Dhan Kumar Shrstha, Bagiswori College, 1

UNIT: FIVE

SAMPLING SURVEY
Issues To Discuss Under This Unit

1. Meaning and Concept

2. Sampling Design
3. Sampling Process
4. Characteristics of Good Sampling
5. Merits and Demerits of Sampling
6. Types of Sampling
7. Probability and Non-probability
8. Sample Size
9. Sampling Vs Non-sampling errors
10. Methods of Minimizing Such Errors

MEANING AND CONCEPT

The world is very wide and extensive. It constitutes (consists of) innumerable (uncountable)
things. So it is not possible to make minute (detail) study about all of them or to include them
in the minute study at the same time. At that time, one has to carefully select the items or
things or variables that have the similar features or natures and that represent a large group.
After that, such items or things are studied thoroughly and certain generalizations are made.
For example, one can collect a few grains of rice as sample from a sack and
determines/generalizes the quality of rice in the sack. This process of studying and drawing
generalization is termed as sampling survey. That is, sampling is the process of selecting
units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample
we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.

Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Each observation measures
one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable bodies distinguished as
independent objects or individuals. In this respect, F.N. Kerlinger says: Sampling is taking
any portion of a population or universe, as representative of that population or universe.
Similarly, Goode and Hatt also say: Sample as the name implies is the smaller
representation of a larger whole. The following two charts also help to clarify the concept of
sampling.
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In the Research Methodology, practical formulation of the research is very important and so
should be done very carefully with proper concentration and in the presence of a very good
guidance. But during the formulation of the research on the practical grounds, one tends to go
through a large number of problems. These problems are generally related to the knowing of
the features of the universe or the population on the basis of studying the characteristics of
the specific part or some portion, generally called as the sample. So now sampling can be
defined as the method or the technique consisting of selection for the study of the so called
part or the portion or the sample, with a view to draw conclusions or the solutions about
the universe or the population. According to Mildred Parton: Sampling method is the
process or the method of drawing a definite number of the individuals, cases or the
observations from a particular universe, selecting part of a total group for investigation.

The aforestated description shows that sampling is an essential part of any research
investigation. Almost all research studies involve sampling. In management research,
sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.

The sampling process comprises several stages:

 Defining the population of concern

 Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
 Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
 Determining the sample size
 Implementing the sampling plan
 Sampling and data collecting
 Data which can be selected

In order to learn more about sampling, it is better to understand about its fundamental issues.
They are:

a. Population or Universe
b. Census
c. Sampling

a. Population: In sampling, population or universe is studied first. Population or

universe denotes the entire group of people, events or things or interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate. It can further be defined as including all people or
items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely
enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a
population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that
population. For example, a manufacturer needs to decide whether a batch of material
from production is of high enough quality to be released to the customer, or should be
sentenced for scrap or rework due to poor quality. In this case, the batch is the
population.
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Population can be categorized as finite and infinite. A finite population refers to the
fixed number of elements for study. Similarly an infinite population denotes the
unlimited or uncontrolled number of elements for study.

b. Census: Sometimes the population can be too large. At that time, it is not possible to
study about them in universe/totality. At that time, a small, but carefully chosen
sample is selected to represent the population. The sample thus selected reflects the
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. This process is called the
census study. Census in general refers to the counting of whole population. But in
research methodology, census means the study of different units in population
separately.
c. Sampling: If the population for the study is small in size, sampling is not required but
if the population for the study is large in size, sampling is required.

SAMPLING DESIGN

A sample design is the framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a
survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well. That is, sample
design means a scientific method and statistical techniques adopted for the pursue of
selecting appropriate size and representative non-overlapping sample for the purpose of
concluding research. This shows that the sample design provides the basic plan and
methodology for selecting the sample from the population. A sample design can be simple or
complex. Look at the following figure for clear concept.

Research design ranges from definition of the target population to the selection of sample by
the application of suitable sampling techniques and procedures.

FEATURES OF SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling design or strategy is the procedure of selecting samples from the population. While
designing a sample, the basic components of as a sample design should be taken into
consideration.

1. Identification of targeted population or sample units (who are to be studied?).

2. Specifying the parameters of interest.
3. Developing the list of population from where sample is drawn.
4. Specifying the size of the samples (how many to be surveyed?).
5. Selecting the appropriate techniques/procedure.
6. Selecting the appropriate data collection methods.
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Apart from these components, one should clearly know the meaning of the following
terminologies:

a. Sampling Frame: It is the list identifying each unit in the study population.
b. Sampling Item or Unit: It is an element of the study that becomes the basis for
selecting the sample.
c. Sample Size: It refers to the number or quantity of units elements to be included in
research work.
d. Sample Statisctics: This refers to various information collected from different
respondents or population.
e. Population parameters: These denote the characteristics of the population estimated
for the sample statistics.

SAMPLING PROCESS

Tull and Hawkings point out seven different steps of sampling process. They are:

a. Defining the population

b. Specifying the sampling frame
c. Specifying the sampling unit
d. Selecting the sampling methods
e. Determining the sampling size
f. Specifying the sampling plan
g. Selecting the sample
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SALIENT FEATURES OF GOOD SAMPLING

Sampling survey should have the following features:

1. A sample should be representative. That is, the chosen sample units should represent
the whole population.
2. It should be free from prejudices and preconceived notions. It should not be guided by
any bias attitude.
3. It should be of suitable or adequate size. A very small sample size cannot represent
the whole population. Similarly a large size can be too costly and time consuming. So
it should be very cautiously (carefully) chosen.
4. It should be based on practical experiences. That is, the researcher should use his/her
experiences of prior research or the experiences of the research experts while
choosing sample.
5. It should have conformity with the aims of the study. That is, the collected sample
should match with the objectives and the nature of the research title.
6. It should be within the access of available means and resources.
7. It should be based on the appropriate logics and reasoning.
8. The sample units should be free. They should not be interdependent.

MERITS AND DEMERITS SAMPLING METHOD

Sampling method has the following merits and demerits:

A. Merits of Sampling Method:

a. Sampling helps to save time and money. When a researcher cannot make the
investigation of a large population or universe, he/she carefully selects a certain
unit or element that represents the whole population or universe. And thus, he/she
saves time, money and other resources.
b. While collecting data by applying a sampling method, a researcher makes the
minute study of different units of a large group or population or universe,
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critically analyses them and assembles more reliable, pure and accurate data or
information.
c. Sampling method avails the opportunities for making intensive study or
investigation. The researcher chooses different sample units from a larger
population on the ground of their natures and features. And this encourages the
researcher to make the minute study of the sample population from the multiple
angles.
d. The researcher under the sampling method makes the investigation or study of
different small units that represent a larger universe or group. The researcher can
complete such investigation with the limited resources. This saves him/her from
bearing the administrative complexities or inconvenience and unnecessary
expenses.

B. Demerits of Sampling Method:

a. Lack of Accuracy:
Sampling is done on the basis of certain assumption/guess. In many cases, such
assumption or guess fails to represent the whole group. As a result, the researcher
commits various errors and fails to assemble the reliable and accurate data.

b. Difficulties in Selecting the Representative Sample:

Sample units are collected assuming that such units represent the whole group.
But in many cases, the researcher selects the wrong sample units due to lack of
sufficient information, technological support, experiences and suggestion from the
experts. Thus, he/she finds it difficult to select the right sample units to represent
the larger population.

c. Change in the Characters of the Selected Units:

The features and natures of different social events or phenomena are dynamic and
transformational. So the features of the sample units selected to represent such
phenomena or events are transformational. And the data collected from such
sample units cannot create trust and universality.

d. Possibilities of Prejudice and Bias:

While collecting samples, the researcher is like to show prejudice or bias and fails
to gather the reliable and universal data.

e. Need of Special Knowledge:

Sampling is not an easy job. It demands extensive knowledge and skills.

f. Complication in Making a Sampling Plan:

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Making a sampling plan is a very difficult task. One requires appropriate

theoretical and practical knowledge and skills while making a sample plan. In
their absence, one cannot easily develop a sampling plan.

TYPES OF SAMPLING METHOD

There are several sampling methods used in research. However, all those sampling methods
are categorized into two classifications:

A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
a. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
i. Lottery Method
ii. Number Oder Method
iii. Tippet Number Method
iv. Grid Method

b. COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING

i. Stratified Random Sampling
ii. Cluster Sampling
iii. Systematic Sampling
iv. Area Sampling
v. Multistage Sampling
vi. Sequential Sampling
vii. Replicated Sampling

B: NONPROBALITY SAMPLING:
a. Purposive/Judgemental Sampling
b. Quota Sampling
c. Convenience Sampling
d. Snowball Sampling
e. Self-selecting Sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than
zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. The
combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population
totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection.

For Example:

We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit each
household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from
each household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random number, generated
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from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number
in each household). We then interview the selected person and find their income.

People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add their income to our
estimate of the total. But a person living in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two
chance of selection. To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the
selected person's income twice towards the total. (The person who is selected from that
household can be loosely viewed as also representing the person who isn't selected.)

In the above example, everybody does not have the same probability of selection; what
makes it a probability sample is the fact that each person's probability is known. When every
element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is known as an
'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-
weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling is categorized into two major groups:

a. Simple Random Sampling:

A simple random sample (SRS) is the purest form of probability sampling and is very
commonly used in research. In this scheme, all subsets or items or units of the
population have an equal probability of being selected in the sample. That is, any
given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair in the
sample. It is drawn from a record of the population as a whole. This method is used
only in those studies where the entire population can be listed. This method minimizes
bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual
results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population,
which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.

However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of the
selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population. For
instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on average
produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to over-represent one
sex and under-represent the other.

SRS may also be cumbersome (awkward) and tedious (monotonous) when sampling
from an unusually large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested
in "research questions specific" to subgroups of the population. For example,
researchers might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor
of job performance is equally applicable across racial groups. SRS cannot
accommodate the needs of researchers in this situation because it does not provide
subsamples of the population. "Stratified sampling" addresses this weakness of SRS.
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Simple random sampling has also been subdivided into the following groups:

i. Lottery Method
ii. Number Oder Method
iii. Tippet Number Method
iv. Grid Method

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