UPH004 – Applied Physics

Interference

(Semester: July –December 2022)

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 Topics to be covered in interference

(1) Interference due to thin films of uniform thickness

(2) Interference due to wedge-shaped film
(3) Newton’s ring
(4) Applications of the above ideas (non-reflecting
coatings, measurement of wavelength and refractive
index)

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 Interference of wave
Interference is a phenomena in which two or more waves get superimposed
to yield a resultant wave which is different from the individual waves.

Interference due to two different sources S1 and S2

S1 S2

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 Intereference: water waves

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 Interference: sound wave

Example of
Interferences

Can we have only two types of interferences, namely

constructive and destructive?
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 Interference: light wave
Young’s double slit experiment is perhaps the first example of
interference that you became familiar with

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 Principle of Superposition
Definition: When two or more waves of same nature pass through a point,
then the resultant displacement or disturbance at the point is given by the
sum of displacements or disturbances created by different waves individually.

Superposition of electromagnetic waves (light)

For light, the principle of superposition directly follows from the fact that electric fields
E1, E2, E3 ….. associated with different electromagnetic wave satisfies the same
wave equation which is a linear differential equation, that is,

………………………
………………………

Then, it follows directly

which is the mathematical statement of principle of superposition.
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 Coherent and incoherent sources of light

Can we observe interference pattern using source of

light such as electric bulb, sunlight or candle?

The light is emitted by atoms in discrete steps. Suppose an

atom is excited and emits light. This process takes roughly around
10-8 seconds. In this time interval, light emitted is of several meters.
After that atom is deexcited and becomes inactive. If energy is supplied
to the atom again, then it can again excite and then emit light.

In ordinary sources, the time gap between two consecutive such

process is random. In other words, the phase difference between two
consecutive wavetrains emitted by the atoms is random. Such sources
are called incoherent sources (See fig).

t1 t2

Those sources of light in which a fixed phase difference

is maintained over time and space are called coherent sources.
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 In order to observe interference effect we
should have coherent source of light.

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 Thin-film interference: examples
A film with thickness ranging from a fraction of nanometer
to a few micrometers can be termed as thin film.

Circular patches of colors why?

What should be thickness of a thin film so that interference

can be observed?

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 In order to observe the interference, coherence
length of the light should be greater than the
optical path difference.

Note: Coherence length of sunlight is a few micrometer only. Can

we use it to observe thin-film interference if the thickness is 1cm?
Give an example of coherent source of light.

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 Thin film interference

When light is incident on a thin film, a portion

of light is reflected while another portion gets
refracted or transmitted through the film. The
transmitted light is reflected partially and emerges
on the same side of incident wave. The reflected
wave and emergent wave acquires different phase
and interfere with each other.
Interface 1
The phase difference depends on the optical path
difference between reflected and emergent waves. 3 4
The optical path difference depends on the thickness
of the film.
Interface 2

We are interested in obtaining condition for constructive and

destructive interferences for various type of thin films

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 A few points to keep in mind:

 No phase change when light gets reflected by a

region of lower refractive index
 There is a phase change of π or 180 for
reflection by a region of higher refractive index,
which is equivalent to path difference of λ/2.
 No phase change for a refracted wave

Ray11
Ray Ray22
Case11 Ray Case22
Case
Case

interface11
interface interface11
interface
Interface22
Interface Interface22
Interface

Phasechange
Phase changefor
foronly
onlyRay
Ray11 Phasechange
Phase changefor
forboth
bothray
ray11and
and22

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 Optical path
With regard to the phase change, a path length of x in a medium of refractive
index μ is equivalent to a path length of μx in the vaccum. Therefore, for a
distance x in a medium of refractive index μ, μx is the optical path.

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 Interference from thin film due to reflection of light
Optical path difference for
1 2 ray 1 and ray 2
E
air i i Interface 1
F i C
A r
t thin film rD r μ

G B H
air Interface 2

we used

 Phase change of π for ray 1 at air-film interface is equivalent to

introducing a optical path difference of λ/2.
 No phase change for ray 2 either at air-film or film-air interface.

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 Conditions for constructive and destructive interference
in reflected light case

Condition for constructive interference

where n = 1,2,3…..
Condition for destructive interference

Can you now explain the circular

or other types colorful patches of
where n =0, 1,2,3….. interference from the oil film or soap
bubble?

These results are for thin film with uniform thickness.

Can we observe the interference fringes in film with uniform
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 Interference due to transmitted light
Optical path difference for
air i i ray 1 and ray 2
i C
A
t thin film r F r r μ

B D
air i
E
1 2

Note: derivation of optical path difference

not included in syllabus

Thus, the expression of optical path difference for ray

1 and ray 2 in the transmitted case is same as in the
reflected case!!!
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 Conditions for constructive and destructive interference
in transmitted light case

Condition for constructive interference

where n = 0,1,2,3…..
Condition for destructive interference

where n = 0,1,2,3…..

Important to remember:

Conditions for maxima and minima in the transmitted

case is exactly opposite to the conditions for reflected
Case!!!

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 Question: can we say that if light of a particular color is absent in
the reflected light, then it is present in the transmitted light or
vice versa?

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 When white light is used instead of monochromatic

 White light consists of several different wavelengths.

 The refractive index depends on the wavelength.

 Since the optical path difference depends on the refractive index,

the phase difference also depends on the refractive index.

 Therefore, it can happen that for a certain wavelength or color of light,

there is constructive interference and for others a destructive
interference, i.e, a particular color is visible but not others.

 Note that optical path difference also depends on the angle

at which the ray strikes the thin film, thus, by changing the angle,
one can change the condition for constructive or destructive
interference. That is why, when the angle changes, the color may
also change.

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 Interference due to a wedge-shaped thin film

1 Optical path difference

2 between ray 1 and ray 2
E

i C
i r t
A
r
α D
B F

Note: derivation of optical path

difference not included in syllabus

Condition for constructive interference

-
Condition for destructive interference

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 Fringe spacing in wedge-shaped film
Recall: nth maximum is given by
Optical path difference, 2μtcos(r+α) +λ/2 = nλ
or 2μtcos(r+α) = (2n-1)λ/2
α
Let nth maxima is obtained at distance xn from the edge O.
At xn the thickness of the film is t .
Edge of the film Thus, t = xn tan(α)

For normal incidence, r =0 and assuming μ=1 (if air),

t
α Then,
O 2 xn tan(α) cos(α) = (2n-1)λ/2 (Using condition of maxima)
xn
or, 2 xn sin(α) = (2n-1)λ/2 1

Similarly,
for, (n+1)th maxima,
Subtracting
Eq.1 from Eq.2 2 xn+1 sin(α) = (2n+1)λ/2 2
2 (xn+1 - xn)sin(α) = λ
Thus, fringe spacing, xn+1 – xn = λ/(2.sin(α)) ≈ λ/(2.α)
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 Circular fringes

1. Alternate circular
bright and dark fringes

2. With white light

fringes will be colored

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 How to observe the Newton’s ring

o Light rays emanate from source S and

parallelized through a lens system L1.

o It gets reflected from glass slab B and strikes the

plano-convex mirror normally.

o Interference takes place from thin air-film

, which can then be observed by a microscope M.
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 Newton’s ring

α
α

Red color line

When α is variable as well as very small and radius of segment shows
curvature of curved surface of lens R is very large then the the thickness of
air film between the lens L and plate P can be treated as the air film. Let
a wedge-shaped film. it is t.

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 If d is the thickness of the thin film then

 Optical path difference = 2μdcos(r+α)+λ/2

 For air film μ = 1
 For convex lens of large radius of curvature, α is very
small and can be set to be zero
 Thus, the optical path difference = 2d cos(r)+λ/2
 For normal incidence r = 0
 Optical path difference = 2d +λ/2

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  For bright fringe or maxima:
2d +λ/2 = nλ or 2d = (2n-1)λ/2 where n = 1,2,3...
 For dark fringe or minima :
2d +λ/2 = (2n+1)λ/2 or 2d = nλ where n = 0,1,2..

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 Diameter of fringes in Newton rings
How does the diameter of fringes relate to the thickness of the air film?

Thus,

where we used r = D/2

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 Diameter of the Newton’s ring

Condition for dark fringes:

The diameter of Newton’s ring is proportional to the square

root of natural number, to the square root of the radius of
the curvature of convex surface, to the square root of the
wavelength.

Q1: What is the diameter of the bright fringes ?

Q2: What is the diameter of dark fringes when space
Between the lens and mirror is filled with liquid of refractive
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 Wavelength determination

If Dn and Dn+p gives diameter of nth and (n+p)th

dark fringe respectively, then

Therefore, λ can be calculated using this formula.

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 Determination of refractive index of a liquid using
Newton’s ring experiment

Dividing Eq. 1 by Eq. 2, we get

Central fringe corresponds to n = 0

Note:
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 Why the center of Newton’s ring is dark?
At the center, the thickness of the air film d = 0, therefore
the optical path difference between the two rays reflected
by the curved surface of the lens and by the glass plate is
is zero. The phase difference of π arises only because of the
reflection by the glass plate. Hence, destructive interference
takes place and the center of Newton’s ring is dark.

Thickness of air
film is zero here

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 Why excessive thin films appear dark?
For extremely thin films,

Optical path difference

because d is extremely small or d ≈ 0

The optical path difference of l/2 is equivalent to path difference of π.

Therefore, the phase difference is π for all wavelengths, which leads to
the destructive interference for all wavelengths. This is why such
a film will appear dark.

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 Non-reflecting/anti-reflecting Coatings

What is non-reflecting and anti-

reflecting coating and why do
we need it?

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 Non-reflecting/anti-reflecting Coatings:
Non-reflective coatings admit more light into cameras and other
optical instruments. In other words, eliminating reflections
allows slightly more light to pass through, producing a slight
increase in contrast and visual sharpness. Moreover, the eyes
wearing glasses are more clearly visible so one is able to make a
better eye contact. Less glare means less eye strain. Protection
from UV rays.

With non-reflecting coating

Without non-reflecting coating

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 Non-reflecting/anti-reflecting Coatings
 At any interface a fraction of wave energy is
reflected.
 Reflectance or fraction of energy reflected
from an interface separating medium of refracting
indices n1 and n2 is given by n2 n1 n2

 The difference between the refractive index should

be minimized to have maximum transmittance.
Question: for optimal light entering into eyes,
how should the coating be done? Should n3 lower n3
than n1 or greater than n1 ? (Assume n2 =1) n1 n2
n2

The answer to this question lies in our requirement that maximum

light should be transmitted to enhance the contrast of the image. One
possible scenario is to keep n3 less than n1 but greater than n2 =1 .
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 Non-reflecting coating

 Comparing the two reflected rays

(1&2), there is no phase difference
between the two due to reflection at
different interface. These effects
cancel out.

 Let's consider a wavelength λ in

air and so a wavelength λglass in
the glass. Now suppose that thickness
of the layer is t = λcoating/4 = λ/4n. n is 1
the refractive index of coating. 2

 So the second reflected ray has

travelled λcoating/2 further, so that
the phase difference, entirely due
to the path difference, is π.

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 Non-reflecting coating (cont….)

 For this wavelength, we have destructive interference.

Thus, very little light is reflected. Most is transmitted into
the lens making more light available for the eyes or the
optical instrument, and less is lost in reflection.

 For optical instruments, one would usually choose λ to be

in the middle of the visible spectrum (green light at around
550 nm). With normal incidence, not only there is maximum
destructive interference for green, but also considerably
less intensity for the rest of the visible spectrum, especially
of those close to the green.

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 What happens to the light falling at an angle?

 We've neglected the angle of incidence above. When the

angle of refraction in the coating is θ, the pathlength
difference is λ/(2ncos θ): longer by a factor of 1/cosθ.
So the destructive interference is more pronounced for longer
wavelengths towards the red end of the visible spectrum. The
destructive interference is less pronounced for blue and
violet.

This explains why the lens in the photo above appears to

be slightly blue-violet colored, which also indicates presence of
such coatings.

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 The End

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 Question1 : rays 1 and 2 are separated. Then, how can they
interfere?

1 2
E
air i i
i C
A r
t thin film rD r μ

B
air
2’

Incoming rays
1 A’ 2
1’
E F
i i
AE = CF

Air-thin film interface

A C

 Green color dashed lines denote perpendicular

 Yellow color dashed line denotes wavefront of incoming wave

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