Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Evolution of Populations
Evolutionary changes can be measured in a population by examining Allele
frequencies (how common an allele is in that population). Population geneticists can
quantify a gene pool by measuring each allele frequency.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
- Hardy (mathematician) and Weinberg (physician) independently formulated
what is now referred to as the HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:
- The frequency of alleles in a population should stay constant from generation
to generation when all agents of evolutionary change are removed.
Therefore, the following conditions must be met for this to be true:
1. very large population size (No Genetic Drift)
2. no migration (no Gene Flow in or out)
3. no mutation (no Random Genetic change)
4. Random mating (no sexual selection)
5. no Natural Selection (everyone is equally fit)
-the Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a hypothetical, non-evolving population
-preserves allele frequencies
-this principle can serve as a model (null hypothesis)
-natural populations are NOT FOUND in H-W equilibrium
-useful model to measure if forces are acting on a population
-measuring evolutionary change
Hardy-Weinberg theorem
Example:
What is the frequency of the eye colour allele in a population given that the brown
allele (B) is present 70% and the blue allele (b) is present 30%?
-brown (B) allele 70% = 0.7
-blue (b) allele 30% = 0.3
-the frequencies of B + b = 0.7 + 0.3 = 1
From this information we can also calculate the probable frequencies of the
genotypes (i.e. BB, Bb, bb)
-assume the frequency of the alleles in males and females in the population are the
same and are also equal to that in the population
-recall that the probability of two separate events occurring at the same time is
equal to the product of their occurring individually (i.e. HH from probability coin lab)
-the frequency of homozygous dominant BB = 0.7*0.7 = 0.49
-the frequency of heterozygous dominant Bb = 2 (0.7*0.3) = 0.42
-the frequency of homozygous recessive bb = 0.3*0.3 = 0.09
-the frequency of BB + Bb + bb = 0.49 + 0.42 + 0.09 = 1
Summary of Hardy-Weinberg formulas
Let p = frequency of the dominant allele
Let q = frequency of the recessive allele
-Counting Alleles
-frequency of dominant allele = p
-frequency of recessive allele = q
-frequencies must add to 1 (100%) so:
p + q =
1
B b
-Counting Individuals
-frequency of homozygous dominant: p x p = p2
-frequency of homozygous recessive: q x q = q2
-frequency of heterozygotes: (p x q) + (p x q) = 2pq
-the frequencies of all individuals must add to 1 (100%), so:
p2 + 2pq + q2 =
1
BB Bb&bB bb
Steps/Hints for doing Hardy Weinberg questions Properly
1. Find q2 first (frequency of homozygous recessive organisms)
Why? Dominant organisms are BB or Bb (p2 + 2pq) making this a
far too confusing starting point
Recessive organisms are ALWAYS bb (q2) so always start with them
2. Find q (square root of q2)
Why? Once you find q you can use it to work out everything else
3. Find p (p = 1 – q )
Why? Every formula requires p and/or q
4. Find p2 (homozygous dominant) and 2pq (heterozygous) if needed
Why? p can now be used to distinguish between the two dominant
genotypes p2 = BB and 2pq = Bb
Using the Hardy-Weinberg equations
- if the frequency of alleles in a population are known, the theoretical
frequencies of the various genotypes/phenotypes in the population can be
found (and vice versa)
Sample Problems:
1. In Sweden, 81% of the people are blue eyes. What percentage of the
population are homozygous for the dominant allele of brown eyes?
1%
2. 64% of a group of people are homozygous recessive for the presence of
varicose veins. What percentage of this group are heterozygous for this
trait?
32%
Check your Understanding – Show all work
For all questions assume that the conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg
principle are being met.
1. A population only has two alleles, R and r, for a particular gene. The rr
individuals have been eaten for ten generations by a predator, resulting in
a drop in the frequency of the r allele from 0.8 to 0.2. The predator is then
removed. Assume all other requirements for Hardy-Weinberg are in effect.
After an additional ten generations without predation, would you estimate
the frequency of the r allele to be back to 0.8, still at 0.2 or down to 0.0?
Explain your answer. (no equation is required for this question)
I think the frequency of the r allele will stay at 0.2 because if Hardy-
Weinberg is in effect then the frequency would stay constant from
generation to generation also the frequency of the allele would only
increase if it were necessary towards evolution
2. A population consists of 400 individuals, of which 9 are recessive.
Determine the frequencies of M (dominant) and m (recessive) genes.
q = 9/400
= 0.0225 = q2
square root of q = 0.15
p=1–q
1 – 0.15
= 0.85
Dominant Frequency = 0.85 = 85%
Recessive Frequency = 0.15 = 15%
3. The gene pool of a population of fruit flies contains only two eye colour
alleles; the dominant red allele (W) and the recessive white allele (w). Only
1% of the population has white eyes. Determine the allele and genotype
frequencies of this population.
q2 = 0.012
square root of q = 0.1
p=1–q
= 1- 0.1
= 0.9
Frequency of WW = 0.9*0.9 = 0.81
Frequency of Ww/wW = 2 (0.9) (0.1) = 0.18
Frequency of ww = 0.1*0.1 = 0.01
4. 149 out of 212 people were able to taste PTC paper. Tasting is a dominant
trait. Calculate the frequency of p and q.
q = 212 – 149 = 63
q2 = 0.297
square root of q = 0.545
p = 1-q
= 1 – 0.545
= 0.455
the frequency of p = 0.455 and the frequency of q is 0.545
5. 60.2% of people in a group of 789 people had brown hair (a dominant
trait). If the dominant allele is B, how many people are heterozygous
dominant?
100% - 60.2%
= 39.8%
q2 = 0.398
square root of q = 0.63
p=1–q
= 1 – 0.63
= 0.37
Frequency of Ww/wW = 2(0.37) (0.63) = 0.4662
0.4662 * 789 = 368
368 (46.6%) people are homozygous dominant
