BUSITEMA UNIVERSITY ARAPAI CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE

COURSE NAME: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES
COURSE CODE : DCP 2202
CREDIT UNIT : 3
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course introduces the student to weeds and invasive alien species.
COURSE OBJECTIVE:
 To explain and identify weeds of economic importance in crop production.
 To explain and identify common plants and animal species that are invasive to
communities
 To describe the effects of weeds and invasive Alien species
 To explain the control measures for weeds and invasive alien species.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this course the students should be able to: -
 Differentiate between common weeds and invasive alien plants
 To know the impacts of weeds and invasive alien species.
 To prevent, eradicate, control and mitigation measures for weeds and invasive alien
species.
DELIVERY MODE AND TIME ALLOCATED:
The course is conducted through a series of Lectures (35 lecture hours), practical (10 hours) and
10 Tutorial hours adding up to 45 contact hours.
COURSE CONTENT:

LECTURE TOPICS SUB TOPICS HRS

Introduction to Invasive Alien  Terms and definitions 6
species.  Examples of Invasive Alien species and
their ecological location.
 The process of invasion of Alien species
their introduction, establishment and
reproduction.
Impacts of invasive Alien species.  Ecological, Economic and Public health 6
impacts

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

  How to predict species invasiveness;
Species characteristics and
Characteristics of invaded environments.
Prevention and Control measures of  Prevention principles of Invasive alien 6
Invasive alien species species and tools of Invasive alien
species prevention
 Early detection and rapid response
 Mitigation
 Eradication;
 Mechanical, chemical and biological
control methods.
Introduction to weeds  Definitions, Characteristics and 5
Classifications of weeds
 Adverse effects and Economic
importance of weeds
 Common weeds of East Africa
Weed seed production  Dissemination of weeds/dispersal 6
 Weed seed burial and germination
 Factors affecting weed seed germination
 Weed seed longevity, ecology and
biology
 Weed persistence
 Weed-crop competition
 Weed sphere of influence
 Factors affecting weed/crop interface
Methods of weed  Principles of weed management 6
control/management  Steps to effective weed management
 Preventive weed control
 Cultural weed control
 Mechanical cultivation /tillage
 Biological control,
 Chemical weed control; Effects/costs
associated with herbicide use;
Classification of herbicides based on:
Use, mode of action, Time of application
 Herbicide formulations
 Herbicide calculations
Practicals  Identification of common invasive alien 10
species
 Identification of common weeds and
invasive alien species of East Africa
 Weed album making
 Control of weeds and invasive alien

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 species using various methods
 Herbicide calculations/estimation and
application
Tutorials 10
TOTAL CONTACT HOURS 45

ASSESSMENT METHOD:
Continuous assessment: This evaluates the continuous performance of students before sitting the
final examination. It is done in form of tests, assignments and tutorials and it constitutes 30% of
the final student’s score. University exam constitutes 70% of the final score and it includes a
written examination (essays, structured and multiple-choice questions) which constitute 50% and
a practical examination 20%.
REFERENCES
 National Invasive Species Strategy and Action Plan
 [Link]
 Gis website
 Cabi website
 NARO publications/ website
 NEMA Publications/website
 Illinois Pesticide Applicator Training Manuals. Pubs Plus, University of
Illinois.[Link]
 Weeds of the Great Plains. Nebraska Department of Agriculture.
([Link]

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 WEEDS AND WEED SCIENCE

WEED DEFINITIONS

 According to Hunyadi (1974), weed is any plant or plant parts (stolon, rhizome, tuber,
bulb e.t.c.) growing where it is not desired.

 Weed is also defined as any plant not sown in the field by the farmer and grows where it
is not wanted.

 The European Weed Research Society defined a weed as any plant or vegetation that
interferes with the objective of people such as land management for agricultural
production, road construction, etc.

 Since they cause losses to crop productivity, weeds are also classified as pests along with
insects, diseases, and nematodes.

 Weed is any plant that is successful at colonizing and proliferating in a disturbed land.

 Others have defined a weed as a plant out of place or a plant growing in a field whose
value has not been realized.

Considering the above definitions, a plant can become a weed depending on the circumstances in
which it is growing. For example, star grass (Cynodon dactylon) is a weed when it interferes with
man’s activities such as crop production, but is not a weed when used as lawn grass or pasture.

Weed science is the study of ecology (the relationship between weed and its biotic and abiotic
environment), the life cycle, and the management of weeds. The most basic concept of weed
science is embodied in the word ‘weed’ itself.

There are about 350,000 recognized plant species in the world. Out of these, 347,000 are weed
species. Only about 3,000 species are cultivated crops. About 70% of the weeds which are a
problem in agriculture are drawn from 12 families. Nearly 50% of the world weeds come from
four families – Poaceae, Cyperaceae (Sedges), Asteraceae, and Polygonaceae

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CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS

Weeds are also like other plants but have special characteristics that tend to put them in the
category of unwanted plants.

 An enormous quantity of seed produced

Most of the weeds especially annuals produce an enormous quantity of seeds, e.g. wild oats
(Avena fatua) produces 250 seeds per plant, whereas wild amaranth (Amaranthus viridis)
produces nearly 11 million seeds. It has been observed that among 61 perennial weeds, the
average seed-production capacity was 26,500 per plant.

 Ability to withstand adverse condition (Environmental plasticity)

Weeds can withstand adverse conditions in the field because they can modify their seed
production and growth according to the availability of moisture and temperature. They can
germinate under adverse soil-moisture conditions, have a short period of plant growth, generally
grow faster, and produce seed earlier than most of the crops growing in an association.

 Seed longevity
Weed seeds remain viable for a longer period without losing their viability even if they are
buried deep in the soil, e.g. annual meadow grass (Poa annua) and scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis
arvensis) remain viable for about 8 years; creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense) for 20 years and
field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) for about 50 years.

 Easily dispersed
Weed seeds have a tremendous capacity to disperse from one place to another through wind,
water, and animals including man. The seeds may have special structures like wings, spines,
hooks, sticky hairs, etc. for dispersal to long distances.

 Mimicry

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

Many times, weed seeds and plants mimic the crop seeds they associate with in terms colours,
seed sizes, and shapes, etc. This is to enable the d get transported from one place to another
along with them. Cichorium intybus in berseem

 Undesirable/ unwanted traits

Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plants because they interfere with the normal operation
causing losses, and may be harmful to man and animals. They are harmful to crops, cattle, and
human beings.

 Dual propagation
Many weeds are vegetatively propagated and spread rapidly all over the field even under adverse
conditions. In addition, they also reproduce by seeds that enable them to survive harsh conditions
and create genetic diversity.

 Persistency and resistance

Weeds exhibit a high level of persistency and resistance to eradication. Others produce
rhizomes or saccullent underground storage organs that store enough food reserve for survival
and facilitate ability to regenerate after disasters like bush fire.

 Highly reproductive:
Weeds produce a large number of seeds and possess different types of propagules e.g. Seeds,
tubers, rhizomes, stolons used for propagation. Also, immature seeds can develop into a plant
and individual plants can produce more than one seed crop per year.

 Seed Dormancy:
Most seeds produce by weeds undergo seed dormancy (they remain dormant in seed form)
that can be innate (within their genes), induced, or enforced by the environment. For example,
annual meadow grass (Poa annua) and scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) can be dormant
for 8 years; creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense) for 20 years and field bind weed (Convolvulus
arvensis) for 20-50 years.

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 Large populations
Weeds usually exist in large numbers in an area. This helps them to colonize fast and
outcompete the native or the desired plants.

 Rapid and spontaneous growth

Weeds grow fast and attain the reproductive stage within the shortest time. They also exhibit
spontaneous growth, thus, they grow without being sown. This characteristic helps them to
evade harsh conditions and escape destruction.

 The long period of seed production

Many weeds can produce seeds continuously throughout their entire lifespan. They do not
stop producing seeds from the time they start producing seeds even in adverse conditions.

 Attractiveness
Some weeds appear attractive or produce substances that attract their agents for dispersal.
Some are good-looking that they may be used as flowers for decoration.

 Self compatibility
Most weeds are self-pollinating therefore donot require another plant to be reproductive. Even
those which are cross-pollinating also have flowers that receptive and efficient. Cross
pollination is accomplished by non-specialized flower visitors or by wind.

 Umbiquitus
Weeds can exist everywhere agriculture is practiced.

 Competitive
Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light, and water and can compete by
special means (e.g., rosette formation, climbing, allelopathy). For example Echinochloa
colona is most competitive and aggressive aggressive in rice; Phalaris phalaris and Avena
fatua in wheat and oats.

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS
The economic importance of weeds may be categorized into two; harmful effects, and beneficial
effects;
Beneficial effects:
In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, or them being portrayed as hazardous plants, they
can offer some beneficial properties, particularly when occurring at low densities. It should be
noted that a particular weed may be harmful in one instance and beneficial in the other. Some of
the potential benefits of weeds are:

 Help in conservation of soil moisture and nutrients. A ground cover of weeds will reduce the
amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly nitrogen which could
otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
 Provide food and shelter for natural enemies of destructive pests and even alternative food
sources for crop pests. For example, Trichogramma chilonis feed upon eggs of caster semi
looper which damage the castor plants. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in
increasing effectiveness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
 Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of soil
water levels, soil compaction, soil fertility and soil pH. Weeds are useful as indicators of good
and bad soils. Echinochloa colonum (Jungle rice) occurs in rich soils while Cymbopogon
Cymbopogon (Lemon grass) is common poor light soil and Sedges are found in ill-drained
soils (water logged soils).
 Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds. Bird populations have
been declining on farmland over the last few decades and leaving weeds as a resource has
been shown to help revive bird populations.

DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 Some weeds act as cover crops and binders in areas that are susceptible to soil erosion by
stabilizing the soil due to improved soil structure. They helpt to bind together the soil
particles and clods. Panicum repense is an excellent soil binder; keeps bunds in position and
prevents soil erosion in high rainfall regions and hilly slopes. Hariyali, kikuyu grass,
kollukattai grass (Cenchrus sp.) etc., can be used as soil binders.
 Provide organic matter and are also important in recycling of plant nutrients especially weeds
with deep rooting system.
 Weeds also provide pasture and fodder as feed for animals. For example Rynchosia aurea,
Rynchosia capitata and Clitoria terneata are very good fodder legumes.
 Some weeds such as Ammaranthus spp. (Pig weed) and Black night shade (Solanum nigrum)
are used as food for human consumption hence vegetables.
 Some weeds have medicinal properties and therefore can be used as natural herbal medicine
for treating various diseases eg used to cure snake bite (Leucas aspera), gastric troubles
(Calotropis procera), skin disorders (Argemone Mexicana.
 Some are used as raw materials for making industrial producrs such as Cymbopogon citrates
(Citronella oil) and C. martinii (Palmrosa) are used for manufacturing aromatic oil.
 Some weeds can also be used for reclaiming wasted lands. For example, Argemone mexicana
(Prickly poppy) is used to reclaim alkali soils.
 Other weeds are used as Ornamental flowers for decoration. For example, Lantana camera is
used for interior decoration.
 Others are useful for construction purposes such as Imperata cylindrical (spear grass) for
thatching, and Cuctus agave for fencing purposes.
 Weeds as manure - When weeds are ploughed in, they add to the soil plenty of humus.
Excellent compost can be made out of many weed plants. E.g., Calotropis gigantea, Croton
sparsiflorus and Tephrosia purpurea are used as green leaf manure for rice. In wetlands,
weeds are said to form a sort of rotation with paddy and are valuable in preventing loss of
nitrates. Datura sp. contains contains 3 % N on dry weight basis, Kolingi (Tephrosia
purpurea) fix N @ 50-75 kg/ha.

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 Weeds as fuel - Prosopis juliflora very invasive in nature and notorious tree weed commonly
used as fire wood. People make charcoal out of it and are marketed.
 Weeds as mats and screens - Stems of Cyperus pangorei and Cyperus corymbosus are used
for mat making while Typha angustata is used for making screens.

Harmful effects
 Weeds may interfere with agricultural operations such as harvesting and increase harvest costs
and also some crops may not be harvested because some weeds can cause skin irritation e.g.
Itch grass (Rottboellia exaltata).
 Weeds may act as alternative hosts to pests and diseases that injure crop plants. They provide
food and shelter for pests and diseases before the right host comes up e.g. Ciccadulina mbila
that lives on wild sorghum before maize comes up.
 Weeds reduce the quality of marketable agricultural produce e.g crops, meat, and wool.
Contamination of weed seeds of Datura, Argemone e.t.c., is harmful to human health, and
weed seeds present in the product cause odd odour sometimes.
 The presence of weeds can also reduce the quality of forage making it unpalatable or even
poisonous weeds can poison livestock e.g. weeds from the Solanaceae family include Solanum
incanum (Sodom apple), Datura stramonium (Thorn apple) and Lantana camara affect the
flavour of livestock products such as milk once cows feed on them.
 Weeds lead to an increase in the cost of production in terms of herbicide costs,
tillage/cultivation costs including labour costs, equipment, and fuel costs.
 Weeds compete with crop plants for water, nutrients, and light, therefore, decreasing the crop
yields expected. An estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P, 50% K,
39% Ca, and 24% Mg of their nutrient uptake.
 Weeds can reduce the land value e.g. land infested heavily with weeds such as spear grass
(Imperata cylindrica), or couch grass (Digitaria scalarum) sells for less than uninfested land.
 Weeds also decrease the quality of wildlife habitat and may also be fire hazards e.g. spear
grass (Imperata cylindrical).

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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 Aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) clog irrigation ditches and lakes
and interfere with navigation and fishing. The dense growth of aquatic weeds pollutes water
by deoxygenating it and killing the fishes.
 Parasitic weeds such as Striga spp, field dodder (mistletoe) are parasitic crops leading to
reduced yields.
 Some weeds release into the soil poisonous substances that may be harmful to the crop plants,
human beings, and livestock.

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
There are many ways in which weeds can be classified for the convenience of planning,
interpreting, and recording control measures against them. Some important classifications of
weeds used by weed researchers in the world for different purposes are as follows:

I. Based on life span/lifecycle

A plant’s life cycle determines in which cropping situations it might be a problem and what
management methods are likely to succeed. Weeds typically fall into one of three life cycle
classifications: annuals, biennials, or perennials. Some weeds may be classified into more than
one life cycle. Weeds are usually best adapted to survive in a crop with a similar life cycle,
germination time, or growth habit. The most effective control methods often are based on the life
cycle of a weed.
Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds, and
Perennial weeds.

a. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season or year are
called annual weeds. These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stems. Produce seeds in
abundance and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the annuals
die away and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year
following. Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are Erect spiderling/erect
boerhavia (Boerhavia erecta), Lamb's quarters/goosefoot/manure weed (Chenopodium album),
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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

Goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides), Gallant soldier/Macdonald weed (Galinsoga parviflora),
Blackjack (Bidens pilosa), Wild finger millet (Eleusine indica), Tridax (Tridax procumbens)
e.t.c.

b. Biennials
Are plants that live for more than one year but not more than two years i.e. complete their life
cycle in two years. In the first year they remain vegetative, and in the second year, they produce
flowers and set seeds. These weeds are found mainly in non-cropped areas. Biennial weeds
require two years to complete their life cycle and, like annual weeds, only reproduce by seeds.
Seeds germinate and produce root systems and leaves in the first year. The following year,
biennial stems elongate and plants flower, produce seeds, and die. Biennial weeds are typically a
problem in no‐till fields, pastures, and other areas undisturbed for atleast two years. Some
examples of biennial weeds include: musk thistle (Carduus nutans L), garlic mustard (Alliaria
petiolata), Wild carrot (Daucus carrota) and Creeping chaffweed (Alternanthera echinata).

c. Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapted to
withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by the
underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further classified into
i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds e.g Sonchus arvensis.
ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce
mainly from bulbs and seeds e.g. Allium sp. e.g Wild garlic (Allium ursinum).
iii. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seed e.g Timothy (Phleum pratense).
iv. Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following.
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Johnson grass (Sorghum
halapense).
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Bermuda
grass/Star grass (Cynodon dactylon).

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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Field
Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis).
d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Nut
grass (Cyperus rotundus).

II. Based on ecological affinities

a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive as well under waterlogged and
in partially dry condition. Propagation is chiefly by seed e.g Ammania baccifera, Eclipta alba.
b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)
These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they
successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds e.g Trianthema portulacastrum, False
Amaranth (Digera arvensis).
c. Dry lands weeds
These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand drought on
account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. E.g. Tribulus terrestris, Argemone
mexicana.

III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)

(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry condition
e.g., Aristolochia bracteata (worm killer)
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes of
plants e.g Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having good drainage e.g
Leucas aspera.
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: E.g. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis.

IV. Based on place of occurrence

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(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of the weeds infest the cultivated lands and cause
hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production e.g. Phalaris minor in wheat.
(b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture/grazing grounds e.g. Indigofera
enneaphylla.
(c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion/abundance e.g Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantean.
(d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of
withstanding any amount of trampling e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris

V. Based on Origin
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and most
of the weeds are indigenous e.g Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum
(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult e.g Parthenium hysterophorus,
Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

VI. Based on cotyledon number

Based on the number of cotyledons it possesses it can be classified as dicots and monocots.
Based on the number of cotyledons they can be classified as dicotyledonous weeds/dicots and
monocotyledonous weeds/monocots.
a. Monocotyledonous weeds
Monocotyledonous weeds are those whose embryo has only one cotyledon and are often
referred to as monocots. Examples include Wild finger millet (Eleusine indica),
Wandering jew (Commelina benghalensis), Couch grass (Digitaria scalarum), Nutgrass
(Cyperus rotundus), Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona e.t.c.
b. Dicotyledonous weeds
These are weeds whose embryo has two cotyledons and are often referred to as dicots.
Examples include Goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides), Black jack (Bidens pilosa),
Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa e.t.c.

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VII. Based on soil pH
Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
(a) Acidophile – Acidic soil weeds e.g Rumex acetosella.
(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds e.g Taraxacum sp.
(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils e.g Acalypha indica.

VIII. Based on morphology

Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified into three categories. This is
the most widely used classification by weed scientists.
(a) Grasses: All the weeds that come under the family Poaceae are called grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum,
Cynodon dactylon, Rottboelia exaltata (Itch grass), Eleusine indica e.t.c.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves
are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are
Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus esculentus and Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad-leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds. All dicotyledonous weeds are broad-
leaved weeds. The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens
(Tridax) e.t.c

IX. Based on the nature of stem

Based on the development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified as
woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.
(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and undershrubs and are collectively called brush
weeds e.g. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora.
(b) Semi-woody weeds: e.g Croton sparsiflorus
(d) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common occurrence
around us e.g Amaranthus viridis.

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X. Based on specificity
Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity. They are, a. Poisonous weeds, b. Parasitic weeds and c. Aquatic weeds.
a. Poisonous weeds
The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great loss. These
weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing the cattle
consume these poisonous plants. E.g Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metal are
poisonous to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus
precatorius are poisonous.
b. Parasitic weeds
The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend completely on
the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend on the host plant
for minerals and are capable of preparing food from the green leaves are called partial parasites.
Those parasites which attack roots are termed root parasites and those which attack the shoot of
other plants are called stem parasites. The typical examples are;
1. Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco
2. Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum
3. Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on leucerne and onion
4. Partial stem parasite - Loranthus longiflorus on mango and other trees.
c. Aquatic weeds
Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water are
called aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as submersed, emersed,
marginal and floating weeds.
1. Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of
their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leaves.
E.g., Ceratophyllum demersum.
2. Emersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and
leaves at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes

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 like grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating
weeds. E.g. Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.
3. Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are emersed weeds that can grow in moist
shoreline areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and
habitat. The important genera that come under this group are; Typha angustifulia,
Polygonum sp., Cephalanthus, Scirpus etc.
4. Floating weeds: These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly
or in a cluster. Some weeds are free-floating and some are rooted at the mud bottom and
the leaves rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases e.g. Eichhornia crassipes,
Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia, Nymphaea pubescens.

XI. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FAMILY

1. Graminae /Poaceae (Grasses)

This is a grass family and it has a wide range of weeds that mainly grow in cultivated fields.
They include the following;

 African couch grass (Digitaria scalarum) – is a perennial weeds which is extremely

troublesome because of the presence of rhizomes and it is so difficult to control.
 Sword / spear grass (Imperata cylindrica) – it is perennial in nature and forms hard
scaly rhizomes which are extensive in the soil and produces unattractive inflorescence
with a lot of seeds which can be dispersed by wind.
 Johnson grass (Sorghum halepanse) – it is a perennial grass dispersed by seed. It has
very long creeping rhizomes. This weed prefers high temperatures for its growth.
 Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) – thus is a perennial weed of highland crops.
Because of its rapid growth and aggressive nature, it is characterized as a noxious weed
in some regions.
 Itch grass / Guinea fowl grass (Rottboelia exaltata) – it is an annual grass with sharp
hairs on the edges. It germinates as comes up late in the growing season. When mature,
the seeds snap off.

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  Sour grass/paspalum (Paspalum conjugatum) – it is a perennial with creeping stolons,
tolerates shaded conditions and survives well on poor sandy acidic soils. It is propagated
by seed and stolons.
 Wild finger millet/crows foot grass (Eleusine indica) – it is an annual weed that
resembles finger millet and reproduces by seed. It is one of the most widespread and
troublesome annual grass weeds in sub-tropic and tropical regions. It is found throughout
East Africa.
2. Cyperaceae (Sedges)
There are over 50 sedges that occur as weeds in East Africa crops and all belong to the
cyperaceae family. The most important include; Cyperus rotundus (nut grass or purple nut
sedge) and Cyperus esculentus (Yellow nut sedge or water grass).

The common feature of a nut sedge is the presence of underground bulbs or tubers that can
remain dormant for long periods before they produce emergent shoots.

a) Cyperus rotundus is perennial and can survive a wide range of soil conditions and
persistent in both dry and moist areas. It is the most troublesome of the two common sedges.
It spreads by slender horizontal rhizomes and swollen tuberous bases.

b) Cyperus esculentus is light green and also perennial and can be found in both low and high
moisture fields. It reproduces by bulbs and rhizomes.

3. Oxilidaceae (Oxalis)
This family includes Oxalis latifolia (Oxalis) and Oxalis corniculata (Yellow sorrel).

a) Oxalis latifolia is the most troublesome in East Africa and it’s a problem in nurseries of
horticultural plants and annual field crops. It is perennial and reproduces by bulbs and bulbils ad
may also reproduce by seed. It survives well under shades mainly in coffee, banana and tea
plantations.

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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

 b) Oxalis corniculata is an annual weed larger than Oxalis latifolia. It is also a problem in
gardens and nurseries and reproduces by rootstock and seed and is easier to control than Oxalis
latifolia.

4. Commelinaceae (Commelina family)

Weeds in this family have fleshy and succulent stems and leaves, normally grow creeping along
the ground. Examples include Commelina benghalensis (Wandering jew with purple flowers),
which is the commonest and most troublesome and Commelina africana (Wandering jew with
yellow flowers). These two species survive for a long time and have the power to regenerate
even when buried deep in the soil, they are difficult to control because they are succulent and
fleshy thus do not easily desiccate or dry out once buried.

5. Compositae (Esteracea)
This family includes weeds such as Goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides), Black jack (Bidens
pilosa), Tridax (Tridax precumbens) and Gallant soldier/Macdonald weed (Galinsoga
parviflora). They are annuals in nature and reproduce by seed. They produce large quantities of
seeds that germinate immediately and thus these weeds are abundant in nature.

6. Parasitic weeds
A parasitic plant derives some or all its sustenance from another plant. Such plants have
modified roots called haustoria that penetrate the host plant and connect to the xylem, phloem, or
both ad extract nutrients. The common weeds of such nature include Purple witch weed ( Striga
spp) – characterized by bright green stems and leaves, brightly coloured purple flowers. Other
parasitic weeds are Mistletoe (Phoradendron spp), and dodder (Cuscuta spp).

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 Summary of common weeds and their classification
Family weed belongs English name of weed Scientific name of weed Lifecycle of weed Mode of Reproduction

1. Family Graminae / Poaceae (Grasses)  Couch grass Digitaria scalarum Perennial Rhizomes
 Sword / spear grass Imperata cylindrica Perennial Rhizomes and seed
 Johnson grass Sorghum halepanse perennial Rhizomes and seed
 Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum perennial Rhizomes
 Itch grass/ Guinea fowl grass Rottboelia exaltata Annual Seed
 Sour grass / paspalum Paspalum conjugatum Perennial creeping stolons and
seed
 Wild finger millet / crows foot Eleusine indica Annual Seed
grass
2. Family Cyperaceae (Sedges)  Nut grass or purple nut sedge Cyperus rotundus Perennial Rhizomes and swollen
tuberous bases
 Yellow nut sedge or water grass Cyperus esculentus Perennial Bulbs and rhizomes
3. Family Oxilidaceae (Oxalis)  Oxalis Oxalis latifolia Perennial Bulbs, seed
 Yellow sorrel Oxalis corniculata Annual Rootstock and seed
4. Commelinaceae (Commelina family)  Wandering jew with purple Commelina benghalensis Perennial Stem cuttings
flowers
 Wandering jew with yellow Commelina africana Perennial Stem cuttings
flowers
5. Compositae (Esteracea)  Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides Annual Seed
 Black jack Bidens pilosa Annual Seed
 Tridax Tridax procumbens Annual Seed

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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025

  Gallant solidier / Macdonald Galinsoga parviflora Annual Seed
weed
6. Parasitic weeds  Purple witch weed Striga spp. ? Seed
 Mistletoe Phoradendron spp. ? Seed
 Dodder Cuscuta spp. ? Seed

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DCP 2202: WEEDS AND INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES NOTE 2024/2025