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REVIEW ON LOTION AS A SKIN CARE PRODUCTS

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DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20224-21601

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 WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
Vishvam et al. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences
SJIF Impact Factor 7.632

Volume 11, Issue 4, 503-519 Review Article ISSN 2278 – 4357

REVIEW ON LOTION AS A SKIN CARE PRODUCTS

Vishvam Kunde*, Sneha Sonawane, Akshay Katkale and Siddhant Hagavane

SMBT College of Pharmacy, Nandi-Hills, Dhamagaon, Nashik, Maharashtra-422403, India.

Article Received on ABSTRACT

24 January 2022, The lotion is a semisolid liquid dosage form that contains one or more
Revised on 14 Feb. 2022,
Accepted on 04 March 2022, active ingredients in an appropriate vehicle. Lotions are liquids for a
DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20224-21601 cutaneous application that are intended to be applied to the unbroken
skin without friction. They are aqueous, alcohol, or polyols-based

*Corresponding Author solutions or suspensions containing topically active therapeutic agents.

Vishvam Kunde A lotion is a low viscosity topical preparation intended for application
SMBT College of Pharmacy, to the skin. By contrast, creams and gels have a higher viscosity,
Nandi-Hills, Dhamagaon,
typically due to lower water content. Lotion is applied to external skin
Nashik, Maharashtra-
with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or cotton wool. Lotions are
422403, India.
usually a suspension of solids in an aqueous medium, some lotions are,
in fact, emulsions or solutions. Lotions may contain antimicrobial preservatives and another
appropriate excipients such as stabilizers etc. Lotions are used for their cooling, soothing,
protective, and moisturizing effect and also therapeutic effect depending on ingredients used.

KEYWORDS: Lotion, semisolid, Moisturizer, skincare, Topical, Humectant.

INTRODUCTION
Definition
Lotions are defined as a monophasic or biphasic solution, emulsion, or suspension design to
apply on unbroken and also broken or inflamed skin without friction.[1]

Lotion is a liquid application mainly for the skin, to produce a beautifying effect. The main
characteristic sought after by users of lotion is an emollient and soothing effect. There are,
however, other desirable properties built into the numerous products of this type like
astringency, skin freshening effect ‗bite‘ in aftershave lotion bleaching, and medicinal
properties.[2] A lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to the
skin. By contrast, lotion and gels have a higher viscosity, typically due to lower water

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content. Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or cotton
wool.[3,4] While a lotion may be used as a medicine delivery system, many lotions, especially
hand lotions and body lotions and lotion for allergies are meant instead to simply smooth,
moisturize, soften and, sometimes, perfume the skin.[5,6] A lotion may below-to medium-
viscosity medicated or no medicated topical preparation, meant for application to unbroken
skin. Lotions are sometimes applied to external skin with clean hands, a clean fabric, cotton,
or gauze. Solid particles incorporated in lotions ought to be in an exceedingly finely divided
state to avoid grittiness.[6] Lotions maintain the skin's hydration levels by locking in the
moisture, keeping the skin healthy, soft, and supple. Unlike a cream, the lotions are less
greasy and have more spots.[6] Lotion increases the skin's hydration (water content) by
reducing evaporation. Naturally occurring skin lipids and sterols, as well as artificial or
natural oils, humectants, emollients, lubricants, etc., may be part of the composition of
commercial skin moisturizers. Lotion is liquids for a cutaneous application that are intended
to be applied to the unbroken skin without friction they are aqueous, alcohol, or polyols-
based solutions or suspension containing topically active therapeutic agents.[7]

Anatomy Skin
The skin is the largest organ of the body, accounting 15% of the overall weight. It performs
several very important functions, with protection against external physical, chemical, and
biological assailants, similarly as prevention of excess water loss from the body and a role in
thermoregulation. The skin is continuous, with the mucous membranes lining the body‘s
surface.[8] The system is made by the skin and its by-product structures. The skin is composed
of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The outermost level, the
epidermis, consists of a selected constellation of cells called keratinocytes that perform to
synthesize albuminoid, a long, threadlike supermolecule with a protecting role. The middle
layer, the dermis, is fundamentally made up of the fibrillar structural protein known as
collagen. The dermis lies on the connective tissue, or panniculus, that contains tiny lobes of
fat cells called lipocytes. The thickness of those layers varies significantly, betting on the
geographic location on the anatomy of the body. The eyelid, for instance, has the thinnest
layer of the epidermis, measuring but 0.1 mm, whereas the palms and soles of the feet have
the thickest stratum layer, measuring approximately 1.5 mm. The dermis is thickest on the
overlying epidermis, wherever it's 30–40 times as thick because of the superjacent
epidermis.[9,10]

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Fig. 1: Skin.

Types of skin
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis
3. Subcutaneous

Epidermis
The epidermis is a stratified, squamous epithelium layer that's composed primarily of two
varieties of cells: keratinocytes anfibeve fiber cells. The keratinocytes are different from the
―clear‖ nerve fiber cells by possessing intracellular bridges and ample amounts of inclination
cytoplasm.[11] The epidermis harbors a variety of alternative cell populations, like
melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells, however, the keratinocyte cell type contains
the majority of the cells by far. The cuticle normally is split into four layers according to
keratinocyte morphology and position as they differentiate into attractive cells, including the
basal cell layer (stratum germinativum), the epithelial cell layer (stratum spinosum), the
granular cell layer (stratum granulosum), and also the cornified or attractive cell layer
(stratum corneum). The lower three layers that represent the living, cell organ cells of the
epidermis are typically observed because of the stratum Malpighi and structure
histologist.[11,12] The epidermis may be a frequently renewing layer and provides rise to by-
product structures, like pilosebaceous apparatuses, nails, and sweat glands. The basal cells of
the epidermis undergo proliferation cycles that give for the renewal of the outer epidermis
The epidermis may be a dynamic tissue within which cells are constantly in unsynchronised
motion, as differing individual cell populations pass not only one another also conjointly
melanocytes and Langerhans cells as they move toward the surface of the skin.[11,12,13]

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Dermis
The demis is an integrated system of fibrous, thin, and amorphous connective tissue that
accommodates stimulus-induced entry by nerve and vascular networks, epidermal derived
appendages, fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells. Different blood-borne cells, as well as
lymphocytes, plasma cells, and different leukocytes, enter the corium in response to various
stimuli also. The dermis includes the majority of the skin and provides pliability, elasticity,
and strength.[14] It protects the body from mechanical injury, binds water, aids in thermal
regulation, and includes receptors of sensory stimuli. The dermis interacts with the epidermis
in maintaining the properties of each tissue. The two regions collaborate throughout
development within the development of the dermal-epidermal junction and epidermal
appendages and interact in repairing and transforming the skin as wounds are recovered. The
dermis doesn't undergo a clear sequence of differentiation that parallels epidermal
differentiation, however, the structure and organization of the connective tissue elements are
predictable in a depth-dependent manner. The matrix elements, as well as collagen and elastic
connective tissue, also vary in a depth-dependent manner and undergo turnover and
transforming in traditional skin, in pathologic processes, and response to external
stimuli.[13,15] The constituents of the dermis are mesodermal in origin aside from nerves,
which, like melanocytes, derive from the neural crest. Until the sixth week of fetal life, the
dermis is simply a pool of dendritic-shaped cells filled with acid-mucopolysaccharides, which
are the precursors of fibroblasts. By the 12th week, fibroblasts are actively synthesizing
reticulum fibers, elastic fibers, and scleroprotein. A vascular network develops and fat cells
have appeared to a lower place the dermis by the 24th week. Infant dermis consists of tiny
collagen bundles, whereas the adult dermis contains thicker bundles of collagen. Several
fibroblasts are present within the infant dermis, however, few continue adulthood.[9,16] The
principal element of the dermis is collagen, a fibrous family of proteins with a minimum of
fifteen genetically distinct varieties in human skin. A major structural protein for the whole
body, collagen is found in tendons, ligaments, the liner of bones, and also the dermis.
Collagen is a major stress-resistant material of the skin. Elastic fibers, on the other hand, play
a task in maintaining physical property however do very little to resist deformation and
tearing of the skin. Collagen fibers exist in a constant state of flux, being degraded by
chemical change enzymes known as spare collagenases and replaced by new fibers. Collagen
represents 70th of the skin‘s dry weight. Fibroblasts integrate the procollagen molecule, a
selected volute polypeptide chain. Then, the cell secretes the fibroblasts, and they assemble
into collagen fibrils. The amino acids glycine, amino acid, and hydroxylysine extremely

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enrich collagen. The fibrillar collagens found in the skin comprise the main group and are the
most abundant proteins within the body. The main constituent of the demis is type I collagen.
Loosely positioned collagen fibers are found in the process and tissue layer dermis, whereas
hefty collagen bundles are noted within the reticulated dermis. Type IV collagen is found
within the basement membrane zone, and therefore the major structural component of
anchoring fibrils is collagen type VII, which is created primarily by keratinocytes.[17] The
elastic fiber differs structurally and chemically from collagen and consists of two
components: supermolecule filaments and scleroprotein, an amorphous protein. The
fibroblast fuses elastic fiber to the extracellular matrix of the dermis that consists of
glycosaminoglycans. The fibers are fine within the processed dermis and coarse in the
reticulated dermis. Hyaluronic acid is a minor element of the traditional corium however that
is the major mucopolysaccharide that accumulates in pathologic states.[16] The location of the
nucleus in the center of the muscle fibre and therefore the absence of striation distinguishes
smooth muscle from striated muscle.[12,17] The muscle fibers of the arrectores pilorum are set
within the connective tissue of the upper dermis and are connected to the hair follicle below
the fatty glands. They are located at such an angle to the hair follicle that when contracted,
the hair follicle is pulled into a vertical position, deforming the skin and causing
―gooseflesh‖. Completely different configurations compose small bundles of the smooth
muscle of the muscularis of veins and arteries. Glomus bodies are specialized aggregates of
smooth muscle found between the arterioles and venules, which exist on the digits and lateral
aspects of the palms and soles. They regulate body temperature and shunt blood Striated or
voluntary muscles are found within the skin of the neck as plasma and in the skin of the face
as the muscle of expression. The superficial muscular aponeurotic system is an intricate
network of muscle, fascia, and aponeuroses connecting muscles with the elements that they
move.[9,18]

Subcutaneous
The subcutaneous tissue (from Latin subcutaneous 'beneath the skin'), also referred to as the
hypodermis is, hypoderm (from Greek 'beneath the skin'), subcutis, superficial fascia, is the
lowermost layer of the system in vertebrates. The types of cells found in the layer are
fibroblasts, adipose cells, and macrophages. The subcutaneous tissue is derived from the
mesoderm, however, in contrast to the dermis, it is not derived from the mesoderm's
dermatome region. It consists primarily of loose connective tissue, and contains larger blood
vessels and nerves than those found in the demis. It‘s a serious site of fat storage within the

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body. In arthropods, a hypodermis will can an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the
chitinous cuticle. The term also refers to a layer of cells lying instantly below the epidermis
of plants.[19] Embryologically, toward the end of the fifth-month fat cells begin to develop
within the subcutaneous tissue. These lobules of fat cells or lipocytes are separated by fibrous
septa created of large blood vessels and collagen. The panniculus varies in thickness
depending on the skin site. Considered an endocrine organ, the subcutaneous tissue provides
the body with buoyancy and functions as a storage of energy. Hormone conversion takes
place in the panniculus, converting androstenedione into estrone by aromatase. Lipocytes
produce leptin, a secretion that regulates body weight by method of the hypothalamus .cell
proliferation in the epidermis and in epithelial tissue in general and the fact that this tissue is
most frequently exposed to physical and chemical injury lead to the exeedingly high rate of
skin cancers found in humans as compared with different forms of cancer.[19,20]

Function of skin[21]
Skin performs the following functions
a) Protection
An anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external
environment in bodily defence, Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive
immune system.

b) Sensation
Contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and
tissue injury, see somatosensory system and haptics.

c) Heat regulation
The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise
control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels
increase perfusion and heat loss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous
blood flow and conserve heat.

d) Control of evaporation
The skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this
function contributes to the massive fluid loss in burns.

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e) Aesthetics and communication

Others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.

f) Storage and synthesis

Acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of
vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.

g) Water resistance
The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients aren't washed out of the body.

Ideal properties of lotion[22,23]

 It should physically and chemically stable.
 It should have optimum pH.
 It should be non-sticky.
 It should give a cooling effect.
 It must be non-irritant.
 It must be non-inflammatory.
 It should be attractive.
 Penetration through the epidermis of the skin should be desirable.
 Consistency should be optimum.
 Rubbed easily on the skin without role on effect.

Advantages of Lotion[23]
 Also can apply to broken skin
 No first-pass metabolism
 Local therapeutic effect
 Easy to use and portable
 More stable than liquid
 No need of rubbing or massage
 Easy to apply
 Simple and easy to formulate.

Disadvantages of Lotion[24]
 Less stable than solid dosage form
 Need to shake the container before use in case of emulsion / suspension type of lotion

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 Babies can swallow if applied to hand.

Types of lotions[25]
Lotions are classified in following classes as.
a) Simple Lotion
b) Therapeutic Lotion
c) Suspension Type Lotion
d) Emulsion Type Lotion

a) Simple Lotion
This kind of lotion is used. They are used kind cooling and soothing effect for smooth skin.
Moisture in the body also provide humectant effect.

b) Therapeutic Lotion
Therapeutic lotions contain different kind of therapeutic agent depending on desired effect
required. E.g. calamine lotion as protectant and astringent and salicylic acid lotion as
keratolytic bacteriostatic and fungi static.

c) Suspension Type of Lotion

Some lotions contain insoluble solids called suspension type of lotion. Here, bentonite,
sodium carboxy methyl cellulose uses as suspending agent. E.g. calamine, Sulphur, zinc
oxide.

d) Emulsion Type of Lotion

These are diluted lotions with o/w emulsion stabilize by emulsifying agents like emulsifying
wax. E.g. Benzoyl benzoate lotion.

Ingredients use in lotion

1. Oil
Oil is another key ingredient use in lotion. Some ingredient will required for liquid oils while
others will require for solid oils or butters, and there are many varieties to decide on from
avocado, coconut, shea, and olive oils are used in preparation of lotion.

2. Humectant
Humectant are substance that attract water from the air or from deeper in the skin.

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A humectant is a common moisturizing agent found in lotions, shampoos, and alternative

beauty product used for skin. They‘re known for their ability to retain [Link] the skin
and hair.[26] E.g. glycol, propylene glycol.

3. Emollients
Emollient are substances that soften and moisturize the skin decrease itching and flaming dry
skin is caused by loss of water in upper layer of skin. Emollient work by forming an oily
layer on top of skin that traps water in skin.

4. Emulsifier
An emulsifier (also called an ―emulgent‖) is a substance that stabilizes an emulsion by
increasing its kinetic stability. One clas of emulsifiers is known as ―surface active agents‖, or
surfactants. Emulsifiers work because their molecules have two partss: one part loves water
and one part loves [Link] though oil and water are the two largest ingredients for making
lotions, they will not combine without help. Emulsifiers help the two ingredients mix and stay
mixed for a smooth, uniform lotion.[27]

E.g. Cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate

5. Anti-Oxidant
Antioxidant are substances that can prevent a slow damage to cell cause by free radicals
unstable molecules that the body produce an a reaction to environment other prevention Fine
lines, wrinkles, loose skin, acne breakouts, and a blotchy skin tone are all signs of oxidative
stress, which breaks down collagen, hampers skin's natural repair process, and causes
inflammation. Antioxidants can help prevent and repair these obvious indications by
removing free radicals, giving skin a more youthful look. Antioxidants come in a variety of
forms, some of which are more powerful than others. Topical skin care treatments containing
antioxidant can protect cells from UV light, pollution, and other environmental conditions
that might cause free radical damage.[28]

6. Preservatives
These agent have the ability to prevent the growth of microorganism they are usually to
maintain the stability of the for desired period of time. All lotions need preservatives to
prevent the various ingredients from deterioration citric acid is one of the most common
selections, and it also helps lower the pH of the lotion to be additional appropriate for various
skin type.[29]

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7. Colour
Addition of colour gives pleasant appearance to the preparation. The added colour must
stable in lotion.

8. Bacteriostatic
Medicated lotion passes this properties E.g. phenol, thymol, boric acid etc.

9. Cooling effect
Cooling effect is desired when a lotion are used on the skin E.g. menthol are generally used
in preparation of lotion.[28,29]

Evaluation of lotion
1) Visual appearance
The appearance of the lotion was evaluate by its colour pearlscence and roughness and
graded.[35]

2) Determination of pH
The PH of prepared lotion was evualated by means of PH analyser at room temperature PH
should be nutral.[31]

Figure 2: pH meter.

3) Viscosity: The viscosity of lotion was determined using Brookfield viscometer.

4) Determination of water content

The 10g of the material was weighed and transferred it into the flask. 200ml of toluene and
few pieces of pumice stone was added and connected the apparatus with condenser. The flask
was heated until toluene was begin to boil and refluxed. When the H2O was distilled over
source of heat was removed.[36]

Water % by mass = V X D x 100/ M

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Where,
V = volume of water in ml at room temperature collecting in receiving tube
D = density of water at room temperature
M = Mass in gm of the material taken for the test.

5) Patch test
About 1-3gm of material to be tested was placed on a bit a piece or funnel and applied to the
sensitive a part of the skin e.g. skin behind ears. The cosmetic to be tested was applied to a
region of 1sq.m. of the skin. Management patches (of similar cosmetic of well-known brand)
were also applied. The location of patch is inspected after 24 hrs. As there was no reaction
the check was repeated thrice. As no reaction was determined on third application, the
person may be taken as not hypersensitized.[32,33]

6) Microbial examination of lotion

1g of material was weighed and aseptically transferred into the conical flask containing 50ml
of dil. phosphate buffer at pH 7.2 and pipette out 1ml portion into 3 sterile plates. Melted
soyabean casein digest agar (SCDA) medium was poured over it (at 45°C) and cooled. After
that plates were rotated to mix properly. Then the plates were incubated at 30 ± 40°C for 74
hrs in an inverted portion. Average number of colonies was determined by multiplying the
dilution factor.[30]

7) Accelerated stability testing

Accelerated stability testing of prepared formulations were conducted at 40 ± 2°C
temperature and 75± 5% relative humidity and studied for 10 days.[34]

8) Test for thermal stability: Thermal stability of the formulation was determined by the
humidity chamber controlled at 60- 70% RH and 37 ± 1°C.[37]

Applications[38,39]
1. Skin softening
Regular use of lotion provides protection from environmental damage, while the mineral oils
form a waterproof layer over the epidermis, helping to heal the skin by sealing in moisture.

2. Smoothing
With regular use, a replenishing lotion can ease rough skin and create it as smooth and glossy
because the rest of your body.

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3. Cooling
Cooling Cream is a wealthy and soothing moisturising lotion designed to cool down hot or
flushed skin.

4. Moisturizing
They increase the skin's hydration (water content) by reducing evaporation. Naturally
occuring skin lipids and sterols, further as artificial or natural oils, humectants, emollients,
lubricants, etc., a part of the composition of commercial skin moisturizers.

5. Anti-allergic
Lotions can be used to temporarily relieve itching and pain caused by minor
burns/cuts/scrapes, sunburn, insect bites, minor skin irritations, or rashes from poison ivy,
poison oak, or poison sumac.

6. Antiseptic
Cuts and grazes, minor burns and scalds, tiny areas of sunburn, dry chapped skin, diaper rash,
bug bites, spots and pimples can all be treated with this antiseptic lotion, which also 9protects
against infection.

7. Humectant
Lotion humectants serve a dual purpose: drawing moisture to the surface of the skin while
enhancing the skin's own hydrating ability. They do thus with substances that stimulate
moisture production in the dermis while encouraging the growth of new cells within the
epidermis.

8. Astringent
Astringents in lotion are water-based skin care product used to remove excess oil from the
skin, tighten pores, and remove leftover makeup. A product very almost like astringents used
nowday is "toner." Astringents are more effective for oily and acne-prone skin and toners for
dry skin.

9. Antiacne
Lotions are used for the treatment of skin disease. Penetrates pores to clear most skin
disease blemishes, skin disease pimples, blackhead, and whiteheads. Helps stop the
development of new skin disease blemishes, blackheads, and whiteheads.

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10. Anti-inflammatory
Topical anti-inflammatory lotions are used to ease muscle pains, sprains and strains. They
can also help to ease painful inflammatory disease. Topical anti-inflammatory drug Lotion
are generally prescribed rather than oral anti-inflammatory medicines as a result of them need
fewer side-effects.

11. Cleaning
Cleansing lotions are skin cleaning products that are formulated to clear away dirt, impurities,
grime, pollution, dead cells, and makeup traces from the skin, thereby allowing it to breathe.

12. Protective
It helps to lock in the moisture and also works as a defence system for the skin by protecting
it from sun exposure, UV radiation, and environmental aggressors.

13. Scabicidal
Products used to treat infection are referred to as scabicides because they kill scabies mites;
some also kill mite eggs. Scabicides used to treat human infection are on the market only
with a doctor's prescription.

14. Local anaesthetic

Topical anaesthetics of lotion are used to relieve pain and skin sensation caused by
conditions like sunburn or different minor burns, insect bites or stings, poison ivy, poison
oak, poison sumac, and minor cuts and scratches. Topical anaesthetics deaden the nerve
endings in the skin.

15. Paraciticide
Lotion is employed as a moisturizer to treat or stop dry, rough, scaly, itchy skin and minor
skin irritations (e.g., diaper rash, skin burns from radiation therapy). Emollients are
substances that soften and moisturise the skin and reduce itching and flaking.

16. Germicide
Germicides are chemical agents in lotion that destroy microorganisms that cause illness.
Topical antiseptics are applied to the skin, nails or mucous secretion membranes to cleanse
wounds and stop infections.

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17. Antifungal
Antifungal lotion are wont to treat fungal infections. They target processes and
structures distinctive to fungi so as to kill fungal cells or stop them from growing.

18. Fairness
Fairness lotions are enriched with a lot of skin-brightening ingredients that help in evening
out your complexion by reducing the appearance of dark spots, pigmentation and textured
skin.

19. Antiaging
It temporarily plumps the skin, creating lines and wrinkles less visible. Moisturizers are
lotions, creams, gels and serums made from water, oils and alternative ingredients, like
proteins, waxes, glycerin, lactate and urea. Wrinkle creams usually are moisturizers with
active ingredients that provide additional advantages.

CONCLUSION
Lotion are designed to stop moisture leaving skin, or absorb water from elsewhere to keep
skin soft, smooth lotions are available in all categories depending on your skin type and the
ingredient may need for perfect nourishment. Lotion are semisolid formulations widely
acceptable by the world wide the skin is the most accessible part of the body and as such is
also highly vulnerable to injuries. In case of cuts, burns and wounds, topical formulations
such as Lotion are the most preferred for treatment. Research and development for the
formulation of pharmaceutical creams for wound healing purpose has grown in recent
decades owing to its obvious benefits.

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2. Modern cosmetics by E.G. Thomssen, universal Publishing Corporation, 205.
3. Remington, Joseph Price Beringer, Paul (ed.), Remington: The Science and Practice of
Pharmacy (21st ed.), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006; 772.
4. McDonald, Michel (July). "What's The Difference Between An Ointment, A Cream And
A Lotion? ABC News. Retrieved, 2 January 2016.
5. "Soaps & Lotions". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved, 2 January 2016.

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8. Kanitakis, J. Anatomy, histology and immunohistochemistry of normal human skin.
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9. James, W.D., Berger, T.G., & Elston, D.M. Andrews‘ diseases of the skin: Clinical
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10. Ross and Wilson. Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness, 11eth.
11. Young, Barbara Wheater's functional histology a text and colour atlas. Elsevier, 2014;
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