STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

AET 05109G & MET 05107G

Lecture One

Simple stresses and strain

By; Geofrey Leonard

 Simple stresses and strain
1.1. INTRODUCTION
• When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to
undergo some deformation. Due to cohesion between the
molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by
which material of the body opposes the deformation is known as
strength of material.
• Within a certain limit (i.e., in the elastic stage) the resistance
offered by the material is proportional to the deformation
brought out on the material by the external force. Also within
this limit the resistance is equal to the external force (or applied
load). But beyond the elastic stage, the resistance offered by
the material is less than the applied load. In such a case, the
deformation continues, until failure takes place.
• Within elastic stage, the resisting force equals the applied load.
This resisting force per unit area is called stress or intensity of
stress.
1.2. STRESS
• The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body
against deformation is known as stress. The external force
acting on the body is called the load or force.
𝐏
• Mathematically stress is written as, σ =
𝐀
where σ = Stress (also called intensity of stress),
P = External force or load, and
A = Cross-sectional area.
In the S.I. units, the force is expressed in newtons (written as
N) and area is expressed as 𝐦𝟐 .
• Hence unit of stress becomes as 𝐍ൗ𝐦𝟐 . The area is also
expressed in millimetre square then unit of force becomes as
N/mm2 .
1.3. STRAIN
• When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some
change of dimension of the body. The ratio of change of
dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as
strain. Strain is dimensionless.
• Strain may be :
1. Tensile strain, 2. Compressive strain,
3. Volumetric strain, and 4. Shear strain.
• If there is some increase in length of a body due to external
force, then the ratio of increase of length to the original length
of the body is known as tensile strain.
• But if there is some decrease in length of the body, then the
ratio of decrease of the length of the body to the original length
is known as compressive strain. The ratio of change of volume of
the body to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.
• The strain produced by shear stress is known as shear strain.
1.4 Types of stresses
• The stress may be normal stress or a shear stress.
• Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to
the area. It is represented by σ (sigma). The normal stress is further
divided into tensile stress and compressive stress.

The stress induced in a body, when

subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as
shown in fig. 1.1 (a) as a result of which
there is an increase in length, is
known as tensile stress. The ratio of
increase in length to the original length is
Fig 1.0 Normal stress
known as tensile strain. The tensile stress
acts normal to the area and it pulls on the
area.
• P = Pull (or force) acting on the body,
• A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
• L = Original length of the body,
• dL = Increase in length due to pull P acting on
the body,
• a = Stress induced in the body, and
• e = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).
• 1.4.2. Compressive Stress.
The stress induced in a body, when
subjected to two equal and opposite
pushes as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) as a result
of which there is a decrease in the length
of the body, is known as compressive
stress. The ratio of the decrease in
length to the original length is known as
compressive strain. The compressive
stress acts normal to the area and it
pushes on the area.
Compressive Stress
 1.4.3 Shear stress
• Shear stress: defined as the stress induced in a body, when
subject to two equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which
the body tends to shear off across the section.

Note that shear stress is tangential

to the area over which it acts
• As the bottom face of the block is fixed,
the face ABCD will be distorted to
ABC1D1 hrough an angle Φ as a result of P
as in figure below.

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
• Shear strain (Φ) =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝑫

Or

𝑫𝑫𝟏 𝒅𝒍
• Φ = =
𝑨𝑫 𝒉
1.5. ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT
• When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo
some deformation. If the external force is removed and the body
comes back to its origin shape and size (which means the deformation
disappears completely), the body is known as an elastic body.
• This property under which certain materials return to their original
position after the removal of the external force, is called elasticity.
• A material will return to its original shape after deformation if the
force applied stays within its elastic limit. If the force exceeds this
limit, the material loses its ability to fully recover, leaving a permanent
deformation.
• The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as
the elastic limit of the material.
 HOOKE’S LAW
• Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic
limit, the stress is proportional to the strain produced by the
stress.
• This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a
constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of
Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Modulii.
• The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant. This ratio is known as Young’s
Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity and is denoted by E.

𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

•𝑬 = or
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
• Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.
The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain
within the elastic limit, is known as Modulus of Rigidity or
Shear Modulus. This is denoted by C or G or N.
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑮 𝒐𝒓 𝑵 =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
• FACTOR OF SAFETY
• It is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the
working (or permissible) stress. Mathematically it is written
as
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
Factor of safety =
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

• One-Dimensional Stress System. The relationship between stress and strain for a
unidirectional stress (i.e., for normal stress in one direction only) is given by Hooke’s
law.
• This mean that the ratio of the normal stress to the corresponding strain is a
constant within the elastic limit.
• This constant is represented by E and is known as the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus of elasticity.

(Stress and strain relation for the normal stress in one direction)
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
= 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭, or = E
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆
Where σ = Normal stress, e= Strain and E= Young’s modulus
𝝈
Or e =
𝑬
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE TEST)
• A Limit of proportionality; It is the point where the linear
nature of the stress-strain graph ceases
• B Elastic limit; It is the limiting point for the condition that
material behaves elastically, but Hooke’s law does not apply.
For most practical purposes it can be often assumed that
the limit of proportionality and elastic limits are the same.
• Beyond the elastic limits, there will be some permanent
deformation or permanent set when the load is removed
• C (Upper Yield point), D (Lower yield point) Points after
which strain increases without a correspondingly high
increase in load or stress.
• E Ultimate or maximum tensile stress; Point where the
necking starts
• F Fracture point
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Two direction system
• Longitudinal strain is a measure of the deformation
(specifically, the change in length) in a material when
subjected to a force along its length. It is defined as the
ratio of the change in length (ΔL) to the original length (L0)
of the material.
• Longitudinal strain does not have any units because it is a
ratio of lengths. It can occur in two forms:
[Link] strain, if the material is stretched (increase in
length).
[Link] strain, if the material is compressed
(decrease in length).
Lateral strain is the strain that occurs perpendicular to the
direction of applied force in a material. When a material
undergoes deformation due to longitudinal stress (stretching
or compressing along its length), it also experiences a change
in its lateral dimensions (width, thickness, or diameter).
Lateral strain measures this change in the perpendicular
direction relative to the original dimension.
 Poisson’s ratio
• Poisson's ratio, denoted by the Greek letter μ, is a material
property that describes the ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain in a material when it is subjected to
uniaxial stress (a force applied in one direction).
• Shows how a material contracts or expands in directions
perpendicular to the direction of stretching or compression.
 • Relationship between stress and strain. Consider a two-dimensional
figure ABCD, subjected to two mutually perpendicular stresses.

The stress will produce strain in the direction of x and also in the direction
of y. The strain in the direction of x will be longitudinal strain and will be
𝝈𝟏
equal to whereas the strain in the direction of y will be literal strain and
𝑬
𝝈𝟏
will be equal to (-𝑾 × ).
𝑬
• For Three Dimensional Stress System. Fig. 1.5 (b) shows a three-
dimensional body subjected to three orthogonal normal stress σ1, σ2, σ3
acting in the directions of x, y and Z respectively.

• The stress 𝝈𝟏 will produce strain in the direction of

x and also in the direction of Y and Z. The strain in
𝝈𝟏
the direction of X will be WHERE as strain in the
𝑬
𝝈𝟏
direction of Y and Z will be −𝝁.
𝑬
𝝈𝟐
• Similarly the stress 𝝈𝟐 will produced strain 𝒆 =
𝑬
𝝈𝟐
in the direction of y and strain δ of - μ in the
𝑬
direction of x and y each.
 𝜎3
• Also the stress 𝜎2 will produce strain the direction of z and strain
𝜎3 𝐸
of −𝜇 × the direction of x and y.
𝐸

• The above three equations giver the stress and strain relationship for
the three orthogonal normal stress system.
Problem 1.1 A rod 150cm long and of diameter 2.0cm is subjected to
an axial pull of 20 kN. If the modulus of elasticity of the material of the
rod is 2 × 105 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 , determine:
(i) the stress
(ii) the strain, and
(iii) the elongation of the rods.
• Given : Length the rod, L = 150 cm
Diameter of rod, D = 2.0 cm = 20mm
𝜋
𝐴= (20)2 =
100π 𝑚𝑚2
4
𝑃 = 20𝐾𝑁 = 20,000𝑁
Module of elasticity E= 2 × 105 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2
Problem 1.3. A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The
following data was obtained from the test:
(i) Diameter of the steel bar = 3cm
(ii) Gauge length of the bar = 20cm
(iii) Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
(iv) Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21mm
(v) Maximum load = 380 kN
(vi) Total extension = 60mm
(vii) Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25cm
 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS
• A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross-
sectional areas) is shown in Fig.1.4. Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.

• Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses,
strains and change in length will be different. The total change in length will be
obtained by adding the changes in length of individual section.
• Then, stress for the section 1,
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
σ1 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝐴1
• Similarly stresses for the section 2 and section 3 are given as,
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎3 =
𝐴2 𝐴3
• Strain in different sections
Section 1:
Problem. An axial pull of 35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three
lengths as shown in Fig.1.6 (b). If the Young's modulus = 2.1 x 105
N/mm2, determine.
(i) Stresses in each section and
(ii) total extension of the bar
(ii) Total extension of the bar
Problem 1.5. A member formed by connecting a steel bar to aluminum
for bar is shown in Fig.1.7. Assuming that the bars are presented from
buckling, sideways, calculate the magnitude of force P that will causes
the total length of the member to decrease 0.25mm. The values of
elastic modulus for steel and aluminum are 2.1 x 106 N/mm2 and 7 x
104 N/mm2 respectively.
 Principle of Superposition
• When a number of Loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain,
according to the principle of superposition, will be the algebraic sum
of strains caused by individual loads.
• While, using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a
number of direct forces (tensile or compressive) at different sections
along the length of the body, first the free body diagram of individual
section is drawn. Then the deformation of each section is obtained.
• The total deformation of the body will be then equal to the algebraic
sum of deformation of the individual sections.
• Problem 1.6 A brass bar, having a cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2, is
subjected to axial forces as shown in Fig. Fig. 1.7 Bar with the same cross-
section and Axial loads Find the total elongation of the bar, Take E = 1.05 x 105
N/mm2

• Sol. Given:
Area A = 1000mm2
Value of E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2
Let d = Total elongation of the bar
The force of 80 kN acting at B is split up into three forces 50 kN, 20 kN and 10
kN. Then part AB of the bar will be subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN, part BC is
subjected to a compressive load of 20 kN and part BD is subjected to a
compressive load of 10 kN as shown in Fig.
 = - 0.1142mm. Ans.

Negative sign shows, that there will be a decrease in the length of the bar.
• Problem. A steel rod 4.5 m long and 25 mm in diameter is loaded as
shown in the figure. Find the change in the length of the bar. Take
E=200 GPA.

𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 𝐿𝐶𝐷 = 1500 𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑𝐶𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶𝐷 = × 252 = 490.87 𝑚𝑚2
4
𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑝𝑎 = 200 × 103 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2
Ans=2.798 mm
• Problem. A tensile load of 40 kN is acting on a rod of diameter 40 mm
and of length 4 m. A bore of diameter 20 mm is made centrally on the
rod. To what length the rod should be bored so that the total
extension will increase 30% under the same tensile had. Take E = 2 x
10s N/mm2.
 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD
• A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end to a diameter
D2 at the other.
• Let
P = Axial tensile load on the bar.
L = Total length of the bar
E = Young’s modulus
 ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR
• A bar of constant thickness and uniformly tapering in width from one
end to the other end is shown in Fig. 1.14.
 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS
• A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths but of different
materials rigidly fixed with each other and behaving as one unit for
extension or compressive when subjected to an axial tensile or
compressive loads, is called a composite bar.
• For the composite bar the following two points are important:
❑The extension or compression in each bar is equal. Hence strain in
each bar is equal.
❑The total external load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of
the loads carried by each different material.
 THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS
• Fig. 1.24 (a) shows a composite bar consisting of two members, a bar
of brass and another of steel. Let the composite bar be heated
through some temperature.
• If the members are free to expand then no stresses will be induced in
the members. But the two members are rigidly fixed and hence the
composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount.
• As the coefficient of linear expansion of brass is more than that of the
steel, the brass will expand more than the steel. Hence the free
expansion of brass will be more than that of the steel.
• But both the members are not free to expand, and hence the
expansion of the composite bar, as a whole, will be less than that of
the brass, but more than that of the steel.
Hence the stress induced in the brass will be compressive whereas the stress
in steel will be tensile as shown in Fig. 1-24 (c). Hence the load or force on the
brass will be compressive whereas on the steel the load will be tensile.
ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS WEIGHT
 ANALYSIS OF BAR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH
• Let us find the shape of the bar of which the weight of the bar is
considered and having uniform stress on all sections when subjected
to an axial P. Such a bar is shown in Fig. 14 in which the area of the
bar increases from the lower end to the upper end.
• Let
𝐴1 = Area of upper end,
𝐴2 = Area of the lower end,
w = Weight per unit volume of the bar,
σ - Uniform stress on the bar.