• Tissue level of organization

Classification of tissues, structure, location and functions of epithelial, muscular and

nervous and connective tissues.

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A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function
together to carry out specialized activities.

Body tissues can be classified into four basic types according to their structure and function

1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it
also forms glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external
environments.

2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of
connective tissues bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the
body with immunity to disease-causing organisms.

3. Muscular tissue is composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force.
In the process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms the body.

4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and
responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that
activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE

An epithelial tissue, consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or

multiple layers. Because the cells are closely packed and are held tightly together by many
cell junctions, there is little intercellular space between adjacent plasma membranes.
Epithelial tissue is arranged in two general patterns in the body: (1) covering and lining
various surfaces and (2) forming the secreting portions of glands. Functionally, epithelial
tissue protects, secretes (mucus, hormones, and enzymes), absorbs (nutrients in the
gastrointestinal tract), and excretes (various substances in the urinary tract).

LOCATIONS

Skin: The epidermis, or outermost layer of skin

Organs: The inner surfaces of many internal organs, such as the intestines and respiratory
tract

Blood vessels: The inner surfaces of blood vessels

Body cavities: The inner surfaces of body cavities, such as the abdominal cavity

Glands: All glands are made up of epithelial cells

Mucous membranes: The lining of mucous membranes

FUNCTIONS

Epithelial tissue has many different roles in the body; the most important are protection,
filtration, secretion, absorption, and excretion. In addition, epithelial tissue combines with
nervous tissue to form special organs for smell, hearing, vision, and touch.

Protection: Epithelial tissues protect the body from physical, chemical, and biological
damage.

Absorption: Epithelial tissues in the intestines absorb nutrients from food.

Excretion: Epithelial tissues in the kidneys excrete waste, and those in the sweat glands
excrete sweat.

Filtration: Epithelial tissues in the respiratory tract filter out dirt and particles from the air.

Diffusion: Epithelial tissues allow selective diffusion of materials to pass through.

Sensory reception: Epithelial tissues contain sensory nerve endings that allow the body to
receive outside stimuli. For example, the stereocilia in the ear are essential for hearing and
balance.

Secretion: Epithelial tissues secrete mucus and other chemical compounds. For example, the
intestinal epithelium releases digestive enzymes, and the respiratory tract lining secretes
mucus.

Homeostasis: Epithelial tissues help maintain homeostasis.

This classification is based on the shape of the cells at the apical surface.

I. Simple epithelium

A. Simple squamous epithelium

1. Endothelium (lines heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels)

2. Mesothelium (forms epithelial layer of serous membranes)

B. Simple cuboidal epithelium

C. Simple columnar epithelium

1. Nonciliated (lacks cilia)

2. Ciliated (contains cilia)

D. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

1. Nonciliated (lacks cilia)
2. Ciliated (contains cilia)
II. Stratified epithelium
A. Stratified squamous epithelium
1. Nonkeratinized (lacks keratin)
2. Keratinized (contains keratin)
B. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
C. Stratified columnar epithelium
D. Transitional epithelium or urothelium (lines most of urinary tract)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body and
found in many locations, including:

Tendons: Support the connection between muscles and bones

Ligaments: Stabilize bone to bone connections and the positioning of internal organs

Aponeuroses: Affix broad muscles to other muscles or multiple bones

Fibrous sheaths: Surround some cartilage, organs, muscle and nerve fiber bundles, and
bones

The three meninges: Membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord

Spaces between the skin and muscles: Filled by loose connective tissue

Under many epithelial tissues: Loose connective tissue is found under many epithelial
tissues

The walls of the digestive tract: Formed by loose connective tissue

The ureter: Includes subepithelial connective tissue.

Connective tissue cells vary according to the type of tissue and include the following :

1. Fibroblasts are large, flat cells with branching processes. They are present in all the
general connective tissues, and usually are the most numerous.

2. Macrophages are phagocytes that develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell.
Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tissue; examples include alveolar macrophages in
the lungs or splenic macrophages in the spleen. Wandering macrophages have the ability to
move throughout the tissue and gather at sites of infection or inflammation to carry on
phagocytosis.

3. Plasma cells (plasmocytes) are found in many places in the body, but most plasma cells
reside in connective tissue, especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.

4. Mast cells (mastocytes) are involved in the inflammatory response, the body’s reaction to
injury or infection and can also bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.

5. Adipocytes are fat cells or adipose cells, connective tissue cells that store triglycerides
(fats). They are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.

6. Leukocytes (white blood cells) are not found in significant numbers in normal connective
tissue. However, in response to certain conditions they migrate from blood into connective
tissue. For example, neutrophils gather at sites of infection, and eosinophils migrate to sites
of parasitic invasions and allergic responses.

Classification of Connective Tissue

I. Embryonic connective tissue

A. Mesenchyme

B. Mucous (mucoid) connective tissue

II. Mature connective tissue

A. Connective tissue proper

1. Loose connective tissue

a. Areolar connective tissue

b. Adipose tissue

c. Reticular connective tissue

2. Dense connective tissue

a. Dense regular connective tissue

b. Dense irregular connective tissue

c. Elastic connective tissue

B. Supporting connective tissue

1. Cartilage

a. Hyaline cartilage

b. Fibrocartilage

c. Elastic cartilage

2. Bone tissue

a. Compact bone

b. Spongy bone

C. Liquid connective tissue

1. Blood

2. Lymph

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Support: Connective tissue supports and connects organs and tissues, such as the connective
tissue sheath that surrounds muscles and tendons that attach muscles to bones.

Protection: Connective tissue protects organs and tissues with fibrous capsules and bones.

Storage: Connective tissue stores fat, which provides energy and insulates the body.

Transport: Connective tissue transports nutrients, oxygen, waste, and chemical messengers.
Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues that perform this function.

Defense: Connective tissue contains specialized cells that defend the body from
microorganisms.

Repair: Connective tissue helps repair damaged tissues.

Resistance: Connective tissue provides resistance to stretch and tear.
Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue type in the human body. It's made up of cells,
fibers, and a gel-like substance. Some types of connective tissue include:
Bone: Part of the body's structural framework
Cartilage: A type of connective tissue
Fat: A specialized connective tissue that stores fat and insulates the body
Blood: A fluid connective tissue that transports nutrients and oxygen, and helps eliminate
waste
Lymph: A fluid connective tissue that's part of the immune system
MUSCULAR TISSUE

Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use
ATP to generate force. As a result, muscular tissue produces body movements, maintains
posture, and generates heat. It also provides protection. Based on location and certain
structural and functional features, muscular tissue is classified into three types: skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth

Skeletal muscle

Located throughout the body, attached to bones by tendons, and found in the tongue,
diaphragm, eye socket, and upper esophagus. Skeletal muscle is striated in appearance and is
under voluntary control. It primarily controls movement and posture.

Cardiac muscle

Located in the walls of the heart, cardiac muscle cells are striated in appearance and are under
involuntary control. The heart keeps the human body alive.

Smooth muscle

Located in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the liver, pancreas, and intestines, as
well as in the walls of blood vessels and passageways. Smooth muscle is spindle-shaped in
appearance and is under involuntary control. It's also found in the eyes, where it changes the
size of the pupil and the shape of the lens.

The main function of muscle tissue is to create movement and force. Muscles in the body
perform a variety of functions, including:

Skeletal muscles: Support bones, control voluntary movement, and maintain posture. They
also store nutrients and contribute to energy metabolism.

Cardiac muscles: Propel blood and ensure proper oxygenation of the body's cells.

Smooth muscles: Use contractile force to shorten and propel contents across organ systems.
NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous tissue consists of only two principal types of cells: neurons and neuroglia.

Neurons or nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli. They convert stimuli into electrical
signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these action potentials to
other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands.

Most neurons consist of three basic parts: a cell body and two kinds of cell processes—
dendrites and axons . The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles. Dendrites are
tapering, highly branched, and usually short cell processes (extensions). They are the major
receiving or input portion of a neuron. The axon (axo- = axis) of a neuron is a single, thin,
cylindrical process that may be very long. It is the output portion of a neuron, conducting
nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue.

Even though neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have many
important supportive functions.