come into contact with the knives and disks fest. tis assumed that most ofthe grinding occurs as the hammers stike the ‘material in the ai as it falls into the mill The hammer tip may travel at a speed of 7000-25000 feet per minute. Ifthe first impact of the hammers against the feed does not breakit up so that it will drop through the screen, itrebounds and is again steuck by the hamoner tips. This process continues until all particles are reduced to size that allow them to pass through the ‘A fan or bloweris usually used for product transport after grinding, the fan may be connected to the same shaft that drives the hauner mill or it may be driven seperatly.In ether case the fan requires about 25-30% of the horse power (HP) of the mill and aso cools the stock being reduced, Mill Horse Power Requirements (Bes /hours) Separate Fan| Mill HP. Medium Coase H.Pofthe Capacity gindgind Fh Ibs 50 6500 9500 15-20 10,000-20,00 100 12100 16500 30-40 24,000.32,000 Factors that Affect the Performance of Hammer Mills, 1. Diameter and shape of screen openings: Production and capacity increase as the screen openings are enlarged because the mill is doing less work per unit weight of material. Shape of the screen openings are mostly round. 2. Screen area: Production and efficiency were significantly lowered ‘when one half of the screen area was blocked. Generally mosthammer mills have 10-12 square inches of screen area per unit HP. Capacity varies directly with the percentage of open screen area. Feed Tecvalogy 315 3. Moisture content: -It is reported that the power requirement in kilo watt hours (KWH) per tonne increases rapidly at higher moisture contents. Capacity in tonnes per hour is inversely related to the moisture. Itis uneconomical to grind grains at moisture content higher than 12-14%. 4. Peripheral speed (hammer ‘ip speed): It refers to the speed of the hammer tips and not the revolutions per minute of a mill. Most efficient peripheral speed is between 7000 to 9000 ft/ mt and at this low speed mills produce more uniform grind. However, it is generally agreed that lower speed produce a coarser product and the product fineness is directly proportional to peripheral speed. 5. Kind of feed: Concentrates are easier to grind while roughages. are difficult to grind. Cereal grains with higher starch contents are easier to grind. 6. Location of feed intake: (a) Central feeding: Feeding at the centre of the rotor. (b) Tangential feeding: Feeding tangential to the rotor. Central feeding is shown to decrease capacity up to 20%with a corresponding reduction in efficiency. In case of tangential feeding, the products aided by incoming air and falls directly into the zone of greatest hammer velocity. In central feeding the ihaterial take a spiral path with almost the same peripheral speed as the hammers. The essential pulvarisation occurs at the screen because of the relative velocity and resulting impact. 7. Hammer tip and screen clearance: Product fineness is proportional to the clearance between the hammer tip and the screen. The optimum clearance has been shown to be 8 mm (0.31"). 8 Hammer width and design: “Hammer design is an important factor in the design of a hammer mill, The wear usually occurs at the tip of the hammer. Some hammers are manufactured so that they may be turned edge to edge and end to end. This arrangement allows for four ‘wear surfaces and is more economical than acquiring a new hammer when one edge wears out, 9. Number of hammers: Number of hammers in a mill definitely affects production and fineness. It is desirable to have 15 hammers per 100 mu of rotor. Each hammer is of 3 mm thick 10. Feed rate: An increased rate of feed is associated with a coarser énd~ product and also increases capacity. Therefore, feed rate is directly Proportional to the applied power within the mechanical limitations Of a given unit. The feed rate in most feed mills is controlled by an ammeter showing the current the motor is pulling. All motors have a rated amperage above which they should not be operated. 11. Air flow through the mill: The amount of air flowing through the mill may affect the manner in which particles strike impact surfaces. The316 _ Principles of Animal Nutrition and Fed Tecnology optimum value of about 4000 cu. metres/sq metre area of screen surface is sufficient. Advantages of air flow are: a) itreduces the temperature of the material ) it vacates the place and ©) may help in changing the direction of ingredient. 12, Mechanical conditions of the mill: ‘Unworn screens and hammers with their sharper corners are more efficient. 13. HP of the motor: Performance of the hammer mill is proportional to the HP of the motor. ectly 2. Roller Mills These are used in feed processing for the crimping or crushing of grains. Nowadays roller mills are preferred in Western countries for grinding of feeds for efficient grinding and uniform particle size. ‘The roller mill eonsists of two rolls rotating in opposite directions at the same speed ox at different speeds. Rolls are usually corrugated or serrated. If the rells are operated at the same speed, the reduction is, mostly by crushing. If the rolls have a speed differential, cutting and shearing takes place. Roller mills may have one, two or three pairs of rolls ina strand. Feed Mixing ‘The most important operation in a feed mill is mixing and this isthe single operation that would be required in a plant to define itas a feed mill, The aim of mixing is to disperse the ingredients of a certain assortment (called formula) so that each small unit of the whole has the same proportion of ‘each ingredient as in the original formula. Feed Mixers are of Two Types 1. Vertical batch mixer: Tt is used in thousands of feed mills and farms. ‘They may be single screw or double screw for elevating the material. However, single screw mixer is popular. These are relatively inexpensive and do a good job of mixing most ingredients. They are little slower than horizontal mixers and are not used in larger feed mills It consists of a vertical bin tapering to a point at the bottom. A tube containing a vertical screw conveyor elevates and mixes the material as the mixer is filled. The screw conveyor continuously elevates the product and distributes it over the top of the mixer. Repeated elevation of the product produces blending. Some mixers use two screw conveyors and few use other elevating devices. Normally screw is driven from the top Feed Technolgy 317 but it can be driven from the bottom. These units range in capacity from 05105 tonnes. 2, Horizontal mixer: This mixer is the one most commonly used in larger feed mills. This mixer has right and left hand augers which convey the material from one end of the mixer to the other while it is tumbled within the mixer. These mixers are equipped with openings at several places along the bottom to aid in more rapid discharge. ‘Themixer shafts accurately machined and mounted on bearings and is fited with ribbons/paddies which thoroughly agitate and blend the {ingredients to produce homogenous mix. The ribbon assembly/ paddle is housed in a tub, the lower half of which is cirular. Suitable speed reduction drive is provided to drive the mixer shaft at the designed speed to achieve proper mix with or without liquid additives. Double paddle horizontal mixers: These have curved paddle blades ‘which scoop, lift and tumble materials as they are conveyed to the centre of the mixer, where they are continuously over lapped and cross blended. In addition to the cross blending action, a turbulent upward and downward movement is secured which provides the intense type of action required to blend solids and liquid additives including molasses blended with dry materials. These mixers have a side loading-cum- inspection platform. Ribbon blenders: The principle of these blenders is the same as paddle mixers except that they have double worm type ribbons. The large one continuously conveys the material forward and the small one conveys it backwards. Material to be mixed is conveyed from end to end, top to bottom or side to side in the mixer. This continuous cross blending action tends to thoroughly mix the composition. The mixer is more suitable for blending powdery material of uniform fineness. In order to empty the mixer more rapidly than the product can be conveyed away with most elevators, a surge bin is usually provided. The mixed feed is dumped into the surge bin and another load can be mixed while the surge bin is emptying.” Merits and Demerits of the Mixers ‘Aiba Vertical mixer Horizontal miner Cost Relatively newpensive and do Expensiveand doa good job good job of dry mixing, fry and liquid making. 2 Use Used in thousands of feed mils Used in small miso well snd farms. Not used in larger aslarger feed mill. fed mls,‘318 Principe of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology 3. Roorspace + Require ess floorspace ‘compared to flooe mounted horaontal mixers Recute more flor spac. Shar leg miners ean be mounted fo celing: However, these are not common. 4 Tine Raquire20 min. ormore time Require 3-5 min perbatchand Perbateh to obtain maximum arefsster than vertical rising efilenc. mers ‘These are slower. 5. Power CConsutnes less power. Consumes more power, requirements 6 Discharge of mined feed: Opening at one place for (Openings 2 several places the bottom fo sid in tote rapid discharge (BEehange ofthe mixed fed. Clemout 5 Clsrout will betoa ese CCleanout i general 10% iene Seliemoreetfient | Mong + Regulze more time to obtain Mies feed at peakffcency MOOS, | Rekmummiingeticency: — moSmin wer mang efiency Nining efficiency tren oe General + Theeisonly one small en to dee Stoning | Gcharge sate Feeiced for cesing he ‘of the mixer a {internal ribbons and tub of Torco iver. 10, Ugsid + auld suchas molasses fts ‘Moan fats t-canbe ston cant fecively mixed nixed effectively Piliciples of Mixing and Compounding of Feeds ‘The compounding of animal feed includes processing of raw materials of wide ranging physical, chemical and nutritional characteristics into a homogenous mixture suitable to obtain a desired nutritional response from the animals /birds. Certain feed ingredients such as cereals, oil seed cakes, soybean meal, meat meal, blood meal, fishmeal undergo processing prior to their inclusion into a compounded feed. ‘Once the raw material is purchased, it is slored in the godowns on wooden pallets placed away from the walls. The ingredients could also tbe stored in conexete or steel silos or in bins. The proper storage of raw gnaterials is not only essential to prevent physical losses but itis also an Jmportant aspect of quality control (look for mare details in chapter 17). ‘The feed compounding process consists of a) Grinding of ingredients, 'b) Mixing of ground materials, c) Further processing, if needed, d) Packaging, Grinding of fet ingredients: Hammer mills ard roller mills are used for grinding in feed industry though the former are popular in India Feet Technology 319 ‘Mixing of ground ingredients: Importance of mixing has already been tiseussed elsewhere (pp. 275277). Small quantities of animal feed can be Sdequately mixed manually using shovels, The ground raw materials Should be layered one above one another, and then mixed and tured t0 form one heap. Mixing ofthe heap at least 3 to 4 times may produce an deceptible product. Microingredients such as vitamins, minerals, antibiotics, ete are frst mixed with diluents e.g. wheat bran and then itis Suded to ensure uniform mixing. Mechanical mixers such as vertical Inixers, horizontal mixers ae used for uniform mixing, Factors that affect mixing: These include 1. Physical properties of ingredients and 2. Mixer designs. 1. Physical propertesof ingredients: Feed mixing may require many combinations of solids and liquids. Physical properties of solids are particle size, shape, density, coefficient of friction, resilience and Electrostatic charge. Physical properties of liquids are density and ‘viscosity. Heating the liquids reduce the viscosity. 2, Mixer designs: interior design of vertical and horizontal mixers. Particle segregation, during or after mixing has been attributed to differences in physical properties of materials and the design of the mixer, Particle size is more important. A decrease in particle size is necessary to attain a sufficient number of particles for dispersion into tach portion of feed. Where very small amount of microingredients aze added the required particle size is very small. The electrostatic properties, roughness of the mixer and cohesiveness are important factors that cause segregation when very small particles are mixed. Mixing time to achieve good distribution increase with very small particles. “Mixing equipment of different type with tumbling, stirring, smearing and impactactions have shown that the rate of mixingiis dependent on the ‘properties of the materials being mixed as well as type of equipment used. Differences in the performance of mixing equipment are reduced when the materials have nearly the same particle size and density. Liquid addition: The addition of various liquids to feeds is a normal practice. These include molasses, vegetable and animal fats, fish solubles, Phosphoric acid, choline chloride, ete. These are added to enhanc Palatability eg. molasses), energy (Fats) and other nutrient content of the Tations. However, addition of any liquid can complicate feed mixing ‘operations. Special equipment for preheating and spraying of liquid are feeded to avoid the agglomerate formation. Agglomerate formation can ‘result in suboptimum microingredient distribution.320 _Princpesof Animal Nutytion and Fed Tedwalegy Liquids are preheated to reduce their viscosity. Molasses is preheated to 95 to 100°F while-fat to 140 to 210°E. When liquids are added to the mixer they should te sprayed on over the entire length of the mixer. Before doing so, allew the dry feed ingredients to mix for a short time. This will allow the microingredients to be dispersed throughout the mixture. The maxirmum amount of molasses which can successfully be applied to feeds is governed by the viscosity of the molasses and by the absorptive quality of the ingredients. Physical Properties of Feed Ingredients Important to the Daily Operation of Feed Plants Physical properties of feed ingredients are important tothe design as well as the daily operation of feed plants (Table 1). Some of them are discussed here. 1. Bulk density: It is the mass per unit volume of the material. The common units of bulk density are pounds per cubic foot (Ib/ft?) and kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m’). It is good inventory practice to ‘measure and record the bulk densities of materials as they are received at the plant. Procedure: |. Take a cubic foot test box. Fill the box to heaping. Lift it approximately 6 inches and drop it, . Repeat step 3. - Level the box with a straight edge. 5. Weigh the box and record the net weight of the material (deducting the Known weight of the box from the gross weight). ‘This procedure is intended to duplicate the compaction of the material as itis stored. The density of a material varies significantly with particle size and compaction of the material. Factors that affect the compaction rate include the size, shape and moisture content ofthe feed material, size and shape of the storage bin, storage capacity and the material used for construction of the bin, seismic occurrences. 2. Cosficent of friction: In the movement of materials, the force of friction plays an important role, There are two different frictional forces that deal with the movement of materials: static and dynamic. The static frictional force is tité-force needed to start movement of a material. The dynamic frictional férce is the force needed to stop the movement of a ‘material. It has been reposted that the coefficient of friction increases slightly with an increase ine napisture while it decreases slightly with an increase in Fee Technology 321 ‘temperature. The dynamic coefficient of friction is approximately 20% less than the static coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction is variable depending onthe surface ofthe bin/conveying area suchas wood, plastic, meta 3. Angle of repose: It can be siniply defined as the maximum angle in degrees at which a pile of material retain ts slope. It increases nearly linear as the moisture content of the material increases, TABLE 1 Some Physical Properties of Dry Fed ingredients Feed ingredient “Apparent density ‘Angleof Static repose coefficient pre kg/m? Cee ‘Animal Products Blood mea! 3s ar 4s 17 Meat meal 370. 3 s 03 Bone meal 5060 ers 40 rg Fish meal 040 soon a as Egg powder 16 256 : e Milk powder 2 30 » oa ‘Mineral fed Limattone 1089 28 10 Salt coarse ms rv Oyster sels, ground 3 *” a8 sander 05 inch famine iboavin 2 3, : Vita A, dry! & 7° : : Corsi ollegeds and thelr byproducts Berey whole 3043 om 7 Brewers dried grains 1415, memo | Brewers gets 25.20 oun is oa spent dey Maize, ground 3436 sus os 08. Maizebran B 208; seas, 05 Cottonseed cake aos orm 9s 10 Cottonseed lls 2 i 3 03 Maize dsilers” 1819 pase ‘i ded grins (Oats ground 2025 2040 | a9 os Oathulls enground 9 reas 10 ‘Groundnut mes! 2 4h EB ice bran ma sa06 os Soybean meal 3640 577681 0s Wheat bran i16 176.56 04 Wheat ground 38 oe 0 Bogasee a mm10 Hay, loose 5 80 os Ure 3482 56a322 Prncipleof Animal Nutrition and Fed Tec Microingredient Premixing Microingredients “Microingredients are nutritional adducts or drugs that are added to the feed at very low levels. Dispersion of such low concentrations of active ingredients presents a challenge to the manufacturers of the compound feed. This challenge can be met by the premix-the dilution of an active component with a suitable carrier. Physical characteristics of microingredients such, as patticle size, particle shape, specific weight, hygroscopiciy, “susceptibility to electrostatic charges, adhesiveness of the particles due to physical properties, such as rough surfaces or additions of adhesives such as oils influence mixing them with the other feed ingredients. Microingredients have a very small particle size and high density compared to other feed ingredients. A significant uptake of moisture by a microingredient can seriously hamper its ability to distribute and mix well. A hygroscopic ingredient can affect the chemical stability of any moisture sensitive component. This problem may be dealt with during formulations by complexation or through a coating that acts as a moisture barrier. During intensive grinding to reduce particle size, a pure crystalline ‘compound frequently develops a static charge and hence the individual particles repel one another which may affect its distribution in the premix and in the feed mixture. An antistatic agent such as an unsaturated ‘vegetable ol is suggested. Premix Premixes are formulations of one or more microingredients, such as vitamins, minerals, or drugs mixed with diluent and/or carrier ingredient. Diluent and carrier should be inert and inactive. Premixes are used to facilitate uniform mixing of the microingredients in the complete feed or concentrate mixture. Diluent is an edible substance used to mix with and reduce the concentration of nutrients and/or additives to make them more acceptable to animals, safer to use and more capable of being mixed uniformly in feed. The mixing properties of the original ingredients are not drastically altered. Carrier is an edible material to which ingredients are added to facilitate uniform incorporation of the latter into feeds. The active principles are absorbed, impregnated or coated into the edible ‘material in such a way as to physically carry the active ingredient. When a carrier is used with a microingredient the mixing properties are drastically altered. Feed Technology 323, Processing Methods of Grains: ‘A. Dy processing methods: 1) Grinding 2) Dry rolling. 3) Popping 4) Extrading. 5) Micronizing 6 Roasting B. Wet processing methods: 1) Soaking 2) Steam rolling 3) Steam processing, & Flaking 4 Pressure 5) Exploding 6) Pelleting, ‘cooking 7) Reconstitution Out of the above processing methods, grinding is the one commonly ‘used for grains and other feeds. Soaking, extruding and pelleting of feed mixtures are also done in India. 1. Grinding: Grinding is a process of particle size reduction. It is the simplest and least expensive method for preparing grain for feeding livestock. It is a prerequisite for mixing, pelleting or extruding. The ‘grinding may vary from fine to coarse, depending upon the mesh size of the screen used. It is usually accomplished by means of a hammer mill, ‘which reduces the particle size of the grain by impact grinding. Medium- fine grinding is best. This can be distinguished by a gritty feeling as some of the feed is rubbed between the fingers. Very fine grinding makes feeds dusty, lowers palatability resulting in poor animal performance from Iowered feed consumption or due to loss of fine material containing the ‘essential nutrients, Further, the propionic acid content is increased, the ratio of acetate to propionate is altered and is narrowed resulting in reduced fat content of milk in milch animals. But in beef cattle the propionate helps in better fattening and increased growth rate. Advantages of Grinding, 1 Increases the particle numbers and thereby increase the surface area which facilitates the digestive enzymes to act resulting in increased digestibility 2. Improves the feed utilization and thereby increase the performance of *"-—», the animal. 3. Mixing different feed ingredients is aided by grinding since uniformity ‘of particle size helps in uniform mixing. 4. Pelleting and extruding of feed will be easy, more effective and efficient. 5. Segregation of particles or ingredients or nutrients will be avoided.324 Princpes of Animal Nutrition nd Fad Telwoegy 6, Selective feeding by livestock will be minimized or avoided. So wastage in feeding will be minimum. 7. Palatability of ingredients will be improved. 8. Energy loss due to mastication will be decreased. 9. Feed passage time will be decreased. Feed consumption will be increased. But decreased feed passage time reduce the digestibility of fibre in ruminants since residence time in the rumen is less. Expressing the particle size of ground feed: Ground feed is expressed in terms of modulus of uniformity and modulus of fineness. Equipment required is ‘Rotap Sieve Shaker’. ‘Modulus of uniformity: Ibis expressed as a ratio of coarse, medium and fine particles in ground feed. The optimum ratio is 16:3. Modulus of fineness: Itvaries from 1 to 7.It decreases with decrease in the particle size of the ground feed. It gives no indication of the proportion of coarse, medium and fine particles in the ground feed. 2. Dry rolling: Rolled or cracked grain are usually prepared by passing the grain through a roller mill. The physical properties of dry tolled or cracked grain would be very similar to that of grains coarsely ground in a hammer mill. Depending upon the rate of flow and the tolerance set between the rollers, the grain can be rolled to a consistency that resemble finely ground grain. Wheat and barley are dry rolled for beef cattle rations. . 3. Popping or puffing: Popping is produced by the action of dry heat (700-800°F or 370-425°C) for 15 to 30 seconds causing a sudden expat of the grain which rupture the endosperm and this results in rupture of starch granules and makes the starch more available to the rumen microorganisms and/or to the animal. Popped grains will have less moisture (3%) and will be bulky. Popping increases palatability and feed consumption by 5-10%. Popping increases the digestibility. Popped grains are good molasses carrier. 4. Micronizing: Itis similar to popping except that heat is furnished in the form of infra-red energy. Micro waves with 3 x 10* to 3 x 10” cycles/ sec. that are emitted from the infra-red burners are used here. The grain is then rolled to produce a uniform dense product. 5, Extruding: Extrusion cooking has become an important part of the feed industry in the production of pet feeds, fish feeds, feed for laboratory animals, in the gelatinization of cereals for a variety of animal feed and in the cooking of soybean and pulses for control of growth inhibitors. This technology is also used for cooking meat, fish and feather Feat Tecotogy 325, meals for control of salmonella, the cooking of cereals/starch with urea for ruminants, ete. 5 Gelatinization of starch occurs in this process, Gelatinization is defined as the irreversible destruction of the crystalline order in a starch granule, so that the surface of every molecule is made accessible to solvents ot reactants by a combination of moisture, heat, mechanical energy, pressure ferential and /or by pH modification, It enhances the ability of starches to absorb large quantities of water leading to improved digestibility and improved feed conversion. Extrusion cooking technology is becoming popular for manufacturing fish feeds since product densities can be readily controlled and so the feed. is utilized by fish completely. These expanded feeds will hold their identity in water and-awill retain that identity in water without fragmentation for long periods of time. This helps top feeders (e.g. catfish) attain maximum feed conversion. Density of expanded and gelatinized feed for catfish is 27 to 35 pounds per cubic feet and trout is 20 to 30 pounds per cubic feet 6. Roasting: It is accomplished by passing the grain through flame resulting in heating, to about 300°F (148.9°C) and some expansion of the grains which produces a palatable product. Moisture content of the grain Is 5%. Roasting of whole soybeans inactivates enzymes or inhibitory factors, which improves the nutritive value for poultry and swine. Wet Processing Methods 1. Soaking: Grains soaked for 12-24 hrs in water has long been used for livestock feeding. Sometimes concentrate mixture is also Soaked before offering to swine. However, problems in handling and potential souring, discouraged its large scale use. Soaking of mustard cake, neemseed cake'in water and offering of filtered product eliminates the toxic effects since the toxic factors are soluble in water. 2, Steam rolling: The grain is subjected to live steam for different periods of time depending upon the pressure used prior to rolling. In case of steam preconditioning at atmospheric pressure, grain is subjected to live steam for 8 to 20 min. and temperature and moisture content of grain are 210-215°F (100°C) and 16-20%, respectively. In case of pressure (20 to 60 psi.) preconditioning, grain is subjected for 50 sec. to 2 min. ‘Temperature and moisture of the grain are 250 to 300°F (121 to 148.9°C) and 18-25% respectively. Pressure preconditioning of grains prior to rolling increases gelatinization of starch to 45-50%, Steam rolled grains are usually less dusty than dry rolled grains.326. Princes of Avia rion and Feed Teholoay 3. Steam processing and flaking: The process is a modification of steam rolling to which rigid quality control standards are practiced, ‘Afler steam Weatment, grain is passed through the roller mill. The tolerance set between the rollers depends upon the flatness of the flake desired. In order to produce a thin flake of grain, the capacity of the steam ‘chamber should be approximately 1/3rd of that ofthe roller mill. ifthe steam procemed and flaked material is to be stored for more than cone day, it must be dried 4. Pressure cooking: Pressure cooked grain are similar to steam processed and flaked grain. Grains are cooked. with live steam at 50 psi for 15 min in air tight pressure chambers. Temperature of 300°F' is obtained. The temperature is reduced to below 200°F and the moisture to 20% by passing them through cooling and drying tower prior to flaking: Pressure cooked grains are difficult to flake to the same degree of flatness (as steam processed grain) due to the spongy ature of the [pressure cooked grain. The pressure cooked grain shoul be flaked fairly thin. The capacity of roller mill to handle pressure cooked grain is about 4 times that of pressure cooker. Pressure cooked flakes are less brittle and don’t break 5, Exploding: It is accomplished by subjecting te grain to high pressure steam (to 250 psi) for about a very short time (20 sec.) followed by sudden decrease to atmospheric pressure, This results.in rapid expansion of the grain kernels. Similar to popped grain, it produces a low density product. 6. Reconstitution: Reconstituted grain is mature grain (10% moisture) to which water is added to raise the moisture level to 25-30% and the wet product is stored in an oxyger-limiting silo for 1421 days prior to feeding. Reconstitution of grain increases the solubility of the grain protein 7, Pelleting: Pelleted feeds are agglomerated feeds formed by extru- ding individual ingredients or mixtures by compacting and forcing ‘through die openings by any mechanical process. The purpose of pelleting is to change dusty ané unpalatable feed material into more palatable easy to handle larger parteles by application Of optimum amounts of heat, moisture and pressure. The normal size of pellets is 3.9 mm to 19 mm though the maximum used pellet diameter is 625 to 94mm. The shape is mostly cylindrical. If smaller pellets are required, its economical to produce 3.9 mm pellets and reduce it to the desired particle size by crumbling process. Feet Techlogy 327 Advantages of Pelleting 1. Increases the palatability of feed and thereby improves the feed intake. 2, Improves the feeding value of different feeds especially with roughages as compared to concentrates. 43, Increases the density of feed and thereby reduce the storage space required. 4. No segregation and selective feeding. 55, Reduces the wastage of feed by the animal. 6, Pelleted feed is ina free flowing form and can be handled mechanically thereby saving labour cost. 7. Heat labile inhibitors are destroyed; gelatinization of starch occurs. 8, Feeding pelleted feeds enhance the growth rate and milk production and reduce cost of the end product, meat/milk. Roughage Processing Methods Dry Processing Methods 1. Baling Field chopped Grinding Pelleting Cubing Dehydration Wet Processing Methods 1, Green Chopped 2. Soaking Processing methods such as baling, field chopped, cubing are to be done tomake handling easy, to reduce the cost of transportation and space required for storage. Baling: It is one of the most common methods used to increase convenience of handling forage. The forage is cut and permitted to dry in the field, Dried forage is then baled with a stationary or field baler. It is very popular in developed countries. Cubing: Ibis modification of wafer production. Density of long hay is 7 1b/cft while density of cubed hay and density of pelleted hay are 25-32 Ib/ ftand 40 Ib/cft, respectively. ‘At the time of cubing the hay is broken rather than ground. So there is iminium of fine particles in the cube. Most of the cubing is done with excellent quality alfalfa hay. At the time of cubing water is sprayed328 Principles of Animal Nutrition and Feed Teclogy on thé hay to zaise the moisture level to about 14%. If the hay contains ‘more than 10% grass, a satisfactory cube is difficult to make. The cuber may be either a stationary or portable type. It is popular in developed countries. Grinding: Grinding of roughages is a prerequisite for mixing and pelleting. These mechanical processes increase voluntary intake, nutritive value and facilitate preparation of complete feeds. Roughage should be ‘ground to 1-2" (25 em) long for roughage feeding, alone or from 05 to 41.0" (1.3-2.5 em) when itis tobe incorporated in complete rations. The dust loss can largely be prevented by addition of 1% tallow or water to the ‘material at the time of grinding. Addition of molasses to ground hay makes it highly palatable and increases feed intake. ‘The Effect of Grinding Roughages 1. Feeding of ground roughages reduces rumination and ramen retention time. Feed consumption is increased leading to better animal performance. 2. Fine grinding of roughage usually reduces digestibility of crude fibre due to faster rate of feed passage. Feeding finely ground feed to dairy animals result in a lower butter fat content in the milk due to lower rumen acetate production. In view of the cost of equipment, ever increasing cast of energy for running the equipment and transportation of straw to the feed plant and back to the farm, this method appears to be not feasible at farm level and questionable at commercial scale. Grinding of low quality roughage increase the dry matter digestibility compared to high quality one. It is recommended that straws/stovers be chopped or coarsely ground prior to feeding, Pelleting of Roughages ‘Roughages are usually ground before they are pelleted, size of the pellets range from 12/64" to 48/64" (48 mm to 19.1 mm). Pelleted roughages ‘weigh about 40 Ib /eft as compared to 5-6 Ib/cft for long hay- Pelleting poor quality roughages will markedly increase the consumption of roughage. In pelletising complete feeds incorporation of concentrate mixture at 30% level appear to be the upper limit for optimising the feed intake; otherwise feed intake is decreased. Feeding pellets particularly with a higher concentrate content to rumi cause parakezatosis -a degeneration of the rumen papilla. That: of diets low im forage has an adverse effect. Fead Tecmology 329 Feeding of roughage pellets ad libitum as the only feed result in increased feed consumption and milk production and decreased milk fat production. Thiseffecton milk fat can be reduced by using large pellet and by making pellets from coarsely ground roughages, Dehydration Green forage such as alfalfa lucerne can be preserved by dehydrating the forage at high temperature (600-1500°F) in a dehydrator for a short time (9-5 min), its usually done with the young growing and good quality forage. This method of forage preservation retains a maximum amount of dry matler and protein and there is no loss of leaves in the process. There isa loss of earotene (5-15%) during the process of artifical Grying. Dehydsated alfalfa pellets (17% CP) are usually used as supplement to cattle rather than as primary source of roughage. These pellets are not palatable as compared to cubed ot baled hay. Bulk Density: Bulk density of roughages is very low as compared to concentrate ingredients like cereal. grains and oil cakes, However, gtinding of roughage increases the density significantly (Table 2) which ensures uniform mixing of ground roughage with other ingredients. The increase in bulk density due to pelleting of mash feed rainge from 29 to 185% depending onthe feel and type Of roughage used in the complet ‘TABLE? Eiet of Processing on Bulk Density of Several Roughages* Bulk density (kg/m) Chopped Ground? Pelleted| Sorghum stover as 1333 wa Malzestover 503 i026 345, ton straw = 198 Sint Sunflower stave = 1667 ai Heteropogon grat aa 73 2139 Sehima grase 4 835 ama Cotton seed it 180 1980, 3560 Groundat hull? 1040 1850 as19 Maize cobs? 1480 233 350.1 Sugarcane bagasse? 556 3000 240 1. Ground ina hammer ml GOH) though mnsleve. 2. Unprocessed iw) * Re Rely nd Nora ey (1990, Deptt of Fed and Fede Technogy College of Veterinary Science, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad. a In view of low density, most of the roughages are not free flowing, and may create problemsin conveying system and other processing machines thereby affaing production rate inn oer ef ean390. Principe of Animal Nutrition end Fe Tecnology ‘TABLE 3, Space Required for Storing Various Feeds Feta Wah pera cabinet ‘eine parton jy to a es Hay 100 200, hays ght 280 = Hay chopped ‘ao » Settee to me Ss 20 ie ba = Com cack fo 2 oes a ” Wet a 2 Soyeare Sa Maseraconttes 0 a Densification of Crop Residues, Grasses and Tree Leaves High volume low value crop residues and grasses can be densified with the help of baling machines to permit there economic transport to distant places. Successful efforts have been made at the Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI), Jhansi (U.P), India to develop techniques for making high density packages of these materials so that their handling, transport, processing and storage (Table 3) become-easy and economical too. On an average, 15 sq. ft. of space will accommodate about one tonne of concentrates when they are stacked up to a height of 10 ft : 1. IGERI Manually operated Hay baler: IGFRL, Jhansi developed a portable Hay baler which is simple in design, construction, operation and maintenance and cheap compared to indigenous power operated balers. Capacity is about 25 MT. of grass can be baled per day by 3 persons. The bale on an average weighs 25 kg and have density ranging from 150 to 165 kg/m. 2. IGERI Forage Densifying Machine: It is a reciprocating ram type machine developed to produce high density bales of wheat bhusa, chaffed stovers, rice straw, grasses and tree leaves for economic storage, handling and transport. Wheat bhusa was baled at 15-36% moisture by adding 10 to 15% molasses. The output capacity of the machine is about 2.0 MT per hour. Weight of the bales is adjustable from 15 to 25 kg. Feed Tecnology 331 Feed Mixing Plant ‘A feed mixing plant has the following machinery. 1. Hammer Mills: These are versatile grinding machines for powdering most of the materials. The feed ingredient is fed into the grinding chamber of the mill where itis reduced in size by a mechanical army of hammers. The material reduced in size is drawn out through a sieve located at the base of the grinding chamber. The degree of fineness is determined solely by the size of the screen used. By changing the screen the degree of fineness can be varied to meet almost any requirement. The screen can be changed in less than one minute, Hammer are of two types: 1, Pneumatic conveying 2. Gravity fall 1. Pneumatic conveying: In these mills the ground material is conveyed pneumatically to a cyclone collector where it is disengaged and collected in bags. The feeding and bagging therefore are at a convenient level above the ground. Capacity /8 hrs. Power 6-8 tons 7SHP 2. Gravity fall: In these mitls the ground material directly falls from the bottom opening into a pit. Capacity/8hrs. Power 68 tons 5HP Note: The capacity of the mills is based on grinding of maize on 5/16" hole screen. The capacity will vary for different materials depending on the structure of the material to be ground. The capacity will also be proportionately reduced for finer mash, ‘Mixers: Horizontal mixer: Horizontal paddle mixer, saw teeth paddle mixer, twin shaft multi paddle mixer, horizontal ribbon type mixer, ete. are available to facilitate mixing of solid and liquid feedstuffs. Double Paddie Horizontal Mixers and Ribbon Blenders Capacity = Batch/kg Shift/@ hrs. Power 1. Double paddle horizontal mixer 250-300 8-10 tone 3-5HP 2. Ribbon blenders 250-300 6-Btons 5-75 HP382 _ Principles of Animal Nutrition and Fed Technology ‘Note: Capacity is based on maximum mixing time of 5 min. for each batch and discharge and bagging time of 10-12 min. for one ton of mixed feeds. ii, Vertical mixer: Capacity Batch/kg. Shif/8 hes Power 500 Btons 3HP 3. Conveying Systems Bucket elewtor: The inlet hopper is designed and positioned for uniform and accurate feed to buckets. Buckets are shaped to hold the material and elevate tothe required height. The casting is done dead straight to provide easy and dust-proof-housing for the chain and buckets. The spacing of ‘buckets is designed to attain high efficiency. BP Capacity/hour 1 15 to 2.5 tons 15. 305 tons ‘The feed ingredients to be ground as well as the powdery materials of the formula are dumped into the grinder. The ground material is lifted by the bucket elevator for mixing process. A batch holding bin is placed above the mixer to hold one batch in readiness for instant feeding to the ‘mixer no sooner it gets emptied. 4, Magnetic Separator: Magnets are used for arresting ferrous thrash from feed ingredients and final mixed feeds. Removing of the ferrous thrash is not only to free the feeds from dangerous ferrous articles, especially sharp nails and pieces, which can cause death of an invaluable animal, but also to prevent damage to costly machinery. “Magnets can be placed at various points, preferably at the point where ‘the flow is comparatively thin and at slow speed. Plate magnet is kept in the feeding hopper of hammer mill and a grid magnet or drum magnet is kkept at the mixed feed discharge chute to arrest the ferrous thrash. 5. Pellet Mill: Pelleting has become an important and necessary process in the densification of a variety of materials. However, pelleting. increases the cost of machinery and involvement of high energy. Feed Technology 333 Capacity MillmotorHP 075t0lton/hr 351040 15to2tons/hr “501060 5 to 10 tons/he 120 HP (at maximum production) 6. Packaging: Compound feeds, whether in meal or pellet form, are packed in bags or stored in bins. Bags may be filled directly from mixers, pellet coolers or holding bins and weighed before sealing. Bags may be of jute, cotton, paper or plastic and can be hand or machine stitched or tied ‘with string. The BIS standard requires that the packing of balanced cattle feed should be in clean and sound plain or polyethylene lined jute or Iaminated paper bags. However, normally the polyethylene bags are not used because of risk of sweating and mould growth. Bags used for fertilizers, pesticides or other chemicals may not be reused for filling. animal feeds. Proportional Motor Size and Cost for Feed Milling (% of Total) Feed Mill @ ton/he) Unit/Operation ‘Motor size (9) Unit cost 0%) Weighing - 7 Hlevators/ Augers 3 7 Holding bins 5 Grinding. 34 Fr Mixing (horizontal) 10 B Pelleting. 8 v ‘Steam production 1 u Pellet cooling 9 n Bag-off weigh : 7 Electrical control system 10 “0. 100. noKw Approximate Cost of Processing and Packing of Feed per MT 1. Cost of grinding and mixing mash feed Rs, 100-125 2. Cost of pelleting one MT of mash into | 3mm diameter pellets Rs. 300 3. Cost of packing in HDPE bags Rs. 220 (cost of one empty bag x 20 + misc. charges)334 _ Principles of Animal Nutrition and Fed Tecknlogy 16.0 o ho * hs a “ EH EE Figure 1, Symbolic Process Flow diagram: Feed Mill Feed Mill Design ‘The engineering and design of feed mills vary throughout the world considerably depending on the capacity of the mill, availability of feed ingredients, storage and logistics of feed, availability of labour force, etc. If labour is expensive a fully computerised mill may be the answer. Several differences can be noted in the general design of feed mills present in the United States and in the European Countries. In the US ‘most of the ingredients are transported by bucket elevators to bins above ground level. Gravity flow is then used in many cases and that is why many mills in the US have rather high profiles. Horizontal conveyors are used in many European mills. Production systems in US mills are generally located below the bins while European mills have the processing systems located on a tower next to the bins and_at the same level. In most American systems, the ingredients are ground in the first phase of production. In many European mills, raw materials are first weighed Feed Technology 335 together as a batch. Later the entire batch of feed goes through a separator where the material require grinding are diverted to pass through the hammer mill Legend 1 Intake hopper 2. Bucket elevator 13. Surge hopper (aw fed ingredients) Separator 5. Surge hopper (fed ingredients for grinding) & Feeder and magnet 2. Hammer mill, & ‘Bucket elevator 8. Surge hopper (ground mateial fr mixing) 10. Molec service tae 11, Molasses dosing tank 32, Hoontal miner 12, Surge hopper ished mash fxd) Magnet 15. Reed pecker (gunny bag) 16. Dust bag ‘An example of Soybean meal has been shown here how it is processed ina feed mixing plant. Receipt of soybeans ~> cleaning (pass through less than 3.2 mm round- hole sieve to remove foreign materials in soybean’) —> cracking (two sets of corrugated rolls) > dehulling —> conditioning (71-76°C; 9-10% moisture) ~ flaking (0.25 0.3 mum thickness) —> expanding /extruding of flakes (55-66°C; 7% moisture) -> extraction (1 kg solvent to 1 kg flakes; time 30 minutes) > desolventser toaster distillation > Soybean oil, and Soybean meal Soybean meal has poor fowability and has bridging characteristics. Addition of calcium catbonate, calcium bentonite or sodium bentonite at 0.25-0.5% level improves flowability. The soybean meal is hygroscopic. The moisture level at a given temperature and equilibrium relative |humidity is its equilibrium moisture content (EMC). The EMC of soybeans and soybean meal by desorption (lose moisture) are higher than that by adsorption under the same set of conditions. The phenomenon is known as hysteresis. Jute bag storage has self-ventilating and cooling charcteristics. Improvement of Poor Quality Roughages Charactristic Attributes of Straws Straws are low density feeds characterised by large content of structural carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicellulose), low level of starch type