UNIT 2 COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES AND

THEIR APPLICATIONS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Chemistry of Combustion Process
2.2.1 Calorific Value of a Fuel
2.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Combustion
2.2.3 Combustion Efficiency
2.2.4 Fuel-Air Ratio
2.2.5 Excess Air Required for Combustion
2.2.6 Analysis of Combustion Products
2.3 Combustion Processes
2.3.1 Flameless Process of Combustion
2.3.2 Submerge Combustion Process
2.3.3 Diffusion Combustion Process
2.4Application of Combustion Principle to Solid Fuels
2.4.1 Combustion of Solid Fuels in Domestic Ovens
2.4.2 Combustion of Coal in Furnaces for Steam Generation
2.4.3 Combustion Calculations for Solid Fuels
2.5Application of Combustion Principle to Liquid Fuels
2.5.1 Direct Combustion of Oil Fuels
2.5.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuel in I.C. Engines
2.5.3 Combustion Calculations for Liquid Fuels
2.6Application of Combustion Principle to Gaseous Fuels
2.6.1Combustion of Cooking Gas
2.6.2 Combustion of Gaseous Fuel in Gas-turbine Power Plant
2.6.3 Combustion Calculations for Gaseous Fuels
2.7Summary
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Answers to SAQS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Combustion is a process by which the chemical energy of the fuel contained

in it as internal energy is converted into heat energy. Combustion consists of
process causing chemical reaction between the combustible part of the fuel
and oxygen with a view to generate heat. The products formed as a result of
the process are carbon dioxide, carbon mono-oxide and water vapour, Carbon
dioxide is a result of complete combustion of carbon whereas carbon mono -
oxide is a result of incomplete combustion and compared to carbon di-oxide,
contains only half the amount of oxygen of per unit weight of carbon. The
oxygen of combustion is supplied from air which from combustion
considerations contains 20.9% of oxygen and 79.1% of nitrogen by volume.
An ideal combustion aims at producing maximum amount of heat by burning
fuel and also in utilising as much as possible of waste heat resulting from
combustion. Flue gas, which comes out through stack after combustion,
contains besides carbon dioxide, water vapour, compounds of nitrogen and
compounds of sulphur such as sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide.

To illustrate the importance of fuel combustion, let us cast a glance at the

chart shown in Figure 2.1. which shows the application of the combustion of
fuel when it serves our domestic purposes, and thereafter when it is used for
industrial purposes viz in dries, heating and heat-treatment furnaces,
metallurgical furnaces, power generation plants, etc.

Objectives
After studying of this unit, you should be able to understand
 the fundamentals of the combustion principles,
 the characteristics of the various combustion processes, and
 the application of combustion principles to different types of fuels.
2.2CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION PROCESSES

Fuels (solid, liquid and gas) release their stored chemical energy during
combustion. Stoichiometric combustion of a fuel is defined as the process of
complete combustion with evolution of heat. The prerequisite of any such
phenomenon is the availability of the fuel in gaseous state (where it can mix
with oxygen in the surrounding air) and the prevailing temperatures to be
high enough, so that combustion reaction takes place leading to release of
heat energy.

In the case of liquid fuels the condition of continuous supply of vaporised

fuel is met by the vapourisation from the surface of the fuel due to heat
transfer to the surface from the flame itself. In case of coal, release of
volatiles after ignition fulfills this role. In the case broadly defined as the
chemical breakdown of the original wood constituents, under the of fuels like
wood, this is achieved through the phenomenon of phrolysis that may be
broadly defined as the chemical breakdown of the original wood constituents,
under the influence of heat, leading to the formation of combustible volatiles
and chars responsible for flaming.

2.2.1 Calorific Value of a Fuel

The calorific value or heat of combustion or heating value of a sample of fuel
is defined as the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the
case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of
combustion cooled to standard temperature of 298°K.

We usually encounter two kinds of calorific values, one is referred as Gross

Calorific Value or Higher Heating Value (HHV) and other is called Net
Calorific Value or Lower Heating Value (LHV).

Gross Calorific Value (GCV)

It is the heat released when unit mass of coal is burned completely at
constant volume in saturated oxygen under pressure of 25-30 bars, the
original and final products being at 25°C.

Net Calorific Value (NCV)

The net calorific value or lower heat of combustion is derived from
the Gross Calorific Value by deducting the latent heat of
vapourisation of water present and formed. Thus

NCV (MJ/kg) = GCV (MJ/kg) - 0.222 (%H) ... ( 2.1 )

The heat of combustion may be calculated approximately by

proximate/ultimate analysis and is given by

NCV = GCV - [2.45 (9 MH + MmW) + HW] ... ( 2.2 )

where,
MH = percentage of Hydrogen,
Mmw = percentage of external moisture, and
Hw = sensible heat of water between 25°C and 100°C in MJ.
This is also called the calorific value on wet basis or as received basis.
Example 2.1
A coal having Gross Calorific Value of 33.5 MJ/kg consists of 5%
hydrogen and 10% moisture. Determine the net calorific value of the
coal if the sensible heat of water vapour is 2.45 MJ/kg.
Solution
The following data are given
GCV = 33.5 MJ/kg
MH = 0.05(5%)
Mmw = 0.1 (10%)
Hw = 2.45 MJ/kg

This using Eq. (2.2), we obtain

NCV = 33.5 – [2.45 × (9 × 0.05 + 0.10) + 2.45]
= 33.5 – [2.45 × (0.45 + 0.1) + 2.45]
= 33.5 – 3.8 = 29.7 MJ/kg

2.2.2 Chemical Reactions of Combustion

Chemical reactions may be classified into exothermic and endothermic i.e.,
the reactions can proceed with the development of heat or with its adsorption
respectively.

All combustion reactions develop heat but in reverse reaction of dissociation

of product of combustion, the adsorption of heat takes place.

The equations of some of the important combustion reactions are given

below:
(1) H2 + 𝑂 = H2O (Vap.) + 57810 kcal mole
(2) H2 + 𝑂 = H2O (Liq.) + 68360 kcal mole
(3) C + 𝑂 = CO + 29430 kcal mole
(4) CO + 𝑂 = CO2 + 68220 kcal mole
(5) C + O2 = CO2 + 97650 kcal mole
(6) CO2 + C = 2 CO – 38790 kcal mole
(7) C + H2O = CO + H2 – 28380 kcal mole
(8) CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O +192400 kcal mole
(9) C2H2 + 3 O2 = 2 CO2 + 2 H2O + 345800 kcal mole
(10) H2S + 𝑂 = H2O + SO2 + 124850 kcal mole
(11) S + O2 = SO2 + 69800 kcal mole

2.2.3 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency can be given as:

η=

The combustion efficiency decreases with the following factors:

(i) incomplete combustion
(ii) combustion losses
(iii) partially oxidised hydrocarbons or unburnt carbon particles
 (iv) absence of excess air.

The combustion efficiency is optimised when proper mixing of fuel and air is
supplied as to minimize combustion losses associated with excess fuel and
excess air.

2.2.4 Fuel-air Ratio

Fuel-air ratio is an important parameter to be considered as the reference
condition for combustion process. It depends on the C - H ratio of the fuel.

The expression for stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is given by

. ( ( / )
F – A ratio = …(2.4)
( / )
(i) For hydrocarbon with general formula Cn H₂n, the stoichiometric F-A
ratio is 0.0677.
(ii) For pure carbon. F- A ratio is 0.0867.
(iii) For petroleum fuel like benzene and methane, the F - A ratios are
0,0754 and 0.0580 respectively.

2.2.5 Excess Air required for Combustion

For most efficient use of fuels, its complete combustion is essential so that all
heat which it is capable of giving for external use is available. In practice
several factors affect the combustion process, and it is found that the
complete combustion cannot result unless more than the theoretical amount
of air is used. However, the unavoidable consequence of using excess air is a
loss of sensible heat necessary to heat this air to the temperature of flue gases
and this reduces the gain due to the use of excess air to some extent.

2.2.6 Analysis of the Combustion Products

The analysis of the combustion products of fuel helps in studying the actual
combustion process in a furnace and of its effectiveness. The loss of heat in
flue gases, the amount of excess air required and infiltration of air into the
furnace, etc. can be determined through gas analysis.

The analysis of the exit gas from the chimney for most engineering purposes
involves determination of CO₂, CO, N₂ and O₂; the important being CO₂. The
apparatus commonly used for analysis of the products of combustion is Orsat
apparatus. This device determines directly the fraction by volume of CO₂,
CO, and O₂ in the gas.
 If the combustion is incomplete, gases will contain CO if excess air is
used. there would be a content of O2 in the gas.
 As absence of both O2, and CO would indicate theoretically that the
combustion is just complete with no excess air.
 An appearance of both combustible matter and free O₂ in the flue
gases, would indicate the ineffectiveness of combustion in spite of
supply enough air. This may result due to inadequate mixing up of
fuel and air throughout the combustion of gases, air infiltration, etc.
may also cause incomplete combustion of reactions in the furnaces.
Example 2.2
Following data were reported by an operator for the analysis of the
combustion products of methane fuel using Orsat apparatus. Based on
these data, calculate the fuel-air ratio and percentage of excess air for
the combustion process.

Combustion Products Volume

(cm3)
CO2 12
O2 4
CO 1

Volume of the initial sample of the products of combustion is 95 cm3.

Solution
On mole fraction basis we get,
CO2 = = 12.63 %
O2 = = 4.21 %
CO = = 1.05 %
We now write the combustion equation for 95 moles of dry products
aCH4 + xO2 + 3.76xN2 → 12 CO2
+ 4 O2 + 1 (CO) + 6 H2O + 3.76xN2

The carbon balance yields

a = 12 + 1 = 13
For hydrogen
4a=2b
∴ b = 2 a = 26
Oxygen balance gives
2 x = 24 + 8 + 1 + b
= 33 + 26
= 59
∴ x = 29.5
The fuel-air ratio for dry
F – A ratio =
×
=
. [ . ]
= 0.0514
For stoichiometric combustion (no excess oxygen), the reaction would be
13 CH4 + 26 O2 + 3.76 (26) N2 → 13 CO2 + 26 H2O + 3.76 (26) N2
The percentage of excess air is
.
× 100
= 13.46 %
SAQ 1
a) State the energy conversion which takes place when a fuel is
burnt in air.
b) What is the method of optimizing combustion efficiency?
c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using excess air
for combustion of fuel?
d) What is the need of analysing the products of combustion?

2.3COMBUSTION PROCESSES

The phenomena of combustion may be considered in the chemical and

technical aspects. The chemical aspect of combustion of carbon in the furnace
of a steam generator considered to occur in two stages. In first stage, the
volatile matter of the fuel is released in the form of gaseous hydrocarbons,
and this matter burns in gas phase. The reaction is rapid and for completion of
reaction, adequate supply of air and turbulent mixing up of air and
combustion gases are necessary otherwise smoke formation results.

The specific combustion rate of a particle of fuel in suspension in air steam

depends upon its size, the surface of the contact with air, and upon its
velocity relative to that of air. A small particle of fuel would have large
specific surface contact but small relative velocity with respect to air. It will
have a higher combustion rate than that of large pieces of fuel.

Technically the combustion process depends on the geometry of the fuel bed
and beside the fuel size, the rate of firing, the supply of primary air and
moisture content in the fuel also greatly affect the combustion process.

In the case of pulverised fuel, the aerodynamics of the furnace chamber is the
most important factor that controls the efficiency of the combustion process.

The design of the burners i.e., whether producing long flame or turbulent
short flames, their orientation in the furnace chamber, combustion space
requirement etc. are some of the important aspects in this aerodynamic
requirement.

There are mainly three types of combustion processes which will be

described in the following sections.

2.3.1 Flameless Process of Combustion

Flameless combustion is also called catalytic combustion. The process of
flameless combustion produces immense economy in fuel consumption, with
the added facility of ideal conditions of cleanness in the working conditions
in the workshop, which is very easy to maintain. This circumstance, in the
first instance, leads a considerable improvement in working conditions, while
at same time preserving valuable installation and equipment from rapid
soiling and premature wear.

Essence of the Process of Flameless Combustion

The principal factor in this process is the presence of catalyst or
material capable of considerable - accelerating the combustion
reaction, when the fuel is brought into contact with its surface. The
phenomena can be explained by the fact that the surfaces of the
 different materials at low temperatures have different degrees of
activation. For example, platinum, ferroxides, nickel and vanadium
are known to endowed with catalytic properties at low temperatures.

At high temperature, the surfaces of all material exhibit catalytic

properties; thus all refractory material can be considered to be
catalyst. Some of the important refractory materials which have such
property are chammotte (fire-clay), Dinas, Magnesite, Alundum, etc.

The cause of the catalytic properties of certain materials at low

temperatures lies in all probability in their capacity to absorb and to
concentrate fuel-gas on their surfaces. The catalytic properties of the
materials at high temperatures may be explained by the presence of
considerable quantities of radiant energy, as well as by the emission
of electron on the incandesent surface of the catalyst. High velocity of
combustion of a fuel gas mixture per unit volume of combustion
chamber of tunnel creates a high temperature, thus increasing the
capacity of furnace.

In the practical field, the process of flameless combustion is obtained

in the following manner: the combustible air-gas mixture is directed
to a channel or tunnel a complete combustion of gas-air mixture
comes into contact with combustion chamber made in the wall of the
furnace. In this combustion chamber refractory surface of the tunnel,
which plays the part of a catalyst.

At the start, when the wall of the tunnel are cold, the air-gas mixture
is ignited on entering the tunnel with the help of some outside source,
such as a match, electric spark, etc., following which the usual
combustion or combustion with flame takes place on the cold wall of
the tunnel. The process continues till the walls heated to a temperature
capable of maintaining combustion. Whereupon the flame disappears
and the combustion continues without flame, but considerable
increases of temperature.

2.3.2 Submerged Combustion Process

Submerged combustion refers to the combustion of fuel inside the liquid
medium. When a liquid or gaseous fuel is introduced in a liquid medium to
heat directly, difficult combustion can be achieved at the condition that the
pressure of fuel entering this seemingly liquid medium is to be higher than
the counter pressure offered by the medium. Also, at the time of its entering
the medium the stream of fuel must be semi-pulverised or divided into
sufficient number of tiny streams, each of which produces a bubble of
products of combustion so that the hot surface of the bubbles communicates
their heat to the surrounding medium. The larger the number of the bubbles,
the quicker the transfer of heat to each and every part of the surrounding
medium. On the other hand, the larger the number of separate streams and the
smaller streams, the higher is the pressure offered to the natural tendency of
the surrounding liquid to force its way inside the burner itself.

Practical Application
It was undoubtedly, the chemical industry that derived highest
advantages from submerged combustion process, especially in such
processes as combustion of solid, evaporation of solutions,
galvanisation, heating of solutions, etc.
 For example, before submerged combustion process, it was necessary,
in order to heat any solution, either to allow superheated stream to
pass through it or place a stream coil inside the solution. In the first
instance, the concentration of solution was inevitable affected and the
solution got weaker; in the second instance, the premature destruction
of the coil, due to oxidation, frequently took place. Submerged
combustion offers the remedy for both above drawbacks, appearing to
be an ideal process.

Remarkable success is observed in application of submerged

combustion process for heating such solution as calcium carbonate,
sodium carbonate, etc. where the reduction concentration is highly
undesirable.

In the process of dyeing, again, it is of considerable importance that

the temperature of the dyeing chamber should not be allowed to rise
above a certain level, after which the material under dyeing is in
danger of getting boiled into a formless mass.

Of no less important is the application of submerged combustion in

galvanising baths, where it is undesirable to allow the solution of the
bath to get gradually liquefied.

2.3.3 Diffusion Combustion Process

Diffusion combustion is the oldest process of combustion. It was known to
the people of the ancient world. A primitive wick - lamp was used from the
time immemorial and it is exactly in this primitive lamp, or in a modern
waxcandle, that a true diffusion combustion takes place, with the slow and
uniform mixing of fuel with air, by way of diffusion, throughout the process
of combustion.

The diffusion combustion may be achieved with the use of two types of
burners: Cylindrical and Flat burners.

Here it will be of interest to consider the main factors in both the cases related
to the length of the flame i.e., the velocities of flow of air and gas, coefficient
of diffusion, change of dimensions of burners, etc.

The expressions for the length of the flame for cylindrical and flat burners are
as follows:

Cylindrical Flame
h ∝ r2
or, h = k 1 r2 …(2.5)
where, h = Height of the flame, m
v = Velocity of the air and gas flow, m/sec
k = Coefficient of diffusion,
k₁ = Proportionality constant, and
r = Radius of the inner cylinder,
Flat Flame
h ∝ a2
or, h = k2 a 2 …(2.6)
where, k2 = Proportionality constant, and
a = Thickness of the gas stream.

Example 2.3
Following experimental data were obtained for a diffusion
combustion process using cylindrical burner.
Velocity of the town gas = 3 m/sec,
Radius of the inner cylinder = 0.004 m
Coefficient of diffusion = 0.0065
Value of the proportionality constant = 8
Find the height of the flame.
Solution:
Eq. (2.5) gives:
×( . )
h=8× = 5.8 m
.

SAQ2
(a) Why does a flameless combustion called catalytic combustion?
(b) State the practical applications of submerged process of combustion.
(c) Following experimental data were obtained for a diffusion
combustion process using flat burner. Find the height of the flame.
Data: The velocity of the blast furnace gas = 2.62 m/sec
Diameter of the burner = 60 mm
Coefficient of diffusion = 0.0027
Proportionality constant = 8.0

2.4APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO

SOLID FULES

Naturally occurring solid fuels include wood and varieties of coals, while
prepared ones include coke, charcoal, briquetted and pulverised solid fuels.

Let us discuss some of the important combustion systems which make use of
solid fuels.

2.4.1 Combustion of Solid Fuels in Domestic Ovens

Solid fuels like wood, coal, bagasse, etc. are used in various types of ovens
for cooking heating rooms and production of hot water. Though domestic
ovens making use of solid fuels are being used from the primitive age, several
types of energy efficient woodcook and coal-burning stoves have been
developed to save not only energy but also to control environmental
pollution.
2.4.2 Combustion of Coal in Furnaces for Steam Generation
There are several applications of steam by making use of heat produced by
the combustion of coal. The power of steam is utilized for different purposes.
For example,
(i) Industrial boilers are used to supply steam for various industrial
processes.
(ii) Locomotives use steam engines to drive mechanical loads.
(iii) Steam turbines are used in thermal power plant to generate electrical
power.
For the above cases a large amount of coal is burnt to generate heat energy.

2.4.3 Combustion Calculations for Solid Fuels

For combustion calculations in respect of solid fuels, we shall discuss
some examples for the determination of the following factors:
(i) Theoretical quantity of air required for complete combustion,
(ii) Volume of products of combustion, and
(iii) Calorific value of fuel.

Example 2.4
In a wood - burning stove, wood having following percentage
composition by weight is burnt find
(i) the theoretical quantity of air required for complete
combustion,
(ii) the volume of the product of combustion, and
(iii) calorific value of wood.
Percent composition by weight:
C = 50
H₂ = 6
0₂ = 43.1
N₂ = 0.3
Ash = 0.6
Solution
Let us find the composition in molar volume basis
C= = 4.166
H2 = = 3.00
.
O2 = = 1.350
.
N2 = = 0.010
Now, if according to Dulong, the oxygen present in the substance
would react with H2, in the proportion 2:1, the new data will be
C = 4.166
N2 = 0.01
H2 = 3 – 2.7 = 0.30
O2 = 0.00
(i) Determination of total air required for combustion.
Oxygen required for burning C into
CO2 = 4.166 and
 H2 into H2O = 0.150
The total oxygen required
= (4.166 + 0.150)
= 4.316 mol. vol. / 100 kg
Hence, Air (N2 + O2) required
= 4.316 + 4.316 ×
= 20.553 mol. / 100 kg of wood
.
Air required for combustion of one kg of wood = × 22.4
= 4.604 m3 / kg.

(ii) Determination of volume of product of combustion as per the

chemical reactions given below , the product of combustion would be
C + O2 = CO2 , CO2 = 4.166 mol. vol.
H2 + O2 = H2O , H2O = 3.00 mol. vol.
N2 = 16.237 + 0.01 = 16.247 mol. vol.
Total quantity = 23.413 mol. vol.
= 23.413 × 22.4
= 524.45 m3
Volume of product in one kg = 524.45 / 100 = 5.24 m3 / kg.
(iii) Determination of calorific value of wood.
Carbon on combustion develops
. ×
= 4068.099 cal.
Hydrogen on combustion develops
. ×
= 173.43 cal.
Total heat developed = 4068.099 + 173.43
= 4241.529 cal.
According to Dulong, 2.7 mol. of H₂ will react with 1.35 mol. vol. of
O₂ present in the substance and the quantity of H₂O formed would be
2.7 mol. vol.; this quantity would use heat of evaporation from the
total quantity of heat developed as follows:
. ×
= 284.85 cal.
Hence, the calorific value of wood
= 4241.529 – 284.85
= 3956.68 cal. / kg

Example 2.5
A coal having following composition is used in a steam generating
furnace Percentage composition by weight:
C = 57.7, H₂ = 5.43, 0₂ = 33.35
N₂ = 0.80 and Ash = 2.72
Calculate
a) air required for combustion,
b) the quantity of the product of combustion, and
c) the calorific value of coal.
Solution
Composition in molar volume
 C = 57.7 / 12 = 4.808
H2 = 5.43 / 2 = 2.715
O2 = 33.35 / 32 = 1.042
N2 = 0.80 / 28 = 0.030
Ash = 2.72
According to Dulong,
(i) Oxygen required for combustion
= 4.808 + 0.315 = 5.123 mol. vol.
Air required = 5.123 + 5.123 ×
= 24.383 per 100 kg of coal
Air required for 1 kg of coal
. × .
= = 5.461 m3 / kg
(ii) The quantity of products of combustion are
CO2 = 4.808 mol. vol.
H2O = 2.715 mol. vol.
N2 = 19.461 + 0.03
= 19.491 mol. vol.
(iii) C on combustion gives
. ×
= 4695.012 cal.
H2 on combustion produces
. ×
= = 422.591 cal.
The total heat developed
= 4695.012 + 422.591
= 5117.603 cal.
But according to Dulong
. ×
= 219.862 cal.
would be used up on evaporation.
Hence, calorific value of coal
= 5117.603 – 219.862
= 4897.741 cal.

2.5APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO

LIQUID FULES

The most common liquid fuels are: natural petroleum, crude oil, gasoline,
manufactured or artificial tar-oil, coal-tar, shale oil, molasses etc.

Oil is used for domestic purposes, running automobiles and also used in
furnaces to generate steam. Oil has several advantages as a fuel. These may
be summarised below:
(i) Low excess air is used so combustion losses are less.
(ii) It is possible to build high capacity plants burning oils.
(iii) Storage space required is small and handling is easy.
(iv) Ash and refuse are small, so handling costs are nominal.
(v) It does not deteriorate easily, so banking losses and standby losses are
small.
However, the great disadvantages of the liquid fuels is that the heat produced
is costly as compared with coal or gas. Moreover, in a country like India
where natural resource like all is scant, the application of oil for power
generation is limited.

For burning of oils, several types of burners are used. The purpose of an oil
burner is to atomize or vaporize the oil completely to produce a jet of suitable
shape for best mixing with air so as to give complete combustions with
minimum of excess air.

Oil burners may be principally classified as vaporizing and atomizing.

Vaporizing burners used in industrial and domestic applications, such as,
blow torches or portable gasoline Moves and depend for their action a wick
or hot fuel line for vaporization. There is hardly any application of these
burner in steam generation since the heavy oil used is not capable of easy
vaporization.

Atomizing burners are commonly used for oil fired furnaces of steam
generators. A thorough mixture of oil with air is essential for complete
combustion of fuel. This mixing can be achieved by dividing the oil, as it is
fed into furnace, into fine globules to bring in it inmate contact with
combustion air. The atomization of fuel is achieved in different ways in
different burners, two common methods being steam or air jet atomization
and Mechanical atomization.

The combustion efficiency of the burner depends on the one of the important
factor i.e., the size of the oil particle after atomization.

According to the Heat Engineering Research Institute, Moscow, the

maximum radius of particles can be found from the following equations
(a) For steam or air atomizer.
r= …(2.7)
where, ρ is the density of the surrounding medium in m3/kg i.e.,
atomizing agent. C is the relative velocity of oil particle and
atomizing agent.
(b) For mechanical atomizer,
.
r= …(2.8)
where, P is the oil pressure in atmosphere (atm.)

Example 2.6
Find the maximum radius of the oil particles for the following cases:
(i) Mechanical atomizer with oil pressure of 3 atmospheres
(atms.)
(ii) Air atomization at a oil pressure of 1.5 atms with relative
velocity of oil and air of 400 m/sec. and density of oil of 1.2
kg/m3.
(iii) Steam atomization at a oil pressure of 3 atms with relative
velocity of oil and steam of 400 m/sec. and density of oil is 0.6
kg/m3.
Solution
.
(i) r= = 2.6 mm
(ii) r=
. ×( )
= 7.16 × 10-3 m = 7.16 mm
(iii) r=
. ×( )
= 14.32 × 10-3 m = 14.32 mm

2.5 .1 Direct Combustion of Oil Fuels

This is the simplest and so to say primitive method of fuel oil combustion. It
is employed for burning small quantities of fuel. For example, kerosine oil is
generally used in rural areas for cooking and lighting. Kerosine stoves and
lamps respectively are used for the same. For heating of room oil is burnt in a
combustion chamber. But application of oil for room heating is rare.

2.5.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuels in I. C. Engines

The main differences among the different types of internal combustion
engines are in respect of the kind of fuel used, the manner in which the fuel
and air are introduced in the engine cylinders and the manner of igniting the
charge. Internal combustion engines may be spark ignition or compression
ignition types and may work on 4-stroke or 2-stroke cycle principle.

Diesel engines using high speed diesel fuels working on the compression
ignition principle and on 2-stroke or 4-stroke cycle are used where high
capacity plants are needed.

Most of the automobiles like car, truck, buses etc. are run by using diesel
fuels. Diesel locomotives are used in railway transportation system.

Automobiles making use of petrol are fuel efficient and causes very less
pollution for environment.

In diesel engine power plant a large amount of diesel fuel is utilized to drive
generator by diesel engine to generate electrical power. But the application of
diesel oil for generation of electrical power is limited.

2.5.3 Combustion Calculations for Liquid Fuels

Like solid fuel, we shall discuss the following calculations for liquid (oil)
fuel. These are:
(i) Determination of total air requires for complete combustion
(ii) Quantity of the products of combustion
(iii) Calorific value of oil.
Let us consider an example.

Example 2.7
A liquid fuel used in an I.C. Engine has following compositions:
C = 84.8
H₂ = 12.7
O2 = 1.4
S = 1.1
 It is required to find following combustion results:
(i) Air required for combustion
(ii) Products of combustion
(iii) Calorific value of the oil.
Solution
Composition in molar volume of the components can be determined
as
C = 84.8 / 12 = 7,066
H₂ = 12.7 / 2 = 6.350
O₂ = 1.4 / 32 = 0.043
S = 1.1 / 32 = 0.034
According to Dulong,
C = 7.066
H₂ = 6.35 - 0.086 = 6.264
H₂O = 0.0861
S = 0.034
(i) Oxygen required for combustion
C to CO₂ = 7.066
H₂ to H₂O = 3.132
S to SO2 = 0.034
Total oxygen required for combustion = 7.066 + 3.132 + 0.034
= 10.232 mol. vol.
∴ Air required = 10.232 × 3.762 + 10.2321
= 48.696 mol. vol. for 100 kg of oil
Air required for 1 kg of oil
.
= × 22.4
= 10.907 m3 / kg of oil
(ii) Products of combustion
CO₂ = 7.066 mol. vol.
H₂O = 6.350 mol. vol.
SO2 = 0.034 mol. vol.
N2 = 38.464 mol. vol.
(iii) C on combustion gives
. ×
= 6899.95 cal.
H2 on combustion gives
. ×
= 23.73 cal.
Total heat developed = 6899.95 + 3621.22 + 23.73
= 10544.9 cal.
But according to Dulong
. ×
= 9.073 cal.
Would be used on evaporation.
So, calorific value of oil = 10544.9 – 9.073
= 10535.8 cal.
2.6APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE TO
GASEOUS FULES

Gaseous fuels can be broadly divided into natural gas and manufactured gas.
Natural gas may be considered as the associate product of petroleum which
exists naturally under the surface of the earth. Some natural gas is also
associated with coal. Natural gas comes of gas wells and petroleum wells and
contains 60 to 95% methane with small amount of other hydrocarbon such as
ethane, napthene, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, etc.

Manufactured gases are obtained from solid and liquid fuels. The principal
manufactured gases include blast furnace gas, producer gas, coke oven gas,
water gas, liquified petroleum gas, biogas etc.

For combustion of gaseous fuels various types of burners are used. The
burners can be classified mainly into two groups on the basis of the formation
of gas-air mixture as follows:
(a) Burners in which gas-air mixture is prepared prior to combustion:
These are high pressure injection burners in which gas injects air from
the surrounding atmosphere. These burners may have single stage
suction or multistage suction.
(b) Burners in which gas-air mixture forms in course of process of
combustion. These are
(i) Diffusion burners,
(ii) Irregular turbulent burners, and
(iii) Submerged combustion burners.
Some of the important systems, where gaseous fuels are burnt using above
principles, are discussed in the following two sub-sections.

2.6.1 Combustion of Cooking Gas

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) and biogas are two manufactured gases which
are used for cooking, production of hotwater etc. LPG is widely used in all
over the world for cooking.

LPG is obtained by liquifying petroleum gas at a very high pressure in a

cylinder or a container. When it is released for combustion in air then due to
drop in pressure, it converted into gaseous fuel. Several types of LPG burners
are used for burning this gas for cooking.

Biogas is obtained by anaerobic digestion of biomass. Most important raw

material used production of biogas is cowdung. It is an environment friendly
energy resource which does not produce smoke and ash during burning. So it
helps in environment pollution control.

Biogas is generally used for cooking, production of hot water and lighting.
Biogas burners control are slightly different from LPG burners.

2.6.2 Combustion of Gaseous Fuel in Gas Turbine Power Plant

Gas turbine power plant makes use of energy of gaseous fuels to generate
electrical power. Here, gas turbine is the prime-mover which drives the
generator.
As compared to reciprocating I.C. Engines, gas turbines have higher
mechanical efficiency due to fewer sliding parts in construction. While the
adiabatic expansion of gases in the cylinders of the I.C. Engines is
incomplete, the gas turbine allows for a more or less complete expansion of
gases which increases plant output. Gas turbine, being a rotating machine, is
well balanced at all speeds.

2.6.3 Combustion Calculations for Gaseous Fuels

In this sub-section, like other fuels, we shall discuss the methods of
combustion calculations of gaseous fuel with example.

Example 2.8
A gas turbine power plant makes use of natural gas having following
composition. Find the calorific value, products of combustion and air
required for combustion.
Percentage composition:
CH₂ = 75.5 m³, C₂ H6 = 8.7 m3,
C3 H8 = 4.5 m³, C4 H₁0 = 3.1 m³
CO₂ = 2.0 m³ and N₂ = 6.2 m3
Solution
1m3 of natural gas contains
CH4 = 0.755 m3
C₂H6 = 0.087 m³
C3H8 = 0.045 m³
C4H10 = 0.031 m³
CO₂ = 0.020 m³
N₂ = 0.062 m³
(i) Calorific value of natural gas:
. ×
CH4 on combustion produces = 6484.91 cal.
.
C2H6 on combustion produces 0.087 × 15140 = 1317.18 cal.
C3H8 on combustion produces 0.045 × 21765 = 979.42 cal.
C4H10 on combustion produces 0.031 × 28310 = 877.61 cal.
Total = 9659.12 cal. /m3
Hence, Calorific value of natural gas= 9659.12 cal. /m3
(ii) The products of combustion can be calculated from the following
chemical reaction of combustion
CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O
C2H6 + 3.5 O2 = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
C3H8 + 5 O2 = 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
C4H10 + 6.5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 5 H2O

Thus the product of combustion will be:

0.755 m3 CH4 produces 0.755 CO2 + 1.510 H2O (vapour)
0.087 m3 C2H6 produces 0.174 CO2 + 2.61 H2O (vapour)
0.045 m3 C3H8 produces 0.135 CO2 + 0.180 H2O (vapour)
0.030 m3 C4H10 produces 0.124 CO2 + 0.155 H2O (vapour)
Total = 1.188 CO2 + 2.106 H2O (vapour)
 Since the fuel gas contains 0.02 CO2, the total quantity of product of
combustion will be CO2 = 1.188 + 0.02 = 1.208 m3
H2O = 2.106 m3
(iii) In as much air for combustion, corresponding quantity of nitrogen and
oxygen also mixed up with the product of combustion.
The quantity of oxygen required for combustion is as follows:
0.755 m3 CH4 will require 0.755 × 2 = 1.510 m3 O2
0.087 m3 C2H4 will require 0.087× 3.5 = 0.3045 m3 O2
0.045 m3 C3H4 will require 0.045× 5 = 0.225 m3 O2
0.031 m3 C4H4 will require 0.031× 6.5 = 0.2015 m3 O2
Total = 2.241 m3 O2
N2 = 2.241 × 3.762 = 8.430 m3. Since however, the gas contains
0.06 m3 N2, the total N2 = 8.430 + 0.06 = 8.49 m3
∴ Air required = 2.241 + 8.49 m3 = 10.731 m3

SAQ 3
(a) What are the advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels on combustion
point of view?
(b) The percentage of heat by weight is given below. It is required to find
(i) the air required for combustion,
(ii) quantity of the products of combustions, and
(iii) the calorific value of the heat.
Percentage composition:
C = 70.5, H₂ = 5.1, O₂ = 3.4,
N₂ = 1.2, S = 1.3, Ash + water = 18.5
(c) The percentage composition of producer gas is given in terms of
volume. Find the calorific value, the volume of the product of
combustion and a required for combustion.
Percentage composition:
CO = 20.86, CH2 = 15.46, CH4 = 0.63
C₂H4 = 0.20, CO₂ = 5.40, O₂ = 0.4
vapour H₂O = 0.001, N₂ = 57.05

2.7 SUMMARY

Chemical reaction of combustion can be classifies as exothermic and

endothermic.

Flameless, submerged and diffusion are three basic modes of combustion

processes.

The most important factor at optimizing combustion is to ensure that the

proper mixture of fuel and air is supplied to combustion process.

The analysis of combustion products of the fuels helps in studying the actual
combustion process and its effectiveness.

For power generation solid fuels are used widely than other fuels.
2.8 KEY WORDS

Stoichiometric Combustion: Combustion with no excess oxygen.

Fuel-air Ratio: An important parameter to indicate the combustion process.
Flameless Combustion: Combustion in presence of catalyst.
Submerged Combustion: It refers to the combustion of fuels in liquid
medium.

Diffusion Combustion: Diffusion of air and fuel takes place during

combustion.
Calorific Value of Fuel: It is the quantity of heat given out by burning one
unit weight of fuel (or volume in case of a gas) in a calorimeter.

2.9 ANSWERS TO SAQS

SAQ1
(a) Chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
(b) Combustion efficiency is optimized when proper mixing of fuel
and air is supplied so as to minimized combustion losses.
(c) Advantage:
(i) It helps in complete combustion
Disadvantages:
(i) Loss of sensible heat
(ii) Reduces gain.
(d) It helps in studying the actual combustion process in a furnace and
its effectiveness.

SAQ2
(a) A flameless combustion is called catalytic combustion because
combustion takes place in presence of catalyst.
(b) In chemical industry:
Dyeing, Galvanising, Heating of solutions, etc.
(c) h = 7 m.

SAQ3
(a) Advantages:
(i) Low excess air required for combustion
(ii) Ash and refuse are small
(iii) Storage space required is small
(iv) It does not deteriorate easily.
Disadvantages:
Heat production is costly as compared to coal or gas.
(b) Air required = 7.556 m3 / kg of coal
Combustion products:
CO2 = 5.875 mol. vol.
H2O = 2.550 mol. vol.
SO2 = 0.40 mol. vol.
N2 = 7.880
 Calorific value = 7094.989 cal / kg
(c) Calorific value =1148 cal.
Volume of product of combustion:
CO2 = 0.2729 m3
H2O (vapour) = 0.17112 m3
Air required = 0.982 m3