UNIT II

Geometric modelling parametric representation of curves, solids & surfaces. Geometric construction
methods-Constraint based modeling- Wireframe, Surface- Bezier, B-Spline Surfaces and Solid-
Constructive Solid Geometry, Boundary representation and Cellular Decomposition.
GEOMETRIC MODELING

INTRODUCTION

Geometric modeling is a branch of applied mathematical and computational geometry

that studies methods and algorithms for mathematical description of shapes
The shapes studied in Geometric modeling are mostly 2-Dimensional or 3-Dimensional
although many of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of any finite dimension. Most
Geometric modeling is done with computer and computer-based applications. 2-Dimensions
models are important in computer typography (The art and technique of arranging type in order
to make language visible) and technical drawings. 3-Dimensional models are central to CAD
and CAD many applied technical fields. Such as civil, mechanical, architecture, geology,
medical image processing.

NEED OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

For manufacturing automobile engine it require around 10,000 drawings models in

various departments with different styles. Once models are prepared using any CAD software,
these models can be used in almost all departments of the organization which includes-
1. Designing the parts and assemblies and then performing tolerance analysis of the
assemblies.
2. Preparation of production drawings of individual parts, subassemblies, assemblies, tooling
and jig-fixtures.
3. Making structural, thermal and kinetic analysis.
4. Considering volume of parts and after extracting material properties from material library,
cost estimation can be easily done.
5. Process plans are also prepared for all the components.
6. Using CAM software’s, we can model as input for CNC programming.
7. Programming the movement of the components from one station to another is possible using
 various material devices such as robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicles.
8. Using coordinate measuring machine (CMM) dimensional and geometric accuracies are
checked by extracting various dimensions and parametric from the models only.
9. Other supporting activities such as material requirement and procurement, preparation of bill
of materials, manufacturing resource requirement, planning and scheduling, analysis.
With competitions products etc are also possible once geometric models are available
thus for all these activities, geometric models become the central that will be manipulate at all
these storages. While modeling, geometric models are prepared in such a way that the other
modules such as CAM, CAE, Mechanism systems are able to use this information in the most
optimal and efficient way.
REQUIREMENTS OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

The requirement of geometric modeling is manifold. The conceptual design is the basis of
the generation of geometric model. The choice of the geometric model depends on the
mechanical functions to be performed by it. A valid geometric model is created by CAD system
and its model database is stored. The database of geometric modeling is used for engineering
analysis and for design optimization. Design testing and evaluation may necessitate changing the
geometric model before finalizing it. When the final design is achieved, it is documented and
used for subsequent manufacturing applications, quality and cost analysis.
Good geometric model is designed based in the following important guidelines-
1. Modeling method must be easy to use
2. Completeness of part representation
3. Representation should be able to represent a useful set of geometric objects
4. Model should not create any ambiguity (The ability to express more than one interpretation)
to users. A given representation should correspond to one and only one solid
5. To represent the solid normally there should only unique way. With this one can compare
two identical solid representations
6. A geometric model must be very accurate. There should not be any approximation
7. Geometric modeling should not create any invalid or impossible models
8. The various transformations such as move, rotation, scale etc and manipulations such as
union, intersect, subtract etc should able to be performed on geometric model
9. A good representation should be compact enough for saving space and allow for efficient
algorithms to determine desired physical characteristics
10. Geometric model should have shading and rendering (Generation an image for a model by
means of a computer program) capability to give realistic effect to the model
GEOMETRIC MODELS
The geometric models are broadly classified on the basis of geometric construction into the
Following categories
1. Two Dimensional (2D)
2. Three Dimensional (3D)

Two Dimensional (2D)

The 2D modeling includes the construction of geometrical faces, plane drawings, 2D
views (Top, Front, Right, and Light views) of objects. Presently, the application of 2D model
is limited to drafting, sheet metal manufacturing, Spot welding, Laser cutting etc.
Three dimensional (3D)
The 3D modeling is widely used for engineering applications. It provides all the
information required for animation, design analysis and manufacturing. The 3D objects are
shown in below figure.

The 3D models are further sub-divided into three groups:

1. WIREFRAME MODELING:

Wireframe modeling is the oldest and simplest methods of geometric modeling which
can be used to store model mathematically in the computer memory. It contains information
about the locations of all the points (vertices) and edges in space coordinates. Various
wireframe entities are points, lines, planer arcs, circle, curves etc. Each vertex is defined by x,
y, z coordinates. Edges are defined by a pair of vertices and faces are defined as three or more
edges. Thus, wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin defining the area between the
edges. This is the lowest level of modeling and has serious limitations. But it some applications
such as tool path simulation it is very convenient to use wireframe models.
Advantages of wireframe models:
1. It is simple methods and requires less memory space
2. It forms the basis for surface and solid modeling
3. Manipulations in the model can be done easily and quickly
Disadvantages:
1. One of the serious limitations in the ambiguity of orientation and viewing plane
2. Cannot model complex curve surfaces
3. Does not represent an actual solid (no surface and volume)
4. Physical properties such as mass, surface area, volume, center of gravity etc. are not
possible to calculate
5. Wireframe models has no knowledge of surface faces; therefore, it will not detect
interface between two matting components and this is serious drawback especially in
component assembly, kinematic analysis, NC tool and robot arm simulation
2. SURFACE MODELING:

Surface modeling is the next stage of wireframe modeling. In wireframe modeling

models are unable to represent complex surfaces of objects like car, ship, aero plane, wings,
castings etc. only a surface profile of these objects. A surface model represents the skin of an
object. These skins have no thickness or material type. Surface models define the surface
properties, as well as the edges of objects. These are often capable of clearly representing the
solid from the manufacturing. However, no information regarding the interior of the solid
model would be available which could be relevant for generating the NC cutter data. Further
the calculation of properties such as mass and inertia etc would be difficult. Surface modeling
facilities would be available as part of the modeling technique and would be used when such
surface is present in the product for design. For example, this method is used mode for
specific non-analytical surfaces, called sculptures surfaces such as those used for modeling the
car bodies and ship-hulls. There are a number of mathematical techniques available for
handling these surfaces such as Bezier and B-splines.
Advantage:
1. Eliminates much ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in wireframe models by hiding
lines not seen

2. Renders the model for better visualization and presentation, objects appear more realistic
3. Provides the surface geometry for CAM, NC machine
4. Provides the geometry needed by the manufacturing engineer for mould and die design
5. This can be used to design and analysis complex free-formed surfaces of ship hulls,
aero plane fuselages and bodies
6. Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be assigned and
demonstrated
Disadvantages:
1. Provides no information about the inside of an object
2. Curved surfaces need a fine mesh to be accurate
3. Provides wrong results if mesh is too coarse
 4. Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces
3. SOLID MODELING:
Solid modeling is the most powerful of 3D modeling technique. This includes vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight and volume. This model consisting of the complete description
of the solid in a certain form is the most ideal representation, as all the information requires at
every stage of product cycle can be obtained with technique. Defining an object with a solid
model is the easiest of the available three modeling techniques. The model is a complete and
unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume. Solid model contain
bath geometric and available to represent the solid, but geometry two techniques are very
famous, these are constructive solid geometry (CSG) and boundary representation (B-rep)

Advantages:
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre of gravity and moment of inertia can
be determined quickly
2. It allows the design engineer to develop and evaluate alternative concepts for parts and
assemblies while the design is still a theoretical model.
3. Solid models are non-ambiguous
4. Easily exported to different FEM programs for analysis
5. It can be used in newly manufacturing techniques; CIM, CAM, design for manufacturing
(DFM)
6. 2D standard drawings, assembly drawings and exploded drawings are generated from the
model.

Disadvantage:

1. More intensive computation than wireframe and surface modeling

2. Requires more powerful computers (faster with the more memory)
DIFFERENCE AMONG WIREFRAME, SURFACE AND SOLID MODELING

Parameter Wireframe model Surface model Solid model

1. Computer memory Less Moderate Large

Points, line, circle,

arc, ellipse, synthetic Plane, revolve, Solid primitives as
curves, such as ruled, tabulated, cone, cube, wedge,
2. Entities used
Bezier, hermite, B- free form surfaces cylinder, sphere etc
spline etc.

3. Input data required More Moderate Less

 4. Automatic
orthographic, Impossible Impossible Easily possible
perspective, isometric
view generation
5. NC code generation Not possible Automatic possible Automatic possible

Not possible to
6. Interference between Can detect Can detect
matting parts detect

7. Rendering and shadow Not possible possible possible

effect
Not possible done Possible done
Not possible
8. Cross sectioning manually automatically

9. Elimination of hidden Done manually May be possible Possible

lines
10. Calculation of physical Possible to Possible to calculate
properties such as
Not possible calculate some all properties required
volume, surface area,
center of gravity, M.I properties for analysis
etc
11. Design parameters Not possible Not possible Possible
optimization
12. Generation of assembly
and detail drawings Not possible Not possible Possible
from model and vice
versa
Drafting, design,
manufacturing,
13. CAD/CAM/CAE Drafting Drafting, design analysis, assembly,
modules mechanism,
optimization

CURVE REPRESENTATION

• Curve is defined as the locus of point moving with one-degree freedom.

• A curve can be represented by following two methods either by storing its analytical
equation or by storing an array of co-ordinates of various points
Curves can be described mathematically by following methods:
I. Non-parametric form
a) Explicit form
b) Implicit form
II. Parametric form
I. Non-parametric form: In this, the object is described by its co-ordinates with respect tocurrent
reference frame in use.

a) Explicit form: In this, the co-ordinates of y and z of a point on curve are expressed as
twoseparate functions of x as independent variable.

P = [x y z]
= [x f(x) g(x)]
b) Implicit form: In this, the co-ordinates of x, y and z of a point on curve are related
together by two functions.
 F (x, y, z) = 0
G (x, y, z) = 0
Limitation of nonparametric representation of curves are:
1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity
or very large, a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and
programming-wise. Other ill-defined mathematical conditions may result.
2. Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate
system. What determines the shape of an object is the relationship between its data
points themselves and not between these points and some arbitrary coordinate system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight-line segments, the
computations involved could be extensive.
Parametric form:

In this, a parameter is introduced and the co-ordinates of x, y and z are expressed as functions
of this parameters. This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for points on curve.
P (u) = [x y Z ]
= [x (u) y (u) z (u)]
Classification of Curves
 Curves can be classified as shown below mainly in two categories:
1. Analytical Curves:
 The curves which are defined by the analytical equations are known as analytical
curves.
 Examples: line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola etc.
2. Synthetic Curves:
 The curves which are defined by set of data points are known as synthetic curves.
 Combination of polynomial segments to represent a desired curve is called a
synthetic curve.
 These curves can be conveniently twisted, shaped or bent by changing the control
points.
 Examples: Cubic spline curve, B-spline curve, Bezier curve etc.
 Synthetic curves take up where the analytic curves leave – the latter are not that
efficient at geometric design of mechanical parts.
 Need for synthetic curves arise in two occasions:
 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured data points,
 When an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements the
designer needs a curve representation that is directly related to the data
points and is flexible enough to bend, twist or change the shape by
changing one or more data points.
 Some examples of complex geometric design are: Car bodies, Ship hulls, Airplane
fuselage and wings, Propeller blades, Shoe insoles, aesthetically designed bottles
etc.
 When the curve pass through all the data points, then the curve is known as
Interpolant curve. It sounds more logical but can be more unstable and ringing.
 When a smooth curve is approximated through the data points, then the curve is
 known as approximation curve. It turns out to be convenient.

(a) Interpolation

(b) Approximation

Fig.2.1Interpolant and Approximated Curves

 Synthetic curve pass through defined data points and can thus represented by
polynomial equations.
 The parametric form for any synthetic curve is:
P u C 3u3 C 2 u2 C 1u C 0

where, u = Parameter and Ci = Polynomial coefficients

Parametric representation of analytical curve
 Lines
 A line can be represented in a parametric form by an input of two endpoints or by one
point and a length and direction. Besides these, modifiers and filters can be used to
represent these lines. The two important methods of establishing equations for lines
are considered.
A line connecting two endpoints in parametric form, having the values of parameter u as 0
and 1 at the endpoints:

Fig 2.2 Line between Two Endpoints

 Consider a line between two given endpoints P1 (x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) as shown
in Fig. 2.2. The position vectors for these two points would be P 1 and P2. Consider any
point P (x, y, z) on the line P1 P2.