Z.

Physik 271,275-279 (1974)

Numerical Calculation of Bound Geodesics in the Kerr Metric

H. Goldstein
Institut far Theoretische Physik der Universit/it zu K61n, Ki51n, Germany

Received July 15, 1974

Abstract. Timelike geodesics, especially bound orbits in the equatorial plane ('9=rc/2)
and spherical orbits (r = const), are calculated numerically. We plot the orbits using the
Kerr-Schild coordinate system. The periastron advance and the dragging of nodes have
the same values in any coordinate system and can be directly measured by an observer
at infinity.

I. Introduction
Dealing with physical effects in strong gravitational where
fields one usually starts considering the motion of
A--=r z - 2 M r + a 2
test particles when radiation is neglected. Most astro-
physical sources, e.g. neutron stars and black holes, pZ=_r2+a2 c o s 2 '9
have a certain angular momentum which influences
particle orbits. The exterior gravitational field of M and a are the mass and the specific angular momen-
rotating black holes is very likely described by the Kerr- tum of the source. In the following we set 0 < a < M.
Thereby there exist two horizons at r+ = M +_(M z - aZ)1/2.
metric [1]. It is therefore a computational problem
to find the timelike geodesics. This has been done The motion of a test particle is governed by the
by several authors in the last years [2-9]. It, however, equations [3, 9]
still remains difficult to get some information about p2 dr~d2 = R 1/2, (2 a)
the shape of the orbits. Therefore we solve the equa-
p2 dO~d2 = 01/2, (2 b)
tions of motion numerically for two special cases,
bound orbits in the equational plane and spherical p2 dqo/d~ =(~b sin -2 0 - a E)+ a A -1 p, (2c)
orbits (constant radius), and plot them using the Kerr-
pZdt/d2=a(~-aEsinZO)+(rZ+a2)A-aP (2d)
Schild coordinate system.
with
~) ~ Q -- COS2 0 [a 2 (#2 _ E 2) + 4~2 sin - 2 03 ' (3 a)
II. Equations of Motion P=-E(r 2 +a2) - ~ba, (3b)
Written in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates the Kerr- R -- p2 _ A [#2 r 2 + Q + (~b - a E) z] (3 c)
metric has the form [4]
ds 2 = - p - Z A [ d t - a s i n 2 ,9 d(p] 2 2 denotes the affine parameter, # is the particle's rest
mass, E its energy and 9 the component of the angular
+ p -2 sin 2 0 [(r 2 + a 2) d o - a dt] 2 + p2 A -1 dr 2 + [92d'92 momentum parallel to the rotation axis of the source.
(1) An explanation for the constant Q can be given only
276 z. Physik271 (1974)

in the Schwarzschild case (a =0); then L-=(Q + q~2)1/2 A particle will be called bounded if it does not cross
is the total angular momentum of the particle. 2 is the horizon or goes to infinitely large radii, i.e.
related to the proper time ~ by the equation r+ < r < o e . A bound state can exist only if ~6>q~+
or ~ _ < ~ - and min{VMax, 1}>=E>=VMin, where VM,x
=/z 2. (4)
and Vui, denote the extrema of V(r; ~b, a). The turning
For timelike geodesics we set M = # = I and for light points with respect to r are called periastron (inner
rays M = 1, # = 0 . The general case can be obtained turning point) and apastron (outer turning point).
by rescaling. The parameters M, a, #, E, ~b, Q are Bound orbits consist of congruent sections, e.g. between
measured in units of length. two neighbouring apastrons. The azimuthal angle
covered in one period will be denoted by A~p. Asymp-
totically A(p is given by [10]:
III. Orbits in the Equatorial Plane
A ~0= 2 rc(1 + 3/~b2 - 4 a/q)3). (6)
The r-motion of particles in the equatorial plane
In general A(p increases with increasing E.
(0=~/2), completely described by Eq.(3a), can be
In order to plot some of these geodesics we choose
discussed by introducing an effective potential V(r; fb, a)
the Kerr-Schild coordinates (x, y, z, ?) where
[9] (Fig. 1) (Q=0 because of dO/d2=O and Eq. (3b)).
V is the minimum energy a particle must have at x+iy=(r+ia)sin~expiS(dcp+aA-ldr), (7a)
a certain radius r. It is therefore defined by the larger
root of R(E; ~b, r) (~b,r fixed). z = r cos 0, (7 b)

V(r; q), a)=(a 9 r+D1/2)/(r4+a2(r 2 +2r)), (5a)

D - r 3 A(q~2 r + r 3 + a 2 ( r + 2)) (5b) In Fig. 2 we draw the plots of bound particle orbits
in the equatorial plane which differ in their energies
V goes asymptotically to unity at large radii. Outside E only. Each orbit consists of two geometrical different
the horizon r+ (r>r+) V hat at most two extrema parts, an elliptical and a spiral part. If we allow the
with respect to r. If q~ is within a critical interval particle to start at the apastron, it then falls along
E~6-, ~+] depending on the parameter a, V increases the elliptical part and near the horizon it loops around
monotonically. C o - a n d counterrotating particles in the center along the spiral part, reaches the periastron,
the innermost stable circular orbit have the angular raises again to the ellipticle part and reaches the next
momentum ~+ or ~b-, respectively. In the Schwarz- apastron. This effect, however, depends on the energy E.
schild case (a=0) we have ~ b + = - ~ - = 3 . 4 6 and in The smaller VMa,--E is, the larger the number of
the extreme Kerr case (a = 1) ~ § = 1.15 and 9 - = - 4.23, loops is. If E = VM,x the particle reaches an unstable
q~+ and ~ - decrease with increasing a. circular orbit at the periastron and remains there for

1.06-

1.04-
/•a=0 Effective Potential V ( r ; if, a)
= - .

1.02-

[Link] . . . . . .

0,98

0.96-

0,94-

0,92.

0.90
0.00 ' 2.'00' 4'.00' 6.'00 ' 8100' 10'.00' 12100' 14100' 16.'00' 18.00' 2l].00' 22'.00' 24100' Fig. 1. Effective potential for ~ = -4.5 and
Radius a=0,{, 1
H. G o l d s t e i n : N u m e r i c a l C a l c u l a t i o n of B o u n d G e o d e s i c s 277

8.00-

6.4.0-

4..80-

3.20-

1.60-

0.00-

>--1.60-

-3.20

-4.80-

-6.4.0-

-8.00.

-9.60 9

a -11.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-8.80 -7.20 -5 60 -4..00 -2.4.0 -0.80 0.80 2.4.0 4.00 5.60 7 . 2 0 8.80 I0.40
X

15.20

13.60

/
12.00

10,.40-

8.80

7.20.

.>_ 5.60

Z,.O0

2.40-

0.80-

- 0.80-

-2.40-
Fig. 2 a and b. B o u n d orbits in the e q u a t o r i a l
b -4..00. p l a n e a = 1, ~ = 2, VMa x = 1. (a) E = 0.90 n = 3,
4..80 3.20 1 , 6 0 0.00 1.60 3.20 4..80 6.4.0 8.00 9.60 11.20 12.80 14.4.0 (b) E = 0 . 9 5 n=5 89 n denotes the n u m b e r of
X r e v o l u t i o n per section
278 Z. Physik 271 (1974)

an infinite time. Then Acp is infinitely large. For IV. Spherical Orbits
negative ~ or a < 1, the looping effect does not occur
Timelike geodesics with constant radius ro are called
in such a remarkable way. The difference Vra,x-E
spherical orbits. In addition we postulate that the
has to be much smaller than in the extreme Kerr
particle is bounded and moves on a stable orbit. The
case.
mathematical conditions are
The angle A q) which is covered during one period
can be measured by the following experiment. An R (to) = 0, (8 a)
experimenter moving with the test particle permanently OR/8r 1,=,o = 0 spherical orbit, (8 b)
emits a radial light ray, i.e. an observer at infinity
sees it coming out radially. When the particle moves c32R/~3r21r=~o<O stable orbit, (8c)
around the center it acts like a light house. The angle Q> 0 bound orbit. (8 d)
covered by the light ray during each period can be
measured by the observer, e.g. by counting the light An example is shown in Fig. 3. An important effect
flashes. Because of the rotational symmetry of the was already pointed out by Wilkins [9]: The nodes
metric the measured value will be Ag. The trans- of a spherical orbit advance in the sense of the spin
formation formula (7a) shows that A cp is conserved of the source. (Nodes are the intersecting points of
in the Kerr-Schild coordinate system. Aq~, therefore, the orbit with the equatorial plane.) After each revolu-
does not depend on the special coordinate system tion the node has moved by an angle Af2 which is
we have chosen. asymptotically given by the formula [10]:
Since A q) varies monotonically with each of the three AQ= 2a/r3/2. (9)
parameters a, ~ , E ( M = 1) the geometrical shape of
every bound orbit in the equatorial plane is deter- In the Schwarzschild case there is no node dragging
mined by three of the four parameters a, ~, E, A (p. even near the horizon.

12"00l
11.001
&00-
6.001
4.001
2.001
>-0,001
2.001
4.001
6.00Z
8.001
10.001

12.o0-
-12.00'-16.00'-8100'-6.'00 '-4.'00'-2100' [Link]' [Link]' [Link]' [Link]' [Link]' [Link]' 12.'00'
Fig. 3. Projection of a spherical orbit on the
equatorial plane, a = l , ~=0.636, E=0.955,
X Q = 13.25, ro = 10
H. Goldstein: Numerical Calculation of Bound Geodesics 279

V. Summary References
A particle orbit in the Kerr field experiences a peri- 1. Kerr, R.P.: Phys. Rev. Lett. 11, 237 (1963)
astron advance (A~o-2~) and a dragging of nodes. 2. Boyer, R.H., Price, T.G.: Proc. Camb. Soc. 61, 531 (1965)
3. Carter, B.: Phys. Rev. 174, 1559 (1968)
The values of A~o and Af2 can be measured directly
4. Boyer, R.H., Lindquist, R.W.: J. Math. Phys. 8, 265 (1967)
by observers at infinity. These effects are asymptotically 5. De Felice, F.: Nuovo Cim. 57B, 351 (1968)
equivalent to the Lense-Thirring effect. For constant M 6. De Felice, F., Calvani, M.: Nuovo Cim. 10B, 447 (1972)
A q) depends on a and 9 only. Near the horizon A q~ 7. Stewart, J., Walker, M.: Black Holes: The Outside Story, Sprin-
increases with increasing energy E and diverges for ger Tracts in Modem Physics. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York:
Springer 1969
E ~ VM,x. If E is close to Vgax the particle loops 8. Bardeen, J.M., Press, W. H., Teukolsky, S.A.: Astrophys. Journ.
around the center on a spiral part and moves to the 178, 347 (1972)
apastron on an elliptical part of the orbit. For E = VMax 9. Wilkins, D.C.: Phys. Rev. D5, 814 (1972)
the particle remains in an unstable circular orbit at 10. Lense, J., Thirring, H.: Phys. Zeit. 19, 156 (1918)
the periastron.
Af2, which is measured for spherical orbits, is always
positive, i.e. the nodes are dragged in the sense of Hartmut Goldstein
the source's spin. Institut fiir Theoretiscbe Physik
der Universifiit zu K61n
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. P. Mittelstaedt for D-5000 K61n
his constant interest and stimulation of this work and to Dipl.-Phys. Ziilpicher Strage 77
J. Pfarr for many helpful discussions. Federal Republic of Germany