SMJP 2113

Manufacturing Process

Week 4
Chapter Joining (Welding)
Introduction
Metal joining or welding is an important process in manufacturing

 For products impossible to manufacture in a single piece

 Many products are cheaper to fabricate as many individual
components and join later
 Many product have to be dissembled for repairs
 Automobile assembly, electronic devices etc
 Different parts of a product might have different design requirements

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Two Categories of Welding Processes
Some 50 different types of welding operations have been cataloged by the American Welding
Society. They use various types or combinations of energy to provide the required power.

We can divide the welding processes into two major groups:

1) Fusion welding
coalescence is accomplished by melting the two parts to be
joined, in some cases adding filler metal to the joint

Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding, oxyfuel gas

welding
2) Solid state welding

heat and/or pressure are used to achieve coalescence, but

no melting of base metals occurs and no filler metal is
added
coalescence
Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding

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 1) Fusion welding
use heat to melt the base metals

Fusion welding can be divided into three main

processes: oxy-fuel welding, arc welding, and
resistance welding.

Oxy-fuel welding is the most common type of

fusion welding, and it involves using fuel gas
and oxygen to weld metals together.

Arc welding uses an electric arc to weld metals,

while resistance welding uses heat generated by
electrical resistance to weld metals

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 1.1 Arc welding (AW).

Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join metals.
A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable electrode and
the base material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.
What is ARC?
An electric arc from an AC or DC power supply creates an intense
An arc is an electric current flowing
heat of around 6500°F which melts the metal at the join between two
work pieces.
between two electrodes through an
ionized column of gas. A negatively
charged cathode and a positively
charged anode create the intense heat
of the welding arc. Negative and
positive ions are bounced off of each
other in the plasma column at an
accelerated rate.

In welding, the arc not only provides

the heat needed to melt the electrode
and the base metal, but under certain
conditions must also supply the means
to transport the molten metal from the
SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 tip of the electrode to the work. 5
Working Principle of Arc Welding

• In arc welding, positive voltage is applied to the electrode

(welding rod/wire) and negative voltage is applied to the
base material. This makes an arc occur from the base
material to the electrode.
• The output current of the arc is about 5 to 1,000 A and the
output voltage is about 8 to 40 V.
The temperature of the arc is about 5,000°C to 20,000°C. The
melting temperature of iron is about 1,500°C. Consequently,
the base material and electrode are heated to a high
temperature and fuse together

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Arc welding process
 term electrode refers to the Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and
component that conducts the current nonconsumable.
from the electrode holder to the metal
being welded. It progressively melts Consumable electrodes are low melting point electrodes. When
away due to the heat of an electric arc electrode and job is struck the arc starts to melt the end of the electrode.
held between it and the base metal. The molten electrode is transferred to the job in the form of metal
The arc welding electrode combines a
droplets.
central current carrying "core wire"
(filler rod) and a flux coating. Arc
welding electrodes are available in Non-consumable electrodes are those which do not melt away or
various diameters and lengths, consumed during the welding process. These electrodes involves the use
depending on the base metal thickness of high melting point materials such as carbon or tungsten
and requirements of the welded joint

Electrode consumption Welding method

Non-consumable (non-fusible) •TIG welding

electrode type •Plasma welding
Consumable (fusible) electrode •Shielded metal arc welding
type •MAG welding
•MIG welding
•Electrogas arc welding (EGW)
The classifications above are just an example. There are various ways to classify the types, and some may differ from the table above.
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Differences between consumable and non-consumable electrode

Consumable Electrode Non-Consumable Electrode

A consumable electrode itself melts down during welding and A non-consumable electrode does not melt down or deposit
subsequently deposits on the weld bead. on the weld bead. It remains intact throughout the welding.
A consumable electrode acts as filler and thus it supplies Non-consumable electrode does not supply filler. Thus filler
necessary filler material intended to fill the root gap. material is required to supply separately.
After welding, a significant portion of the electrode becomes After welding, the electrode remains unaffected (except a
an integrated part of the weld bead. small erosion).
This type of electrode does not allow autogenous mode of It allows all three modes of welding – autogenous,
welding as filler is applied inherently. It can be used for either homogeneous and heterogeneous.
homogeneous or heterogeneous mode of welding.
Electrode material must be chosen based on the parent Since non-consumable electrode does not act as filler, so
materials in order to maintain chemical compatibility between electrode material is independent of the parent materials to
them. be welded.
Since electrode material is consumed during welding, so A non-consumable electrode offers extended life as it is not
frequent replacement of the electrode is usually desired. consumed during welding. Frequent replacement is also not
However, the replacement frequency depends on electrode desired (it helps improving productivity).
size and filler deposition rate.
Arc welding processes that employ a consumable electrode: Arc welding processes that employ a non-consumable
•Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) electrode:
•Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) (both MIG and MAG) •Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas
•Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) (TIG) welding
•Submerged arc welding (SAW) •Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
•Electroslag welding (ESW) •Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
•Electro-gas welding (EGW) SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 8
Non-consumable electrodes
a. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma arc welding is an automated form of welding that uses an electric arc to Plasma is a gaseous mixture
generate heat for melting the metals being joined. The arc is created by passing an of positive ions, electrons and
electric current between two electrodes in a containment unit. The heat generated neutral gas molecules
by the arc melts the metals, which then fuse together when they cool off. Plasma
arc welding requires specialized equipment and is typically used for large-scale
construction projects or industrial applications such as shipbuilding or automotive
repair.

Transferred and Non-Transferred Modes

The transferred plasma : arc is maintained between the workpiece and the tungsten electrode.
Heating of a co-axial gas maintains it in a plasma state.

The heat generated from non-transferred plasma arc welding is more dispersed than the transferred
plasma arc. This makes the non-transferred arc welding process suitable for a wide range of
applications. Current flows from the electrode inside the torch to the orifice-containing nozzle and
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back to the power supply.
Non-consumable electrodes

b. TIG Welding (Tungsten Inert Gas)

TIG welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to create an electric An inert gas is supplied to the welding
arc between it and the workpiece being welded. torch that flows along the welding arc
to protect the metals from oxidation
The electrode is shielded from oxidation with an inert gas, usually argon or and from forming small circular gaps.
helium, which also helps to maintain a stable arc length during the welding
process.

TIG welding is more versatile than plasma arc welding as it can be used on both thin and thick materials in any
position without risking warping due to excess heat input. It also offers greater control over the weld than plasma
arc welding does, making it ideal for precision applications such as jewelry making or medical device
manufacturing where precision is critical. SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 10
 Difference Between Plasma Arc Welding vs TIG Welding
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a type of welding that uses a plasma torch to create an arc between the workpiece
and the electrode. The plasma arc is created by passing an electric current through a gas, which ionizes the gas
and creates plasma.

 Plasma arc welding is similar to inert tungsten gas (TIG) welding,

but there are some key differences. One difference is that in PAW,
the plasma arc is used to melt the metal, while in TIG welding, the
arc is used to heat the metal.
 There are several advantages of plasma arc welding over TIG
welding. One advantage is that PAW can be used to weld metals
that are difficult to weld with TIG welding. Additionally, PAW can be
used to weld thicker materials than TIG welding, and it can also be
used to weld at higher speeds.
 There are also some disadvantages of plasma arc welding. One
disadvantage is that it can be more difficult to control than TIG
welding. Additionally, PAW can produce more fumes and noise than
TIG welding, and it requires more power and equipment than TIG
welding.

Overall, plasma arc welding has several advantages over TIG welding, but it also has some disadvantages. It is
important to weigh the pros and cons of each type of welding before deciding which one is right for your project.
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Consumable electrodes
Heat source: Arc between metal and a flux-coated electrode (1.6- 8
a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process mm diameter)
In the SMAW process, the flux-coated electrode helps to Energy Consumption: 30 – 400 Amps –depending on the size of
shield the welding process from any interaction with the the electrode in general, even though there are welding machines
atmosphere. that use up to 600 Amps. AC or DC SMAW Operation Power
consumption 1-12 KW

Advantages with the SMAW Process:

The electrodes are coated with a •This is the simplest of all Arc welding processes.
shielding flux of a suitable composition. •Equipment is portable
The flux melts together with the •Cost of equipment is economical
electrode metallic core, forming a gas •Variety of applications & wide range of electrodes available
and a slag, shielding the arc and the •A range of metals & their alloys can be welded
weld pool. The flux cleans the metal •Welding can be done in all positions
surface, supplies some alloying •Welding can happen indoors & outdoors
elements to the weld, protects the •Welding cable can be extended to long distances in
molten metal from oxidation and comparison to the SAW process
stabilizes the arc.
The slag is removed after Solidification. Limitations of the SMAW process:
•Low productivity as in a 10-minute span, welding happens
only for 6 minutes
•The process also involves the frequent change of welding
electrode
•Moisture from flux coatings can create weld-related
problems
•Safety problems like arc strike, stray current & electric
shock risks
•Absolutely manual process – hence called Manual Metal
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Arc Welding
Consumable electrodes
b. Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding is an arc welding process that uses a continuous solid wire electrode heated
and fed into the weld pool from a welding gun. The two base materials are melted together forming a join. The
gun feeds a shielding gas alongside the electrode helping protect the weld pool from airborne contaminants.

An external gas tank supplies the

weld is shielded by an external process with an inert gas, usually argon.
gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon The aims to create a protective
+ Oxygen or other gas atmosphere for both the arc and melt.
mixtures).

Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):

• Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions);
• High level of operators skill is not required;
• Slag removal is not required (no slag);

Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):

• Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;
• Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind,
SMJP 2113dispersing the shielding
Shahira Liza Kamis gas.
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 TIG Welding vs MIG Welding

TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding uses long rods to fuse MIG (metal inert gas) welding uses a feed wire that
two metals directly together. It uses a non-consumable constantly moves through the gun to create the spark,
electrode and a different filler material. then melts to form the weld. It uses a semi-automatic or
automatic arc.

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1.2 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW).
Oxy-fuel welding, more commonly known as oxyacetylene welding, or gas welding, is used for gas welding and gas cutting.
Oxygen-acetylene gas welding was first developed and used in 1903 by the French Engineers Edmond Fouche and
Charles Picard. Pure oxygen was used instead of ordinary air to increase the flame temperature.
Before the advent of arc welding with flux coated rods, gas welding was the only process available for good quality welding.

Definition: welding process where two metal parts are welded by heating with a flame formed by
the combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen.

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Fuel Gas
Acetylene is the commonly used fuel gas, and when correct proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed
in a gas welding torch (hot flame of around 3200º C).

We can vary the proportion of acetylene and oxygen to get the desired type of flame. Gas welding can be
done with or without using a filler material.

Other fuel gases like propane, hydrogen, and natural gas can be used for welding lower melting point metals
like nonferrous metals

An excess acetylene added to

the neutral flame creates the
carburizing flame.

Gas welders use the neutral flame as

the starting point. In the neutral flame,
the acetylene gas is completely burned
in the oxygen and the surrounding air. A
neutral flame is chemically neutral.

An excess oxygen added to the neutral

flame creates an oxidizing type of flame. The
oxidizing flame is hotter than the other two
flames. The oxidizing flame usually is not Temperature distribution along the
preferred since it creates unwanted oxides length of the flame
SMJP
on the 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023
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 Working Principle of Oxy Acetylene Welding

The working principle of Oxy Acetylene Welding is simple in the process even though it is effective
and efficient. The temperature of the flame is about 3200º C. It uses the Fuel gases like Oxygen
and Acetylene to weld the material.

In this process, the welding torch produces the high-temperature flame with the help of oxygen
and acetylene. Due to the high flame, the metal that needs to be weld gets weak and melted,
meanwhile, a filler material is used to fill the gaps between two workpieces.

As the filler is cooled, the two workpieces will be joined.

Usage of type of Filler material depends

upon the metal that needs to be
weld. For example, if we want to weld
the mild steel metal, then we have to
use the mild steel filler. Similarly, if we
want to weld the aluminum metal, then
we have to use the aluminum filler.

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Schematic view of oxy-acetylene gas welding process
1.3 Resistance welding (RW).

Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from electrical resistance to the flow of a
current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held together under pressure. included
spot welding and seam welding, two joining methods widely used today in sheet metal working.

How Does Resistance Welding Work?

Resistance welding is generally used to join two plain

metal work pieces together. An electric current is delivered
to the metal sheets (or any work pieces being joined)
through weld electrodes which apply force to the sheets.
This force is then converted to heat. The heat is
generated so that it melts the metal at the point where
they join – the point of ‘resistance’ between the faying
surfaces. The electrode then extracts heat from the
molten weld area which forms a weld nugget at the point
where it solidifies. A force is applied before, during and
after a current is applied, which confines the contact area.

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 Overview of Spot Welding & Seam Welding
Spot welding and seam welding are two of the most commonly used welding processes in the manufacturing
industry.

Spot welding is a process that uses heat and

pressure to join two metal pieces together. It
applies an electric current between two electrodes,
creating an electrical arc that melts the metal at the
point of contact.

Seam welding is a similar process. But instead of

using pointed electrodes, mechanically driven
wheel shaped electrodes are use to produce
continuous weld

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Spot welder

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Aspect Resistance Welding Arc Welding
Production of In the resistance welding, the heat is In the arc welding, the heat is produced due to
Heat produced due to the flow of current mainly the arc created between the electrode and the
through the contact resistance. work-piece.

Supply Generally, AC supply is used for resistance Both AC and DC supply can be used in the arc
welding. welding.

Requirement of With the resistance welding, no filler material In arc welding, some filler metal rod is
Filler Material is added in any form for joining the two metal necessary so that proper strength can be
pieces. obtained in the joint.

Requirement of In resistance welding, external pressure is In arc welding, no external pressure is

External Pressure required for joining the metals. required. Thus, the equipment is simple and
easy to control.

Voltage Resistance welding requires a very low In case of arc welding, the striking voltage is
voltage. high. Therefore, it needs voltage control.
Power Factor In resistance welding, the power factor is low. In arc welding, the power factor is poor.

Temperature In resistance welding process the In arc welding, the arc temperature is very
temperature raise is not very high. high. If it is not handled properly, it may
damage the work-piece.
Suitability Resistance welding is most suitable for mass Arc welding is suitable for repair work. But, it is
production and also for repair work. not suitable for mass production.

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 .
No Arc Welding Gas Welding
.
In the arc welding process, an electric arc is created to produce the In gas welding, combustion of gaseous fuel with oxygen is used to
1. required heat for fusing the base metal for coalescence formation generate the required heat.

Arc welding can only be used for the metals which are electrically Gas welding is equally applicable for both electrically conductive and
2.
conductive. non-conductive metals.
Electric arc welding requires availability of electric power supply for its No electric power supply is required in case of gas welding.
3.
operation.
In case of arc welding, no cylinder containing fuel and oxygen is required. In case of gas welding, two cylinders are employed, one for gaseous
4. fuel such as acetylene, propylene, etc. While another is required for
containing oxygen.
Arc welding process requires shielding of the arc and the weld bead No shielding is provided in case of gas welding process.
5. which is provided either by flux coating of the electrode or some inert gas.
As the arc temperature is very high, the temperature of the core is about Temperature of the gas flame is comparatively low, about 3500 °C.
6. more than 6000 °C. Therefore, arc welding can be used for joining of Therefore, gas welding cannot be used for welding of the metals
metals having high melting point. having very melting point.
The electric arc has a narrow cross-sectional area. Therefore, it reduces The area of cross-section of the gas flame is relatively wider.
7.
the width of weld bead and heat affected zone. Therefore, it results in wider weld bead and heat affected zone.
The high temperature and narrow electric arc increases the heat density, The lower temperature and wider gas flame result in less heat
8. which results in quick fusion of metals. density. Thus, gas welding requires more for the welding process,
which makes it uneconomical.
9. Arc welding can be used for joining thicker components. Gas welding is suitable only for thin plates and sheet metals.
Arc welding has inherent arc cleaning, due to flow of avalanche of In gas welding process, no arc cleaning takes place. Hence, the base
10.
electrons. metal requires cleaning prior to welding.

Both gas welding and arc welding are general purpose welding processes. The most significant difference between the two is that arc welding is a type of
electric welding, i.e. it needs an electric power supply to work,
SMJPwhile
2113gas welding
Shahira is a non-electric
Liza Kamis welding process and no electric power supply is
Sem 2 20222023 22
required.
 2) Solid-State Welding
Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence results from application of pressure alone or
a combination of heat and pressure. If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below the melting point of
the metals being welded. No filler metal is utilized.

Solid-State welding refers to a family of processes that produce welds without the requirement for
molten metal.

Solid-state welding theory emphasizes that the driving force for two pieces of metal to spontaneously
weld (or form a metallic bond) to each other exists if the barriers (oxides, contaminants, and surface
roughness) to welding can be eliminated. All solid-state welding processes are based on this concept,
and use some combination of heat, pressure, and time to overcome the barriers. Approaches include
friction, diffusion, explosion, and ultrasonic welding.
Since there is no melting, there is no chance of forming defects such as porosity or slag inclusions
which are only associated with fusion welding processes.
Solid-state welding processes also require no filler materials, and in some cases, can be quite effective
at welding dissimilar metals that cannot be welded with conventional processes due to metallurgical
incompatibilities.

The equipment is typically very expensive, and some processes involve significant preparation time of
the parts to be welded. Most of these processes are limited to certain joint designs, and some of them
are not conducive to a production environment. Non Destructive Testing processes do not always work
well with solid-state welding processes because of the difficulties of distinguishing a true metallurgical
bond with these techniques.

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Advantages of Solid State Welding:
 Weld (bonding) is free from microstructure
defects (pores, non-metallic inclusions,
segregation of alloying elements)
 Mechanical properties of the weld are similar to
those of the parent metals
 No consumable materials (filler material, fluxes,
shielding gases) are required
 Dissimilar metals may be joined (steel -
aluminum alloy steel - copper alloy).

Disadvantages of Solid State Welding:

 Thorough surface preparation is required
(degreasing, oxides removal,
brushing/sanding)
 Expensive equipment.

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2.1 Friction welding (FRW).
Friction welding is solid-state joining technique that welds workpieces by generating heat through
mechanical friction
They do not use an external heat source to melt or convert the metal into a plastic state. Instead, the welding is
formed by the application of external pressure.

In friction welding, one part of the pieces to be joined rotates relative to the other. Because of this movement,
friction is generated that heats up the materials at the contact surfaces. Till the completion of the welding cycle, a
high-pressure force is applied.
What metal joints are used in friction welding?

The major benefit of friction welding is that it can be used to

join dissimilar metals. Friction welding is widely used with
metals like steel, aluminum, copper, titanium, nickel alloy,
and thermoplastics in a wide variety of aviation and
automotive applications

•Step 1: One part to be welded is placed in a rotor-driven chuck and the

other part is held stationary. Now the rotor is switched on to rotate at a
very high speed along with the workpiece.
•Step 2: The rubbing of welding surfaces creates sufficient heat (of the
order of 900-13000 C for steel). Now a high pressure is applied through
the stationary part.
•Step 3: Once the temperature of the welding surfaces reaches the
required temperature, the rotor is stopped.
•Step 4: Now, the pressure is increased continuously till both parts weld
Principle of friction welding process. to each other.
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 2.2 Diffusion welding (DFW).
Diffusion-welding is a solid state process controlled by diffusion, that produces a weld between the intended
members by the long time application of considerable pressure at elevated temperatures.
The characteristic features of this process are that it does not introduce macroscopic deformations or relative
motion in either of the welded parts and that it does not melt base metals
The parameter of Diffusion-
Diffusion-welding process develops in 2 stages welding
• Pressure
First stage
• Temperature
Bring the intimate metal into contact with the • Time surface
metal. This is done by the application of
pressure which distorts the roughness of the Uniform pressure assures stability of formation and
substrate and disrupts and expands the the elevated temperature performs the important
mentioned surface layers and contaminants function of increasing the surface energy ( mobility
of the atom). Time is dependent process parameter
Second stage such as an increase in temperature reducing the
Consists of diffusion time required to complete the confounding process
and grain growth to
complete the weld
and finally eliminate
the interface formed
in the previous
phase. The second
phase induces
complete metal
bonding in the area
of the contact
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2.3 Ultrasonic welding (USW).

Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used
in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces. The combination of normal and vibratory forces results in shear
stresses that remove surface films and achieve atomic bonding of the surfaces

1 2 3

Parts in Fixture: Ultrasonic Horn Contact: Force Applied: A controlled

The two thermoplastic parts to A titanium or aluminum force or pressure is applied to
be assembled are placed component called a horn is the parts, clamping them
together, one on top of the brought into contact with the together against the fixture
other, in a supportive nest upper plastic part.
called a fixture. SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 27
 4 5 6

Weld Time: The ultrasonic horn is vibrated

vertically (20 kHz) or (40 kHz) times per Hold Time: The clamping force is
second, at distances measured in maintained for a predetermined
thousandths of an inch (microns), for a Horn Retracts: Once the
amount of time to allow the parts
predetermined amount of time called weld melted plastic has solidified,
time. Through careful part design, this to fuse as the melted plastic cools
the clamping force is removed
vibratory mechanical energy is directed to and solidifies. This is known as
limited points of contact between the two and the ultrasonic horn is
hold time. (Note: Improved joint
parts. The mechanical vibrations are retracted. The two plastic parts
transmitted through the thermoplastic strength and hermeticity may be
are now joined as if molded
materials to the joint interface to create achieved by applying a higher
frictional heat. When the temperature at the
together and are removed from
force during the hold time. This is
joint interface reaches the melting point, the fixture as one part.
plastic melts and flows, and the vibration is
accomplished using dual
stopped. This allows the melted plastic to pressure).
SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 28
begin cooling.
Weld Types

Main Types of Welds Used in Welding

While there are many weld types, the most commonly used types of welds are:

•Bead •Tack
•Fillet •Plug
•Groove •Slot
•Surfacing •Resistance

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 Weld Bead Fillet Welds

Most of us start out learning a basic

weld bead. Also known as a bead, it’s a
simple single-pass type of weld on a Used to join two surfaces at
base metal approximately right angles
(90 degrees), the fillet weld
Make a narrow stringer bead by using forms a triangle when viewed
little to no side-to-side weaving motion. in cross-section. The lap, tee,
You create the wider weave bead with a and corner joints are types of
greater side-to-side motion. fillet welds

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Groove Welds

Made in the groove between

two members of a workpiece,
groove welds are adaptable to
many butt joints of differing
thicknesses.

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 Multiple-Pass Weld

When a groove needs two or more beads to fill it,

it’s a multiple-pass or multi-pass weld. Multiple
pass layers are usually made with narrow
stringer beads in a manual process.

When making this type of weld, the buildup

sequence specifies the order to lay each bead

To control the effect of accumulated heat on metal

materials, multi-pass welding instructions may specify
an interpass temperature. This is the minimum, or
maximum, temperature the deposited weld metal should
reach before starting the next pass.

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 Surfacing Weld

A surfacing weld adds filler metal material to a base metal substrate to get desired
properties or dimensions
Hardfacing, or wearfacing, is a surfacing variation to deposit material on a part to reduce
wear or loss of material by abrasion, impact, erosion, galling, and cavitation.

This type of weld consists of one or more stringer or weave beads.

A surfacing weld is a cost-effective method to extend the life of machines, tools, and
equipment, and is especially useful in the construction industry.

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 Plug & Slot Welds

A weld made through holes in one member of a lap

joint is a plug weld. When the holes are elongated,
it’s called a slot weld

Depending on the work, the holes may or may not

be totally filled with filler material. Often, this type of
weld attaches face-hardened plates to softer backer
material or installs liner metals inside tanks.

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Parts Of Welds

Parts of a Groove Weld 1.Root Opening: The separation between the members to be
joined at the root of the joint.

2.Root Face: Groove face next to the root of the joint.

3.Groove Face: The surface of a member included in the

groove.

4.Bevel Angle: The angle formed between the prepared edge

of a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the
member.

5.Groove Angle: The total included angle of the groove

between the parts to be joined.

6.Size of Weld: The joint penetration (depth of bevel plus the

root penetration when specified). The size of a groove weld
and its effective throat are the same.

7.Plate Thickness: Thickness of plate welded.

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 1.Actual Throat of a Fillet Weld: The shortest distance
Parts of a Fillet Weld from the root of the fillet weld to its face.

2.Leg of a Fillet Weld: The distance from the root of the

joint to the toe of the fillet weld.

3.Root of a Weld: The points at which the back of the

weld intersects the base metal surfaces.

4.Toe of a Weld: The junction between the face of a

weld and the base metal.

5.Face of Weld: The exposed surface of a weld on the

welded side.

6.Depth of Fusion: The distance that fusion extends

into the base metal, or previous pass, from the surface
melted during welding.

7.Size of Welds: Leg length of the fillet.

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 Welders use a few more terms used to describe areas of the weld.

Examples of zone terminology in a weld.

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the portion of a base

metal that has not melted but has changed because of the
heat of welding. The HAZ is between the weld deposit and
the unaffected base metal. The physical makeup or
mechanical properties of this zone are different after
welding.

Fusion describes the melting together of base and/or filler

metal. The fusion zone is the region of the base metal
that melted during welding

Because welding heat affects the structural properties of

the base metal, controlling heat is essential to a good
weld.

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SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 38
SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 39
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SMJP 2113 Shahira Liza Kamis Sem 2 20222023 41
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What is a Weld Defect?
A welding defect is simply an imperfection or flaw caused due to the intended usage of the weldment.

In some cases, the weld might not comprise the defect but discontinuity. The discontinuity is not
considered a welding defect
They can be classified into two major categories: internal welding defects and external welding defects.

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External Welding Defects
1. Cracks are the worst welding defect since they can rapidly progress to larger ones, which inevitably leads to failure. Weld
cracks are mainly classified depending on how they form in the weld bead.

Longitudinal cracks form parallel to the weld bead while transverse cracks form across the width. Crater cracks form at the
end of the bead, where the arc concludes.
Welding cracks can also appear at varying temperatures:

Hot cracks form when weld joints crystallise as the parent and base
metals are heated above 10000°C. The primary reasons for hot
cracks is when an incorrect filler metal is used and when the
workpieces undergo high heating and cooling rates in processes such
as laser welding.
A. Longitudinal cracking
Cold cracks form after the cooling process of the weld metal. The B. Toe cracking
weld crack may form hours or days after the metal’s cooling process. C. Transverse cracking
D. Crater cracking

Causes Prevention
 Using hydrogen shielding gas in welding ferrous metals.  Preheating the metals and gradually cooling the weld
 Ductile base metal and the application of residual stress. joints.
 Rigid joints that constrain the expansion and contraction of the  Maintaining acceptable weld joint gaps.
metal.  Selection of the correct welding materials
 Use of high levels of sulphur and carbon.
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External Welding Defects

2. Porosity is the formation of holes in the weld pool resulting from gas bubbles that cannot escape. It is usually one of the
common welding defects when using shielding gas, which is present in welding techniques such as TIG and stick welding.
Absence, lack, or too much shielding gas may lead to metal contamination, which reduces the strength of the weld.

On the other hand, severe versions of porosity come in the form of blow holes or pits when large gas bubbles get trapped in
the weld pool. Additionally, smaller gas molecules can blend with the weld metal, forming an impure compound.

Prevention
• Cleaning the weld surface.
Causes • Using the correct welding electrode.
• Unclean welding surface. • Preheating the metals before welding.
• Wrong electrode selection. • Proper gas flow rate setting to achieve the right amount of
• Lack or absence of shielding gas. shielding.
• Mishandled or damaged shielding gas cylinder. • Regularly checking for moisture contamination in the shielding
• Either too low or too high welding current. gas cylinder.
• Fast travel speed • Adjustment of welding current and travel speed settings.
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External Welding Defects
3. Undercut can be formed in various ways but mainly it is tied to two reasons.

• The first is using excessive current – the edges of the joint melt and drain into the weld.
• The second reason is not that enough filler metal is deposited into the weld. This results in a
reduced cross-section meaning that there are notches or grooves along the weld, which increase
stress when the material is subjected to fatigue loading.

This defect occurs at the toe of the weld or in the case of

multi-run welds, in the fusion face. An undercut may come
from continuous, intermediate, and inter-run.
Additionally, water and dirt are prone to get stuck into the
groove and this can accelerate corrosion in the already
weakened area.

Causes Prevention
1.High arc voltage. 1.Smaller arc length, voltage, and travel speed.
2.Incorrect electrode selection or wrong electrode angle. 2.30 to 45-degree electrode angle.
3.High travel speed. 3.Reducing the electrode diameter.

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External Welding Defects

4. Overlap is the excess metal that spreads out around the bead. The spread-out
filler metal is not properly mixed with the base metals. Typically, it comes in a round
shape over the weld joint.

Overlap

Causes Prevention
1.Incorrect welding procedure. 1.Smaller welding current.
2.Wrong selection of welding materials. 2.Use of proper welding techniques.
3.Improper preparation of base metals. 3.Shorter welding electrode.
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External Welding Defects

5. Burn-Through or open hole is exposed when the welding process accidentally

penetrates the whole thickness of the base metal, creating a burn-through or melt-through.
This is one of the common weld defects when welding thin metals.

Prevention
Causes 1.Maintaining a proper root gap.
1.High welding current. 2.Control in the application of welding current.
2.Extreme gap to the root. 3.It can be repaired in some cases wherein the hole is
3.Not enough root face metal. removed and re-welded.
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External Welding Defects

6. Spatter is a welding defect that occurs when metal droplets are discharged on the metal surface. It solidifies
and becomes stuck on the metal surface once it cools down. In most cases, spatter does not alter the structural
integrity of the weld but generally, it has to be removed, adding to the total costs.

Causes Prevention
• High arc length. • Choosing the correct weld polarity.
• High welding current. • Selecting a better shielding gas and better shielding
• Improper shielding of the heat-affected zone. technique.
• Using the wrong polarity may create • Reducing the welding current and arc length to optimal
excessive spatter. condition.
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External Welding Defects
7. Underfill occurs when too little weld metal is deposited into the joint. As a result, some of the parent
material remains unfused and the joint is under filled. These unfused sections, even when small, act as
potential stress raisers.
.

Causes Prevention
1.Low welding current. 1.Proper electrode size selection.
2.Too high travel speeds. 2.Selecting the right current setting.
3.Incorrect weld bead placement. 3.Avoid moving too fast.
4.Laying weld beads too thinly in multi-pass welds
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External Welding Defects

8. Excess reinforcement (overfilled) describes a weld that has too much build-up. It is the opposite of
underfilled welds as excessive amounts of filler metal is deposited into the joint. With this defect, high
levels of stress concentration build up in the toes of the welds.

Prevention
1.Maintaining an optimal pace with the torch.
Causes 2.Avoiding excess heat by making sure to use the correct voltage
1.Low travel speeds. and amperage.
2.Incorrect procedures. 3.Aligning the workpieces properly to ensure that the gap
3.Excess flux on the feed wire between the parts is not too large

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External Welding Defects

9. Mechanical damage is an indentation in the surface of the parent metal or weld caused by
damage during preparation, welding, dressing or handling. These could be caused by the
incorrect use of grinders, hammers, chipping hammers etc.

Mechanical damage in parent material

Causes Prevention
1.Unnecessary application of external force before, during, or 1.Safe and correct handling of welding equipment.
after an operation. 2.Consistently engaging the arc in the metal parts
2.Incorrect handling of welding equipment before starting welding.
3.Not engaging the arc before the welding procedure

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External Welding Defects

10. Distortion
Distortion or warping is an accidental change in the shape of the surrounding metal of the weld.
Excessive heating around the weld joint is the main reason for distortion around its area.
Warpage or distortion mostly occurs in thin metals and is classified into four types: angular,
longitudinal, fillet, and neutral axis.
.

Causes Prevention
1.Thin weld metal. 1.Using suitable weld metals.
2.Incompatible base metal and weld metal. 2.Optimising the number of weld passes.
3.High amount of weld passes. 3.Selection of better welding methods for the metal type
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External Welding Defects

11. Misalignment
Improper positioning of metals before or during a welding operation may result in misalignment.
Poor metal alignment is susceptible to fatigue conditions especially if it is used in pipe welding.

Causes Prevention
1.Rapid welding process. 1.Employing a slower and more stable welding procedure.
2.Incorrect metal alignment or metals aren’t secured 2.Securing the metals firmly before and during operation.
properly. 3.Using the correct welding techniques and conducting checks
3.Lack of welder skills. regularly.

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Internal Welding Defects

Welding processes that create weld defects invisible to the naked eye are categorised as internal
welding defects.

1. Slag Inclusion
• Slag is a nonmetallic component that exists in the weld, on the surface or between layers. Slag inclusion is a type of welding
defect that is easily visible in the weld.
• The slag is usually spherical or needle-shaped, with dimensions ranging from a few micrometers to several millimeters and can
penetrate the entire thickness of the weld.
• The presence of slag causes concentrated stress which reduces the durability and productivity of the weld metal. The amount
of slag allowed is specified in the manufacturing requirements of the solder joint.
• This weld defect is common to processes that use flux, such as stick, flux-cored, submerged arc welding, and brazing.

Causes
1.Incorrect welding angle and travel speed of the welding torch. Internal Slag Inclusion
2.Poor pre-cleaning of the edge of the weld surface.
3.Low welding current density resulting in inadequate heating of the metals.
Prevention
1.Higher welding current density.
2.Optimal welding angle and travel speed to avoid slag inclusion in the weld
pool.
3.Consistent weld edge cleaning and slag removal of each layer.

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Internal Welding Defects

2. Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion results from poor welding wherein the metals pre-solidify, forming gaps in the weld zone. When
the welder cannot properly melt the parent metal with the base metal, it results in a lack of fusion.

Prevention
Causes 1.Higher welding current and slower travel rate to ensure the
1.Low heat input resulting in metals not melting. melting process of the metals.
2.Wrong joint angle, torch angle, and bead position. 2.Improving welding positions such as joint angle, torch angle,
3.Extremely large weld pool. and bead position.
3.Lower deposition rate.
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Internal Welding Defects

3. Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete penetration generally occurs during butt welding, wherein the gap between the metals isn’t
filled completely through the joint thickness. This means that one side of the joint is not fused in the root.
1.Incorrect use of the welding technique.
2.Wrong electrode size.
3.Low deposition rate.
.

Prevention
1.Using the correct welding technique and procedure.
2.Higher deposition rate.
3.Proper electrode size selection

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