Stoichiometry

Workbook V_1.0

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 Contents

Section 1 Atoms 1
Exercise 1 Calculation of Molar Mass of compounds 5
Section 2 Chemical formulae 9
Exercise 2 Writing formulae from names 13
Section 3 Naming of compounds 19
Exercise 3 Names from formulae 23
Section 4 The mole 27
Exercise 4a Calculation of the number of moles of material in a 33
given mass of that material
Exercise 4b Calculation of the mass of material in a given 37
number of moles of that material
Exercise 4c Calculation of the volume of a given number of 41
moles of a gas
Exercise 4d Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given 43
volume of that gas
Exercise 4e Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas 45
Exercise 4f Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas 47
Exercise 4g Calculation of the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas 49
from mass and volume data for the gas
Section 5 Using the idea of moles to find formulae 51
Exercise 5 Calculation of formulae from experimental data 57
Section 6 Chemical equations; equations in words; 63
writing formulae; balancing the equation
Exercise 6a Balancing equations 65
Exercise 6b What’s wrong here? 69
Exercise 6c Writing equations in symbols from equations in 71
words
Section 7 How equations are found by experiment 73
Exercise 7 Writing equations from experimental data 77

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 Section 8 Amounts of Substances 79
Exercise 8 Calculations of amounts of products/reactants based 83
on equations
Section 9 Reactions involving gases 87
Exercise 9 Calculations based on equations involving only gases 89
Section 10 Ions and ionic equations; structure of ionic 93
compounds
Exercise 10 Ionic equations 95
Section 11 Calculations involving chemicals in solution 97
Exercise 11a Calculations based on concentrations in solution 105
Exercise 11b Simple volumetric calculations 109
Section 12 Data — The periodic table 113
Answers 115

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 Section 1

Atoms

All matter is made of particles. At one time, it was thought that the tiniest particle was the atom;
the word comes from the Greek word meaning ‘indivisible’.
We now know that atoms can be split and that there are smaller particles than atoms, the so-
called sub-atomic particles, electrons, protons and neutrons. You will need to know something
about these particles which make up the different kinds of atoms.
However, you must understand that chemistry is all about rearrangements of atoms that do not
themselves change.
Atoms are very small. The hydrogen atom, the smallest and lightest of all atoms, has a diameter
of about 108 mm. 1 g of hydrogen atoms contains about 6 x 1023 atoms. It is very difficult to
‘see’ an individual atom and to find its mass.
An atom is the smallest, electrically neutral, particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical change.
A molecule is the smallest, electrically neutral, particle of an element or compound that
can exist on its own.
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, which carries an electric charge.
You need to know these definitions by heart, but you also need to be able to recognise the
formulae of atoms and molecules when you see them. Li, O, Cl, C are all formulae which
represent atoms. Some of these can exist on their own, but not all of them. Oxygen, for example,
always exists as oxygen molecules, O2, which contain two atoms, unless it is combined with
something else. Water contains only one atom of oxygen but here it is combined with two
hydrogen atoms.
Make sure that you really understand these ideas:
• a single oxygen atom, O, cannot exist on its own
• a single oxygen atom can exist when it is combined with something else, but then it is part
of a molecule
• an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms, O2
• a few elements exist as single atoms: for these elements, an atom is the same as a molecule.

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 Structure of the atom

The atom is composed of electrons, neutrons and protons. You have to remember the relative
mass of, and the electric charge on, each.

Particle Relative mass Relative charge (on scale

(Carbon -12 scale) electron charge = -1 unit)
Proton 1 +1
Electron 1/1840 –1
Neutron 1 0

The atom is mostly empty space. It has a solid core or nucleus, the centre that contains the
protons and neutrons. The electrons circulate round the nucleus in specific orbits or shells.
We can picture the hydrogen atom - the simplest of all atoms with one electron, and one proton
in the nucleus - by considering a pea placed in the centre of a football pitch, to represent the
nucleus with its proton. On this scale the electron will revolve in a circular orbit round the goal
posts. Between the electron and the nucleus is empty space.
Atoms are the particles whose symbols are found in the periodic table given in all your
examination papers and also on page 113 of this book. You can see there are only about 100 of
them. The middle part of the atom, the nucleus, contains one or more protons. It is the number
of protons that make the atom what it is. An atom with one proton is always a hydrogen atom;
one with two protons is a helium atom and so on.
There are more substances in the world than the 100 or so different kinds of atom. The other
substances are made by combining atoms in various ways to make molecules.
When a chemical reaction takes place the atoms are rearranged to make different molecules but
no atoms can be made or destroyed. To show this you have to be able to find a method of
counting the atoms that take part in a reaction and its products.
The mass of an individual atom is very small and it is much more convenient to measure atomic
masses as relative masses.
The definition of relative atomic mass Ar is:
The mass of a single atom on a scale on which the mass of an atom of carbon — 12 has a
mass of 12 atomic mass units. The relative atomic mass does not have units.
The definition of Relative Molecular Mass Mr (also referred to as Molar Mass) is
The mass of a single molecule on a scale on which the mass of an atom of carbon — 12 has
a mass of 12 atomic mass units.
Relative Molecular Mass of a molecule is calculated by adding together the relative atomic
masses of the atoms in the chemical formulae.
Relative formula mass: in many ways this is more accurate than Relative Molecular Mass. Many
salts, even in the solid state, exist as ions rather than molecules. Although the formula of sodium
chloride is normally given as NaCl, it is not a simple molecule but a giant lattice and it is more
accurately written as (Na+Cl–)n. Since this compound does not have molecules, it cannot have
relative ‘molecular’ mass. However, the principle is the same: add the relative atomic masses of
sodium (23) and chlorine (35.5) to give 58.5, the relative formula mass of NaCl.
Remember: relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass have no units.

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 Examples: Calculation of Molar Mass from Relative Atomic Mass data
Before you start any of these questions make sure you read the Section 4 of this booklet
(The mole on page 27).
When you carry out experiments you will weigh chemicals in grams. Molar mass has the same
numerical value as the Relative Molecular Mass; it is calculated by adding together the relative
atomic masses of the elements in the molecule. The total is expressed in units of grams per mol
or g mol-1.
Example 1
Calculate the Molar Mass of sulphuric acid H2SO4
This molecule contains

2 atoms of hydrogen each of mass 1 = 2x 1 = 2 g mol–1

1 atom of sulphur of mass 32 = 1 x 32 = 32 g mol–1
4 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 = 4 x 16 = 64 g mol–1
Total mass = 98 g mol–1
Example 2
Calculate the Molar Mass of lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2
Care! This molecule contains TWO nitrate groups

1 atom of lead of mass 207 = 1 x 207 = 207 g mol–1

2 atoms of nitrogen of mass 14 = 2 x 14 = 28 g mol–1
6 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 = 6 x 16 = 96 g mol–1
Total mass = 331 g mol–1
Example 3
Calculate the Molar Mass of CuSO4.5H2O
Care! This molecule has 5 molecules of water attached to each molecule of copper sulphate.
Many students make the mistake of thinking that there are 10 hydrogens and only 1 oxygen.

In CuSO4 1 atom of copper of mass 63.5 = 1 x 63.5 = 63.5 g mol–1

1 atom of sulphur of mass 32 = 1 x 32 = 32 g mol–1
4 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 = 4 x 16 = 64 g mol–1
In 5H2O 5 x 2 atoms of hydrogen of mass 1 = 10 x 1 = 10 g mol–1
5 x 1 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 = 5 x 16 = 80 g mol–1
Total mass = 249.5 g mol–1

Calculations of this type are generally written as follows

CuSO4.5H2O = [ 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 5{(2x1) + 16} ] = 249.5 g mol–1

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 Exercise 1

Calculation of the Molar Mass of compounds

Calculate the Molar Mass of the following. You will find data concerning Relative Atomic
Masses on the periodic table (on page 113). When you have finished this set of calculations
keep the answers for reference. You will find them useful in some of the other questions in this
workbook.

1 H2O

2 CO2

3 NH3

4 C2H5OH

5 C2H4

6 SO2

7 SO3

8 HBr

9 H2SO4

10 HNO3

11 NaCl

12 NaNO3

13 Na2CO3

14 NaOH

15 Na2SO4

16 KMnO4

17 K2CrO4

18 KHCO3

19 KI

20 CsNO3

21 CaCl2

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 22 Ca(NO3)2

23 Ca(OH)2

24 CaSO4

25 BaCl2

26 AlCl3

27 Al(NO3)3

28 Al2(SO4)3

29 FeSO4

30 FeCl2

31 FeCl3

32 Fe2(SO4)3

33 PbO

34 PbO2

35 Pb3O4

36 Pb(NO3)2

37 PbCl2

38 PbSO4

39 CuCl

40 CuCl2

41 CuSO4

42 ZnCl2

43 AgNO3

44 NH4Cl

45 (NH4)2SO4

46 NH4VO3

47 KClO3

48 KIO3

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 49 NaClO

50 NaNO2

51 CuSO4.5H2O

52 FeSO4.7H2O

53 (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O

54 Na2S2O3.5H2O

55 (COOH)2.2H2O

56 MgSO4.7H2O

57 Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O

58 CH3CO2H

59 CH3COCH3

60 C6H5CO2H

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 Section 2

Chemical formulae

A chemical formula is a useful shorthand method for describing the atoms in a chemical:
sometimes you will see the formula used instead of the name, but you should not do this if you
are asked for a name.
The chemical formula of an element or compound tells you:
• Which elements it contains: eg FeSO4 contains iron, sulphur and oxygen
• How many atoms of each kind are in each molecule: eg H2SO4 contains two atoms of
hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen in each molecule
• How the atoms are arranged: eg C2H5OH contains a group of atoms known as the ethyl
group, -C2H5, and a hydroxyl group, -OH
• The masses of the various elements in a compound: eg 18 g of water, H2O, contains 2 g of
hydrogen atoms and 16 g of oxygen since the relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 (x 2
because there two hydrogen atoms) and that of oxygen is 16.
You should not learn large numbers of chemical formulae by heart. However, it is useful to
know a few of them and when you do you should be able to work out the rest. The table on page
10 shows the names, formulae and valency of the more common elements and some groups of
atoms, called radicals, that you will study and you should refer to it when necessary.
Although it’s best to learn formulae by using the valency of the common parts, it is sometimes
useful to be able to work out the formula of a compound. This set of rules helps you to do this
using information in the table.
You can think of valency as the combining power and use it to show the simplest ratio in which
the atoms of the elements and radicals combine together in the formula. The following rules can
now be applied:
• Write down the symbols of the elements and radicals given in the chemical name of the
compound
• Now write down the valency of each element or radical under the corresponding symbols
for the element or radical
• Now cross them over as shown in the example on page 10
• The valency shows the simplest combining ratio and may be cancelled down but only the
valency can be simplified in this way
• If an element has more than one valency, the name of the compound will indicate which
valency is to be used.

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 Here are a few examples:
• Sodium Sulphate

NaSO4
= Na2SO4

2 1

• Calcium hydrogen carbonate

Ca(HCO3)

= Ca(HCO3)2
2 1

Note: A bracket must be placed around the radical if it is multiplied by 2 or more and
composed of more than one element.
Eg MgBr2 no bracket required
Ca(OH)2 bracket essential as CaOH2 is incorrect.
• Often you can cancel the numbers on the two formulae:
Ca2(CO3)2 =CaCO3
However, you should not do this for organic compounds: C2H4 has two atoms
of carbon and four of hydrogen so it cannot be cancelled down to CH2.
• Copper(I) oxide means use copper valency 1, ie Cu2O: lead(II) nitrate means use lead
valency 2, ie Pb(NO3)2
The periodic table can help you to find the valency of an element and hence the formula of its
compounds.
Although you can use the table above to work out the formulae of many compounds it is
important to realise that all formulae were originally found by experiment.
On page 11 you will find a table of the more common elements and groups that you may have
met at GCSE. Also included are a few that you will meet in the first few weeks of your
Advanced course or are mentioned in some of the calculations in this booklet. These are in
italics.

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 Symbols and Valences of Common Elements and Radicals

ELEMENTS RADICALS

Symbol Valency Symbol Valency

Aluminium Al 3 Ammonium NH4 1

Barium Ba 2 Carbonate CO3 2

Bromine Br 1 Chloride Cl 1

Calcium Ca 2 Hydrogen-carbonate HCO3 1

Carbon C 4 Hydrogen-sulphate HSO3 1

Chlorine Cl 1 Hydroxide OH 1

Cobalt Co 2 Nitrate NO3 1

Copper Cu 1&2 Nitrite NO2 1

Hydrogen H 1 Sulphate SO4 2

Iodine I 1 Sulphite SO3 2

Iron Fe 2&3

Lead Pb 2&4 Chlorate(I) ClO 1

Magnesium Mg 2 Chlorate(V) ClO3 1

Manganese Mn 2&4 Vanadate(V) VO3 1

Mercury Hg 1&2 Manganate(VII) MnO4 1

Nitrogen N 3&5 Chromate(VI) CrO4 2

Oxygen O 2 Dichromate(VI) Cr2O7 2

Phosphorus P 3&5

Potassium K 1

Silicon Si 4

Silver Ag 1

Sodium Na 1

Sulphur S 2,4,6

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 Exercise 2

Writing formulae from names

Use the data in the table on page 11 to write the formulae of the following. Before you start this
exercise, make sure you have read Section 3 (Naming of compounds on page 19) of this booklet.

1 Sodium Chloride

2 Sodium Hydroxide

3 Sodium Carbonate

4 Sodium Sulphate

5 Sodium Phosphate

6 Potassium Chloride

7 Potassium Bromide

8 Potassium Iodide

9 Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate

10 Potassium Nitrite

11 Magnesium Chloride

12 Magnesium Nitrate

13 Magnesium Hydroxide

14 Magnesium Oxide

15 Magnesium Carbonate

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 16 Calcium Oxide

17 Calcium Chloride

18 Calcium Sulphate

19 Calcium Carbonate

20 Barium Chloride

21 Barium Sulphate

22 Aluminium Chloride

23 Aluminium Oxide

24 Aluminium Hydroxide

25 Aluminium Sulphate

26 Copper(II) Sulphate

27 Copper(II) Oxide

28 Copper(II) Chloride

29 Copper(II) Nitrate

30 Copper(I) Oxide

31 Copper(I) Chloride

32 Zinc Nitrate

33 Zinc Carbonate

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 34 Zinc Oxide

35 Silver Chloride

36 Silver Bromide

37 Silver Iodide

38 Silver Nitrate

39 Silver Oxide

40 Lead(II) Nitrate

41 Lead(II) Carbonate

42 Lead(II) Oxide

43 Lead(IV) Oxide

44 Lead(II) Chloride

45 Lead(IV) Chloride

46 Lead(II) Sulphide

47 Tin(II) Chloride

48 Tin(IV) Chloride

49 Iron(II) Sulphate

50 Iron(II) Chloride

51 Iron(III) Sulphate

52 Iron(III) Chloride

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 53 Iron(III) Hydroxide

54 Iron(II) Hydroxide

55 Ammonium Chloride

56 Ammonium Carbonate

57 Ammonium Hydroxide

58 Ammonium Nitrate

59 Ammonium Sulphate

60 Ammonium Phosphate

61 Phosphorus Trichloride

62 Phosphorus Pentachloride

63 Phosphorus Trioxide

64 Phosphorus Pentoxide

65 Hydrogen Phosphate (Phosphoric Acid)

66 Hydrogen Sulphate (Sulphuric Acid)

67 Hydrogen Nitrate (Nitric Acid)

68 Hydrogen Chloride (Hydrochloric Acid)

69 Carbon Tetrachloride

70 Silicon Tetrachloride

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 71 Silicon Dioxide

72 Sulphur Dioxide

73 Sulphur Trioxide

74 Hydrogen Sulphide

75 Chlorine(I) Oxide

76 Nitrogen Dioxide

77 Nitrogen Monoxide

78 Carbon Dioxide

79 Carbon Monoxide

80 Hydrogen Hydroxide

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 Section 3

Naming of compounds

At Advanced Level you will meet many compounds that are new to you; a lot of these will be
organic compounds. In this section, we will be looking at the naming of compounds that you
may already have met at GCSE level. Many of these compounds are named using simple rules.
However, there are some that have ‘trivial’ names not fixed by the rules. It is important that you
learn the names and formulae of these compounds. Later in the course, you will learn the rules
for naming most of the organic compounds you will meet.

Naming inorganic compounds

The name must show which elements are present and, where confusion is possible, the valency
of the elements concerned.
1 You need to remember that if there are only two elements present then the name will end in
-ide
Thus, oxides contain an element and oxygen
eg Na2O is Sodium Oxide
CaO is Calcium Oxide

Chlorides contain an element and chlorine

eg MgCl2 is Magnesium Chloride
AlCl3 is Aluminium Chloride

Bromides and Iodides have an element and either bromine or iodine

eg KBr is Potassium Bromide
ZnI is Zinc Iodide

Hydrides contain an element and hydrogen and Nitrides an element and nitrogen.
eg LiH is Lithium Hydride
Mg3N2 is Magnesium Nitride

Other elements also form these types of compounds and the name always ends in -ide. The
exceptions to this are hydroxides that have the -OH group and cyanides, which have the
-CN group.
eg NaOH is Sodium Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 is Calcium Hydroxide
KCN is Potassium Cyanide

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 2 If the elements concerned have more than one valency this may need to be shown. Thus as
iron has valency 2 and 3, the name Iron Chloride would not tell you which of the two
possible compounds FeCl2 or FeCl3 is being considered. In this case the valency of the iron
is indicated by the use of a Roman II or III in brackets after the name of the metal. In this
case Iron(II) Chloride for FeCl2 or Iron(III) Chloride for FeCl3.
eg PbCl2 is Lead(II) Chloride
PbCl4 is Lead(IV) Chloride

Fe(OH)2 is Iron(II) Hydroxide

Mn(OH)2 is Manganese(II) Hydroxide

3 For compounds containing two non-metal atoms the actual number of atoms of the element
present are stated.
eg CO is Carbon Monoxide where mon- means one
CO2 is Carbon Dioxide where di- means two

SO2 is Sulphur Dioxide. This could be called Sulphur(IV) Oxide

SO3 is Sulphur Trioxide. This could be called Sulphur(VI) Oxide

PCl3 is Phosphorus Trichloride.

This could be called Phosphorus(III) Chloride
PCl5 is Phosphorus Pentachloride.
This could be called Phosphorus(V) Chloride

CCl4 is Carbon Tetrachloride and

SiCl4 is Silicon Tetrachloride.

4 Where a compound contains a metal, a non-metal and oxygen it has a name ending in -ate
or -ite. You need to remember the names and formulae of the groups listed on page 11. To
cover the ideas we will look at the following groups
Carbonate -CO3
Sulphate -SO4
Nitrate -NO3

Thus a compound of sodium, carbon and oxygen would be Na2CO3 and would be called
Sodium Carbonate.
eg NaNO3 is Sodium Nitrate
Mg(NO3)2 is Magnesium Nitrate

Fe2(SO4)3 is Iron(III) Sulphate

FeSO4 is Iron(II) Sulphate

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 5 Because most non-metals can have more than one valency they can also produce more than
one acid upon which these groups are based. Thus sulphur can form sulphates and
sulphites. The ending -ite is used when an element forms more than one such compound. In
all cases the -ite is used for the compound with the lower number of oxygens atoms.
Sulphate can also be referred to as sulphate(VI) and sulphite can also be referred to as
sulphate(IV). In the case of nitrogen with oxygen the compounds would be nitrate and
nitrite or nitrate(V) and nitrate(III).

In summary:

Common name Systematic name Formulae

Sulphate Sulphate(VI) -SO4

Sulphite Sulphate(IV) -SO3

Nitrate Nitrate(V) -NO3

Nitrite Nitrate(III) -NO2

Chlorate Chlorate(V) -ClO3

Hypochlorite Chlorate(I) -ClO

Great care needs to be taken when using these systematic names, as they are called, because the
properties of the two groups of compounds will be very different. In some cases the use of the
wrong compound in a reaction could cause considerable danger. For this reason you should
always read the label on a bottle or jar and make sure it corresponds exactly to what you should
be using.

Other elements can form compounds involving oxygen in this way. These include Chlorate(V),
Chromate(VI), Manganate(VII) and Phosphate(V).

eg KNO2 is Potassium Nitrite or Potassium Nitrate(III)

Na2SO3 is Sodium Sulphite or Sodium Sulphate(IV)
K2CrO4 is Potassium Chromate(VI)
KMnO4 is Potassium Manganate(VII)
KClO3 is Potassium Chlorate(V)

6 When a compound is considered it is usual to put the metal down first both in the name and
the formula. The exceptions to this rule are in organic compounds where the name has the
metal first but the formula has the metal at the end.
eg CH3COONa is Sodium Ethanoate

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 7 The elements nitrogen and hydrogen can join together to form a group called the
ammonium group. This must not be confused with the compound ammonia, but more of
that later. This ammonium group has the formula NH4+ and sits in the place generally taken
by a metal in the formula.

eg NH4Cl is Ammonium Chloride

(NH4)2SO4 is Ammonium Sulphate
NH4ClO3 is Ammonium Chlorate(V)

8 There are a small number of simple molecules that do not follow the above rules. You will
need to learn their names and formulae.
They include:
Water which is H2O
Sulphuric Acid which is H2SO4
Nitric Acid which is HNO3
Hydrochloric Acid which is HCl
Ammonia which is NH3
Methane which is CH4

8 Organic compounds have their own set of rules for naming but you will need to learn some
of the basic rules. The names are generally based on the names of the simple hydrocarbons.
These follow a simple pattern after the first four:
CH4 is Methane
C2H6 is Ethane
C3H8 is Propane
C4H10 is Butane
After butane the names are based on the prefix for the number of carbons C5-pent, C6 - hex and
so on.
Thus organic compounds with 2 carbons will either start with Eth- or have -eth- in their name.
eg C2H4 is Ethene
C2H5OH is Ethanol
CH3COOH is Ethanoic Acid
C2H5Cl is Chloroethane

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 Exercise 3

Names from formulae

Use the notes in this section, the data in the table on page 11 and the copy of the periodic table
on page 113 to write the names of the following. Before you start this exercise make sure you
have read Section 2 of this booklet (Chemical formulae on page 9).

1 H2O

2 CO2

3 NH3

4 O2

5 H2

6 SO2

7 SO3

8 HCl

9 HI

10 HF

11 CH4

12 H2S

13 HBr

14 H2SO4

15 HNO3

16 NaCl

17 NaNO3

18 Na2CO3

19 NaOH

20 Na2SO4

21 CaCl2

22 Ca(NO3)2

23 Ca(OH)2

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 24 CaSO4

25 BaCl2

26 AlCl3

27 Al(NO3)3

28 Al2(SO4)3

29 FeSO4

30 FeCl2

31 FeCl3

32 Fe2(SO4)3

33 PbO

34 PbO2

35 Pb(NO3)2

36 PbCl2

37 PbSO4

38 Cu(NO3)2

39 CuCl

40 CuCl2

41 CuSO4

42 ZnCl2

43 AgNO3

44 NH4Cl

45 (NH4)2SO4

46 NH4VO3 (V is Vanadium)

47 KClO3

48 KIO3

49 NaClO

50 NaNO2

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 51 C2H6

52 C4H10

53 C8H18

54 (NH4)2CO3

55 KMnO4

56 K2CrO4

57 KHCO3

58 KI

59 Co(NO3)2

60 KAt

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 Section 4

The mole

When chemists measure how much of a particular chemical reacts they measure the amount in
grams; or they measure the volume of a gas. However, chemists find it convenient to use a unit
called a mole. You need to know several definitions of a mole and be able to use them.
• The mole is the amount of substance, which contains the same number of particles (atoms,
ions, molecules, formulae or electrons) as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon -12
• This number is known as the Avogadro constant, L, and is equal to 6.02 x 1023 mol–1
• The molar mass of a substance is the mass, in grams, of one mole
• The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure (r.t.p). It is equal to 24 dm3 at r.t.p
• Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain the same number of moles or molecules. If the volume is
24 dm3, at room temperature and pressure, this number, once again, is the Avogadro
constant.
When you talk about moles, you must always state whether you are dealing with atoms,
molecules, ions, formulae etc. To avoid any ambiguity it is best to show this as a formula.

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 Example calculations involving the use of moles
These calculations form the basis of many of the calculations you will meet at A level.
Example 1
Calculation of the number of moles of material in a given mass of that material
a Calculate the number of moles of oxygen atoms in 64 g of oxygen atoms. You need the
mass of one mole of oxygen atoms. This is the Relative Atomic Mass in grams; in this case it
is 16 g mol–1.

mass in grams
number of moles of atoms =
molar mass of atoms

64 g of oxygen atoms
∴ number of moles of oxygen =
molar mass of oxygen of 16 g mol −1

= 4 moles of oxygen atoms

b Calculate the number of moles of chlorine molecules in 142 g of chlorine gas.

mass in grams
number of moles of atoms =
molar mass of atoms

The first stage of this calculation is to calculate the molar mass of Chlorine molecules.
Molar mass of Cl2 = 2 x 35.5 = 71 g mol–1

142 g of chlorine gas

∴ number of moles of chlorine =
molar mass of chlorine of 71 g mol −1

= 2 moles of chlorine molecules

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 c Calculate the number of moles of CuSO4.5H2O in 100 g of the solid.
The Relative Molecular Mass of CuSO4.5H2O =
[63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 5{(2x1) + 16}] = 249.5 g mol–1

100 g of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O

∴ number of moles of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O =
molecular mass of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O of 249.5 g mol −1

= 0.4008 moles of CuSO4.5H2O molecules

Example 2

Calculation of the mass of material in a given number of moles of that material

The mass of a given = the mass of x the number of moles of

number of moles 1 mole material concerned

a Calculate the mass of 3 moles of sulphur dioxide SO2

1 mole of sulphur dioxide has a mass = 32 + (2x16) = 64 g mol–1
∴ 3 moles of SO2 = 3 x 64 = 192 g

b What is the mass of 0.05 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O ?

1 mole of Na2S2O3.5H2O = [(23 x 2) + (32 x 2) + (16 x 3)] + 5[(2 x 1) +16]
= 248 g mol–1
∴ 0.05 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O = 0.05 x 248 = 12.4 g

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 Example 3

Calculation of the volume of a given number of moles of a gas

All you need to remember is that 1 mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3) at
room temperature and pressure.

∴ The volume of a given number = number of moles x 24000 cm3

of moles of gas

a What is the volume of 2 mol of carbon dioxide?

Remember you do not need to work out the molar mass to do this calculation as it does not
matter what gas it is.
∴ 2 moles of carbon dioxide = 2 x 24000 cm3 = 48000 cm3 = 48 dm3

b What is the volume of 0.0056 moles of chlorine molecules?

Volume of 0.0056 moles of chlorine = 0.0056 x 24000 cm3 = 134.4 cm3

Example 4

Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given volume of that gas

volume of gas in cm 3
number of moles of gas =
24 000 cm 3

a Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen molecules in 240 cm3 of the gas.

240 cm 3
number of moles = = 0.010 moles
24 000 cm 3

b How many moles of a gas are there in 1000 cm3 of the gas?

1000 cm 3
number of moles of gas = = 0.0147 moles
24 000 cm 3

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 Example 5

Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas

This calculation require you to apply the skills covered in the previous examples
Calculate the volume of 10 g of hydrogen gas.
This is a two-stage calculation a) you need to calculate how many moles of hydrogen gas are
present, and b) you need to convert this to a volume.

10 g of hydrogen (H 2 )
∴ number of moles of hydrogen (H 2 ) =
molecular mass of hydrogen (H 2 ) of 2 g mol −1

= 5 moles

∴ 5 moles of hydrogen = 5 x 24000 cm3 = 120000 cm3 = 120 dm3

Example 6

Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas

This calculation require you to apply the skills covered in the previous examples
Calculate the mass of 1000 cm3 of carbon dioxide
Again this is a two-stage calculation a) you need to calculate the number of moles of carbon
dioxide and then b) convert this to a mass.

1000 cm 3 of CO 2
∴ number of moles of CO 2 =
volume of 1 mole of CO 2 of 24 000 cm 3

= 0.0147 moles

∴ 0.0147 moles of carbon dioxide = 0.0147 x 44 g = 1.833 g

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 Example 7

Calculation of the molar mass of a gas from mass and volume data for the gas
Calculations of this type require you to find the mass of 1 mole of the gas, ie 24 000 cm3. This is
the molar mass of the gas.
eg Calculate the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas for which 100 cm3 of the gas at room
temperature and pressure, have a mass of 0.0667 g
100 cm3 of the gas has a mass of 0.0667 g

3 0.0667 g × 24 000 cm 3
∴ 24 000 cm of the gas must have a mass of =
100 cm 3

= 16 g

∴ The molar mass of the gas is 16 g mol–1

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 Exercise 4a

Calculation of the number of moles of material in a given mass of that

material

In this set of calculations all the examples chosen are from the list of compounds whose molar
mass you calculated in exercise 1.
In each case calculate the number of moles of the material in the mass stated.

1 9.00 g of H2O

2 88.0 g of CO2

3 1.70 g of NH3

4 230 g of C2H5OH

5 560 g of C2H4

6 0.640 g of SO2

7 80.0 g of SO3

8 18.0 g of HBr

9 0.0960 g of H2SO4

10 3.15 g of HNO3

11 19.3 g of NaCl

12 21.25 g of NaNO3

13 2.25 g of Na2CO3

14 0.800 g of NaOH

15 17.75 g of Na2SO4

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 16 3.16 g of KMnO4

17 32.33 g of K2CrO4

18 100 g of KHCO3

19 7.63 g of KI

20 3.90 g of CsNO3

21 0.111 g of CaCl2

22 41.0 g of Ca(NO3)2

23 1.48 g of Ca(OH)2

24 3.40 g of CaSO4

25 41.6 g of BaCl2

26 14.95 g of CuSO4

27 13.64 g of ZnCl2

28 1.435 g of AgNO3

29 13.76 g of NH4Cl

30 13.76 g of (NH4)2SO4

31 23.4 g of NH4VO3

32 10.0 g of KClO3

33 10.7 g of KIO3

34 100 g of NaClO

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 35 1.70 g of NaNO2

36 50.9 g of CuSO4.5H2O

37 19.6 g of FeSO4.7H2O

38 9.64 g of (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O

39 12.4 g of Na2S2O3.5H2O

40 32.0 g of (COOH)2.2H2O

41 3.075 g of MgSO4.7H2O

42 40.0 g of Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O

43 6.00 g of CH3CO2H

44 3.10 g of CH3COCH3

45 0.530 g of C6H5CO2H

46 4.79 g of AlCl3

47 56.75 g of Al(NO3)3

48 8.35 g of Al2(SO4)3

49 3.8 g of FeSO4

50 200 g of FeCl2

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 Exercise 4b

Calculation of the mass of material in a given number of moles of the

material

In each case calculate the mass in grams of the material in the number of moles stated.

1 2 moles of H2O

2 3 moles of CO2

3 2.8 moles of NH3

4 0.50 moles of C2H5OH

5 1.2 moles of C2H4

6 0.64 moles of SO2

7 3 moles of SO3

8 1 mole of HBr

9 0.012 moles of H2SO4

10 0.15 moles of HNO3

11 0.45 moles of NaCl

12 0.70 moles of NaNO3

13 0.11 moles of Na2CO3

14 2.0 moles of NaOH

15 0.90 moles of Na2SO4

16 0.050 moles of KMnO4

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 17 0.18 moles of K2CrO4

18 0.90 moles of KHCO3

19 1.5 moles moles of KI

20 0.12 moles of CsNO3

21 0.11 moles of CaCl2

22 4.1 moles of Ca(NO3)2

23 0.0040 moles of Ca(OH)2

24 0.10 moles of CaSO4

25 0.21 moles of BaCl2

26 0.10 moles of CuSO4

27 0.56 moles of ZnCl2

28 0.059 moles of AgNO3

29 0.333 moles of NH4Cl

30 1.1 moles of (NH4)2SO4

31 0.025 moles of NH4VO3

32 0.10 moles of KClO3

33 0.10 moles of KIO3

34 10 moles of NaClO

35 0.0010 moles of NaNO2

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 36 0.20 moles of CuSO4.5H2O

37 0.10 moles of FeSO4.7H2O

38 0.0050 moles of (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O

39 0.040 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O

40 2.4 moles of (COOH)2.2H2O

41 3.075 moles of MgSO4.7H2O

42 0.15 moles of Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O

43 0.17 moles of CH3CO2H

44 0.20 moles of CH3COCH3

45 0.080 moles of C6H5CO2H

46 0.0333 moles of AlCl3

47 0.045 moles of Al(NO3)3

48 0.12 moles of Al2(SO4)3

49 2.0 moles of FeSO4

50 11 moles of FeCl2

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 Exercise 4c

Calculation of the volume of a given number of moles of a gas

In each case calculate the volume of the number of moles of gas stated.
(Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mole of gas
has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions).

1 1 mole of CO2

2 0.1 moles of NH3

3 0.5 moles of C2H4

4 2 moles of SO2

5 0.12 moles of SO3

6 3.4 moles of HBr

7 0.11 moles of Cl2

8 0.0040 moles of CH4

9 10 moles of H2

10 0.45 moles of O2

11 0.0056 moles of C2H6

12 0.0090 moles of C3H8

13 0.040 moles of C2H2

14 0.123 moles of NO

15 0.0023 moles of HCl

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 16 8.0 moles of HBr

17 0.000010 moles of HI

18 6.0 moles of NO2

19 0.0076 moles of F2

20 3.0 moles of N2

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 Exercise 4d

Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given volume of that gas

In each case calculate the volume of the number of moles of gas stated.
(Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mol of gas
has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions).

1 200 cm3 of CO2

2 500 cm3 of NH3

3 1000 cm3 of C2H4

4 2000 cm3 of SO2

5 234 cm3 of SO3

6 226 cm3 of HBr

7 256 cm3 of Cl2

8 200 cm3 of CH4

9 2000 cm3 of H2

10 2400 cm3 of O2

11 700 cm3 of C2H6

12 5600 cm3 of C3H8

13 2200 cm3 of C2H2

14 210 cm3 of NO

15 800 cm3 of HCl

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 16 80 cm3 of HBr

17 2 cm3 of HI

18 20 000 cm3 of NO2

19 420 cm3 of F2

20 900 cm3 of N2

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 Exercise 4e

Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas

Calculate the mass of the volume of gases stated below.

(Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that
1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions).

1 200 cm3 of CO2

2 500 cm3 of NH3

3 1000 cm3 of C2H4

4 2000 cm3 of SO2

5 234 cm3 of SO3

6 226 cm3 of HBr

7 256 cm3 of Cl2

8 200 cm3 of CH4

9 2000 cm3 of H2

10 2400 cm3 of O2

11 700 cm3 of C2H6

12 5600 cm3 of C3H8

13 2200 cm3 of C2H2

14 210 cm3 of NO

15 800 cm3 of HCl

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 16 80 cm3 of HBr

17 2 cm3 of HI

18 20 000 cm3 of NO2

19 420 cm3 of F2

20 900 cm3 of N2

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 Exercise 4f

Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas

In each case calculate the volume on cm3 of the mass of gas given.
(Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that
1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions).

1 2 g of CO2

2 5 g of NH3

3 10 g of C2H4

4 20 g of SO2

5 2.34 g of SO3

6 2.26 g of HBr

7 10 g of Cl2

8 20 g of CH4

9 200 g of H2

10 240 g of O2

11 70 g of C2H6

12 56 g of C3H8

13 22 g of C2H2

14 20 g of NO

15 8 g of HCl

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 16 8 g of HBr

17 2 g of HI

18 23 g of NO2

19 42 g of F2

20 90 g of N2

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 Exercise 4g

Calculation of the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas from mass and volume
data for the gas

In each case you are given the mass of a certain volume of an unknown gas. From each set of
data calculate the Relative Molecular Mass of the gas.
(Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that
1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions).

1 0.373 g of gas occupy 56 cm3

2 0.747 g of gas occupy 280 cm3

3 0.467 g of gas occupy 140 cm3

4 0.296 g of gas occupy 100 cm3

5 0.0833 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3

6 0.175 g of gas occupy 150 cm3

7 0.375 g of gas occupy 300 cm3

8 0.218 g of gas occupy 90 cm3

9 0.267 g of gas occupy 200 cm3

10 1.63 g of gas occupy 1400 cm3

11 0.397 g of gas occupy 280 cm3

12 0.198 g of gas occupy 280 cm3

13 0.0602 g of gas occupy 38 cm3

14 0.0513 g of gas occupy 44 cm3

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 15 0.0513 g of gas occupy 28 cm3

16 1.33 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3

17 8.79 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3

18 0.0760 g of gas occupy 50 cm3

19 0.338 g of gas occupy 100 cm3

20 0.667 g of gas occupy 125 cm3

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 Section 5

Using the idea of moles to find formulae

You can find the formula of copper(II) oxide by passing a stream of hydrogen over a known
mass of copper oxide and weighing the copper formed.

Boat containing
copper oxide

Dry hydrogen

HEAT

• A known mass of copper(II) oxide is used.

• A stream of hydrogen from a cylinder is passed over the copper until all the air has been
swept out of the apparatus.
• It is heated to constant mass (until two consecutive mass determinations at the end of the
experiment are same) in a stream of dry hydrogen.
• The mass of the copper is finally determined.

Note:
• Excess hydrogen must not be ignited until it has been tested (by collection in a test tube) to
make sure that all the air has been expelled from the apparatus. If the hydrogen in the test
tube burns quietly, without a squeaky pop, then it is safe to ignite it at the end of the tube.
• The combustion tube is tilted to prevent the condensed steam from running back on to the
hot part of the tube.
• When the reduction process is complete, ie after heating to constant mass, the tube is
allowed to cool with hydrogen still being passed over the remaining copper. This is to
prevent the copper from being oxidized to copper(II) oxide.

The working on the next page shows you how to calculate the results:

Typical results
Mass of copper (II) oxide = 5g
Mass of copper = 4g
Mass of oxygen = 1g

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 ÷ by relative atomic ÷ by smallest Ratio of atoms
mass (r.a.m)

Moles of copper 4 0.0625

= 0.0625 =1 1
atoms 64 0.0625

Moles of oxygen 1 0.0625

= 0.0625 =1 1
atoms 16 0.0625

Therefore, the simplest (or empirical) formula is CuO.

The apparatus may be modified to determine the formula of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride
tubes are connected to the end of the combustion tube and the excess hydrogen then ignited at
the end of these tubes. Anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs water; the mass of the tubes is
determined at the beginning and end of the experiment. The increase in mass of the calcium
chloride tubes is equal to the mass of water produced.

Typical results
Mass of water = 1.125 g
Mass of oxygen (from previous results) = 1.000 g
Mass of hydrogen = 0.125 g

÷ by r.a.m ÷ by smallest Ratio of atoms

Moles of hydrogen 0.125 0.125

= 0.125 =2 2
atoms 1 0.0625

Moles of oxygen 1 0.0625

= 0.0625 =1 1
atoms 16 0.0625

Since the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1 the simplest (or empirical) formula is H2O.
In examination calculations of this type the data is often presented not as mass, but as
percentage composition of the elements concerned. In these cases the calculation is carried out
in an identical fashion as percentage composition is really the mass of the element in 100 g of
the compound.

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 Example 1
Sodium burns in excess oxygen to give a yellow solid oxide that contains 58.97% of sodium.
What is the empirical formula of the oxide?
N.B. This is an oxide of sodium. It must contain only Na and O. Since the percentage of Na is
58.97 that of O must be 100 – 58.97 = 41.03%

÷ by r.a.m ÷ by smallest Ratio of atoms

Moles of sodium 58.97 2.564

= 2.564 =1 1
atoms 23 2.564

Moles of oxygen 41.03 2.564

= 2.564 =1 1
atoms 16 2.564

Therefore the empirical formula is NaO.

The result of the above calculation does not seem to lead to a recognisable compound of
sodium. This is because the method used only gives the simplest ratio of the elements - but see
below.
Consider the following series of organic compounds:
C2H4 ethene, C3H6 propene, C4H8 butene, C5 H10 pentene. These all have the same empirical
formula C H2.
To find the Molecular Formula for a compound it is necessary to know the Relative Molecular
Mass (Mr).
Molecular Formula Mass = Empirical Formula Mass x a whole number (n)
In the example above the oxide has an Mr = 78 g mol–1.
Thus
Molecular Formula Mass = 78
Empirical Formula Mass = (Na + O) = 23 + 16 = 39
∴ 78 = 39 x n
∴ n = 2
The Molecular Formula becomes (NaO)2 or Na2O2

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 Example 2
A compound P contains 73.47% carbon and 10.20% hydrogen by mass, the remainder being
oxygen. It is found from other sources that P has a Relative Molecular Mass of 98 g mol-1.
Calculate the molecular formula of P.
NB It is not necessary to put in all the details when you carry out a calculation of this type. The
following is adequate.

C H O
73.47 10.20 (100 – 73.47 – 10.20)
= 16.33

73.47 10.20 16.33

By r.a.m
12 1 16

= 6.1225 = 10.20 = 1.020

6.1255 10.20 1.020

By smallest
1.020 1.020 1.020

Ratio of atoms 6 10 1

Therefore the empirical formula is C6H10O.

To find molecular formula:

Molecular Formula Mass = Empirical Formula Mass x whole number (n)

98 = [(6x12) + (10x1) + 16] x n = 98 x n
∴n = 1
The molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula C6H10O.

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 A warning
In calculations of this type at GCE Advanced level you may meet compounds that are different
yet have very similar percentage composition of their elements. When you carry out a
calculation of this type you should never round up the figures until you get right to the end. For
example NH4OH and NH2OH have very similar composition and if you round up the data from
one you may well get the other. If you are told the Relative Molecular Mass and your Empirical
Formula Mass is not a simple multiple of this you are advised to check your calculation.

Example 3
Calculate the empirical formula of a compound with the following percentage composition:
C 39.13%; O 52.17%; H 8.700%

C O H

39.13 52.17 8.700

By r.a.m
12 16 1

= 3.26 = 3.25 = 8.70

Divide by smallest 1 1 2.66

It is clear at this stage that dividing by the smallest has not resulted in a simple ratio. You must
not round up or down at this stage. You must look at the numbers and see if there is some
factor that you could multiply each number by to get each one to a whole number. In this case if
you multiply each by 3 you will get:

C O H
3 3 8

Thus C3H8O3 is the empirical formulae not C1H2.66O1

You need to watch carefully for this, the factors will generally be clear and will be 2 or 3. What
you must not do is round 1.33 to 1 or 1.5 to 2.

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 Calculations involving the moles of water of crystallization
In calculations of this type you need to treat the water as a molecule and divide by the Relative
Molecular Mass.

Example 4

24.6 grams of a hydrated salt of MgSO4 . xH2O, gives 12.0 g of anhydrous MgSO4 on heating.
What is the value of x ?

Your first job is to find the mass of water driven off .

Mass of water evolved = 24.6 – 12.0 = 12.6 g

MgSO4 H2O
12.0 12.6

12.0 12.6
Divide by Mr
120 18

= 0.100 = 0.700
Ratio of Atoms 1 7

Giving a formula of MgSO4.7H2O

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 Exercise 5

Calculation of a formula from experimental data

In Section a. calculate the empirical formula of the compound from the data given. This may be
as percentage composition or as the masses of materials found in an experiment. For Section b.
you are given the data for analysis plus the Relative Molecular Mass of the compound, in these
cases you are to find the empirical formula and thence the molecular formula. Section c. is more
difficult, the data is presented in a different fashion but the calculation of the empirical formula/
molecular formula is essentially the same.

Section a

1 Ca 40%; C 12%; O 48%

2 Na 32.4%; S 22.5%; O 45.1%

3 Na 29.1%; S 40.5%; O 30.4%

4 Pb 92.8%; O 7.20%

5 Pb 90.66%; O 9.34%

6 H 3.66%; P 37.8%; O 58.5%

7 H 2.44%; S 39.0%; O 58.5%

8 C 75%; H 25%

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 9 C 81.81%; H 18.18%

10 H 5.88% ; O 94.12%

11 H 5%; N 35%; O 60%

12 Fe 20.14%; S 11.51%; O 63.31%; H 5.04%

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 Section b

13 A hydrocarbon with a Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) of 28 g mol–1 has the following
composition: Carbon 85.7%; Hydrogen 14.3%. Calculate its molecular formula.

14 A hydrocarbon with a Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) of 42 g mol–1 has the following
composition: Carbon 85.7%; Hydrogen 14.3%. Calculate its molecular formula.

15 P 10.88%; I 89.12%. Mr = 570 g mol–1

16 N 12.28%; H 3.51%; S 28.07%; O 56.14%. Mr = 228 g mol–1

17 P 43.66%; O 56.34%. Mr = 284 g mol–1

18 C 40%; H 6.67%; O 53.3%. Mr = 60 g mol–1

19 Analysis of a compound with a Mr = 58 g mol–1 shows that 4.8 g of carbon are joined with
1.0 g of hydrogen. What is the molecular formula of the compound?

20 3.36 g of iron join with 1.44 g of oxygen in an oxide of iron that has a Mr = 160 g mol–1
What is the molecular formula of the oxide?

21 A sample of an acid with a Mr = 194 g mol–1 has 0.5 g of hydrogen joined to 16 g of

sulphur and 32 g of oxygen. What is the molecular formula of the acid?

22 Analysis of a hydrocarbon showed that 7.8 g of the hydrocarbon contained 0.6 g of

hydrogen and that the Mr = 78 g mol–1. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?

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 Section c

23 22.3 g of an oxide of lead produced 20.7 g of metallic lead on reduction with hydrogen.
Calculate the empirical formula of the oxide concerned.

24 When 1.17 g of potassium is heated in oxygen 2.13 g of an oxide is produced. In the case
of this oxide the empirical and molecular formulae are the same. What is the molecular
formula of the oxide produced?

25 A hydrocarbon containing 92.3% of carbon has a Relative Molecular Mass of 26 g mol–1.

What is the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon?

26 When 1.335 g of a chloride of aluminium is added to excess silver nitrate solution 4.305 g
of silver chloride is produced. Calculate the empirical formula of the chloride of
aluminium.
Hint; you will need to work out how much chlorine there is in 4.305 g of AgCl. This will be
the amount of chlorine in the initial 1.335 g of the aluminium chloride.

27 16 g of a hydrocarbon burn in excess oxygen to produce 44 g of carbon dioxide. What is

the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon.
Hint; you will need to work out what mass of carbon is contained in 44 g of CO2. This is
the mass of C in 16 g of the hydrocarbon.

28 When an oxide of carbon containing 57.1% oxygen is burnt in air the percentage of oxygen
joined to the carbon increases to 72.7%. Show that this data is consistent with the
combustion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.

29 When 14.97 g of hydrated copper(II) sulphate is heated it produces 9.60 g of anhydrous

copper(II) sulphate. What is the formula of the hydrated salt?

30 When the chloride of phosphorus containing 85.1% chlorine is heated a second chloride
containing 77.5% chlorine is produced. Find the formulae of the chlorides and suggest
what the other product of the heating might be.

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 Section 6

Chemical equations

Chemical equations do much more than tell you what reacts with what in a chemical reaction.
They tell you how many of each type of molecule is needed and are produced and so they also
tell you what masses of the reactants are needed to produce a given mass of products.
Often you will learn equations that have been given to you. However, if you are to interpret
equations correctly you must learn to write them for yourself.

Equations in words

Before you can begin to write an equation, you must know what the reacting chemicals are and
what is produced in the reaction. You can then write them down as a word equation. For
instance, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to give water, or, as a word equation:

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

Writing formulae

When you have written the equation in words you can write the formula for each of the
substances involved; you may know them or you may have to look them up. In our example:
Hydrogen is represented as H2 ;
Oxygen is represented as O2; and
Water is H2O.

So we get:

H2 + O2 → H2O

However this will not do as a full equation as you will discover if you read on!

Balancing the equation

One of the most important things you must understand in chemistry is that atoms are
rearranged in chemical reactions: they are never produced from ‘nowhere’ and they do not
simply ‘disappear’. This means that in chemical equation you must have the same number of
atoms of each kind on the left-hand side of the equation as on the right. Sometimes you need to
start with two or more molecules of one of the reactants and you may end up with more than
one molecule of one of the products.
Let us look at two very simple examples:

Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide

C + O2 → CO2

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 It so happens that carbon dioxide has one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen in one
molecule: carbon is written as C (one atom) and oxygen molecules have two atoms each: written
as O2.
This equation does not need balancing because the number of atoms of carbon is the same on
the left as on the right (1) and the number of atoms oxygen is also the same (2) ie it is already
balanced.
Now let us try one that does not work out:

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

Magnesium is written as Mg (one atom just like carbon) and oxygen is, of course, O2, but
magnesium oxide has just one atom of oxygen per molecule and is therefore written as MgO.

So we might write:

Mg + O2 → MgO

The magnesium balances, one atom on the left and one on the right, but the oxygen does not as
there are two atoms on the left-hand side of the equation and only one on the right hand side.
You cannot change the formulae of the reactants or products.
Each ‘formula’ of magnesium oxide has only one atom of oxygen: each molecule of oxygen has
two atoms of oxygen, so you can make two formulae of magnesium oxide for each molecule of
oxygen. So we get:

Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Even now the equation does not balance, because we need two atoms of magnesium to make
two formulae of MgO, and the final equation is:

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Sometimes, you will need to show in the equation whether the chemicals are solid, liquid or gas.
You do this by putting in state symbols: (aq) for aqueous solution, (g) for gas, (1) for liquid and
(s) for solid or precipitate:

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

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 Exercise 6a

Balancing equations

Balance the following equations. To get you started _ indicates the first six questions where
numbers need to be inserted to achieve the balance. In one or two difficult examples some of the
numbers have been added. You will not need to change these. Also remember all the formulae
are correct!

1 _ H2 + O2 → _ H2O

2 BaCl2 + _ NaOH → Ba(OH)2 + _ NaCl

3 H2SO4 + _ KOH → _ K2SO4 + H2O

4 K2CO3 + _ HCl → _KCl + H2O + CO2

5 CaCO3 + _HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

6 Ca + _H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

7 Pb(NO3)2 + NaI → PbI2 + NaNO3

8 Al2(SO4)3 + NaOH → Al(OH)3 + Na2SO4

9 Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + H2O

10 Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2

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 11 FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3

12 NH4NO3 → N2O + H2O

13 NaNO3 → NaNO2 + O2

14 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

15 C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

16 PCl3 + H2O → H3PO3 + HCl

17 8HNO3 + 3Cu → Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O

18 4HNO3 + Cu → Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O

19 H3PO4 + NaOH → NaH2PO4 + H2O

20 H3PO4 + NaOH → Na3PO4 + H2O

21 H3PO4 + NaOH → Na2HPO4 + H2O

22 6NaOH + Cl2 → NaClO3 + NaCl + H2O

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 23 N2 + H2 → NH3

24 NaBr + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + HBr

25 HBr + H2SO4 → H2O + SO2 + Br2

26 C2H5OH + PCl3 → C2H5Cl + H3PO3

27 Fe3O4 + H2 → Fe + H2O

28 Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2

29 C2H5OH + CH3CO2H → CH3CO2C2H5 + H2O

30 2KMnO4 + HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 8H2O + KCl

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 Exercise 6b

What’s wrong here?

The following equations have one or more mistakes. These may be in a formula, in the
balancing, in the state symbols or even in the chemistry. Your job is to identify the error and
then write a correct equation.

1 Na(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H(g)

2 PbNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → PbCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

3 CaOH2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

4 C2H4(g) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2(g)

5 MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Ca(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

6 Cu(NO3)2(s) + CuO(s) → 2NO(g) + O3(g)

7 Cu(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2(g)

8 AlCl2(s) + 2KOH(aq) → Al(OH)2(s) + 2KCl(aq)

9 NaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → NaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

10 2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(s) + 2AgCl(aq)

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 Exercise 6c

Writing equations in symbols from equations in words

In the following examples you will need to convert the names of the materials into formulae and
then balance the resulting equation. In some cases more than one experiment is described. In
these cases you will need to write more than one equation.

1 Zinc metal reacts with copper sulphate solution to produce solid copper metal and zinc
sulphate solution.

2 Solid calcium hydroxide reacts with solid ammonium chloride on heating to produce solid
calcium chloride, steam and ammonia gas.

3 When lead(II) nitrate is heated in a dry tube lead(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and
oxygen are produced.

4 Silicon tetrachloride reacts with water to produce solid silicon dioxide and hydrogen
chloride gas.

5 When a solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate is heated a precipitate of calcium

carbonate is produced together with carbon dioxide gas and more water.

6 When octane (C8H18) vapour is burnt with excess air in a car engine carbon dioxide and
water vapour are produced.

7 All the halogens, apart from fluorine, react with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to
produce a solution of the sodium halide (NaX) the sodium halate (NaXO3) and water.

8 The elements of Group 1 of the periodic table all react with water to produce a solution of
the hydroxide of the metal and hydrogen gas.

The last two examples in this section will need a lot of thought as they involve changes in
the valency of the elements concerned. Before you start to balance the equations check
with your teacher that you have the formulae correct.

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 8 Tin(II) chloride solution reacts with mercury(II) chloride solution to produce a precipitate
of mercury(I) chloride and a solution of tin(IV) chloride. This precipitate of mercury(I)
chloride then reacts with further tin(II) chloride solution to produce liquid mercury and
more tin(IV) chloride solution.

9 Concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with solid potassium iodide to produce solid potassium
hydrogen sulphate, iodine vapour, water and hydrogen sulphide gas.

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 Section 7

How equations are found by experiment

Although equations are often printed in books for you to learn, you must remember that they
have all been found originally by someone doing experiments to measure how much of each
chemical reacted and how much of each product was formed.

Below are set out some of the methods you could use:

• Direct mass determinations, eg the reaction of magnesium with oxygen

A known mass of magnesium is heated in a crucible to constant mass and hence the mass of
magnesium oxide is found. Supposing 0.12 g of magnesium produce 0.20 g of magnesium
oxide. By subtraction, the mass of oxygen combined with the magnesium is 0.080 g.
Each of these masses is then converted to moles and it is found that every 2 moles of
magnesium react with one mole oxygen molecules and produce two moles of magnesium oxide:
hence

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

• Reacting volumes in solution: usually you have to calculate concentrations of acids or

alkalis by reaction with the appropriate standard solution and use the chemical equation for
the reaction
However, you can calculate the ratio of reacting moles from experimental data, in order to
construct the equation. To do this you use solutions, both of whose concentrations you know.
You then do a titration in the usual way and use the volumes used in the titration to find the
number of moles of each reagent which react.
These are then used in the equation straight away, just as in the magnesium oxide example
above.
• Measurement of gas volumes: the molar volume of a gas is taken as 24 dm3 at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure (r.t.p.)

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 Examples

1 In an experiment a solution containing 3.31 g of lead(II) nitrate reacts with a solution

containing 1.17 g of sodium chloride to produce 2.78 g of lead(II) chloride solid and leave a
solution that contains 1.70 g of sodium nitrate. What is the equation for the reaction?

In this type of question you are required to calculate the ratio of the reacting moles and
then use these to write the equation.

Pb(NO3)2 NaCl PbCl2 NaNO3

Mr = 331 Mr = 58.5 Mr = 278 Mr = 85

∴ 3.31 g of Pb(NO3)2 = (3.31/331) mol = 0.010 mol

1.17 g of NaCl = (1.17/58.5) mol = 0.020 mol
2.78 g of PbCl2 = (2.78/278) mol = 0.010 mol
1.70 g of NaNO3 = (1.70/85) mol = 0.020 mol
∴ 0.01 mol of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 0.02 mol of NaCl to give 0.01 mol of PbCl2 and
0.02 mol of NaNO3

ie 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 2 mol of NaCl to give 1 mol of PbCl2 and 2 mol of NaNO3

Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl → PbCl2 + 2NaNO3

It is not necessary to write all of this out each time.

2 When 5.175 g of lead are heated at 300oC the lead reacts with the oxygen in the air to
produce 5.708 g of an oxide of lead. This is the only product. What is the equation for this
reaction? In a question of this type you seem to be short of information but in fact you know
the mass of oxygen reacting. Remember this is oxygen molecules that are reacting not
oxygen atoms.
Mass of oxygen used is 5.708 – 5.175 g = 0.533 g
Moles of lead reacting = (5.175/207) mol = 0.025 mol
Moles of oxygen reacting = (0.533/32) mol = 0.0167 mol

∴ 0.025 mol of Pb react with 0.0167 mol of O2 to give product

∴ 1.5 mol of Pb react with 1 mol of O2 to give product

∴3 mol of Pb react with 2 mol of O2 to give product

3Pb + 2O2 → Pb3O4

You do not have the information to write the full equation but as you know there is only one
product and this has 3 lead atoms and 4 oxygen you can suggest a formula.

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 3 25 cm3 of 2M sulphuric acid solution react with 50 cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide solution to
produce sodium sulphate and water. Construct the equation for this reaction.

You will need to look at the start of chapter 11 before you can follow this question.

25 cm3 of 2M H2SO4 contain (25 x 2/1000) mol of H2SO4 = 0.050 mol

50 cm3 of 2M NaOH contain (50 x 2/1000) mol of NaOH = 0.10 mol

∴ 0.05 mol of H2SO4 react with 0.10 mol of NaOH to give Na2SO4 plus H2O

∴ 1 mol of H2SO4 react with 2 mol of NaOH to give Na2SO4 plus H2O

H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

4 2 cm3 of nitrogen gas react completely with 6 cm3 of hydrogen gas to produce 4cm3 of
ammonia gas. Use the data to write the equation for this reaction.

2 cm3 of nitrogen = (2/24000) mol = 8.33 x 10-5 mol

6 cm3 of hydrogen = (6/24000) mol = 2.50 x 10-4 mol
4 cm3 of ammonia = (4/24000) mol = 1.67 x 10-4 mol

∴ ratios are (8.33 x 10-5/8.33 x 10-5) of nitrogen =1

-4 -5
(2.50 x 10 /8.33 x 10 ) of hydrogen =3
(1.67 x 10-4/8.33 x 10-5) of ammonia =2

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

5 1 g of CaCO3 reacts with 10 cm3 of 2M HNO3 to produce 1.64 g of Ca(NO3)2, 240 cm3 of
CO2 and water.

In practice the acid will be in water and it is almost impossible to measure the amount of
water produced by the reaction.

1/ 100 mol of + (10x2)/1000 → 1.64/164 mol of + 240/24000 mol + H2O

CaCO3 mol of HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 of CO2
∴ 0.01 mol of + 0.02 mol of → 0.01 mol of + 0.01 mol of + H2O
CaCO3 HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 CO2

CaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

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 Exercise 7

Writing chemical equations from experimental data

Use the data below to write the equations for the reactions listed. In some cases you may not be
able to calculate the moles of all the materials involved. In these cases you should indicate that
you have ‘balanced’ this part yourself.
In examples involving gases you should assume 1 Mole of gas occupies 24 000 cm3 at room
temperature and pressure.

1 In an experiment a solution containing 6.675 g of aluminium chloride reacted with a

solution containing 25.50 g of silver nitrate. 21.52 g of silver chloride was produced
together with a solution of 10.65 g of aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3. What is the equation for
the reaction taking place?

2 100 cm3 of a solution of potassium chromate(VI), containing 97.05 g dm–3, reacts with
50 cm3 of a solution, containing 331 g dm–3 of lead nitrate, to produce 16.15 g of a
precipitate of lead(II) chromate and 150 cm3 of a solution of potassium nitrate, which gives
10.1 g of solid when the water is evaporated off from the solution. Write the equation for the
reaction.

3 1.133 g of silver nitrate was heated in an open tube. The silver residue weighed 0.720 g.
During the reaction 0.307 g of nitrogen dioxide was also produced. The rest of the mass loss
was due to oxygen. Use the data to write the equation for the reaction.

4 In a titration using methyl orange as an indicator 25.0 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide reacted with 25.0 cm3 of 0.1 M phosphoric acid, H3PO4, solution. If the
experiment is repeated using phenolphthalein in place of the methyl orange as the indicator
the volume of the sodium hydroxide used to cause the indicator to change colour is 50.0
cm3.

i Use the data to calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide that reacts with one
mole of phosphoric acid in each case

ii Suggest the formula of the salt produced in each case

iii Write the equations

iv What volume of the alkali would be needed to produce the salt Na3PO4?

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 5 50 cm3 of a solution of citric acid, Mr = 192, containing 19.2 g dm–3 reacted with 50 cm3 of a
solution of sodium hydroxide containing 12 g dm–3. Citric acid can be represented by the
formula HxA, where x represents the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule. Use the
data above to calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide that react with one mole
of citric acid and hence find the value of x.

6 When 12.475 g of hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.xH2O, was heated 7.980 g of

anhydrous salt were produced. Use the data to find the value of x and hence write the
equation for the reaction.

7 When 20 cm3 ammonia gas is passed over a catalyst with excess oxygen 20 cm3 of nitrogen
monoxide (NO) and 30 cm3 of water vapour are produced. Use this data to write the
equation for the reaction.

8 10 cm3 of a hydrocarbon CaHb reacted with 50 cm3 of oxygen gas to produce 30 cm3 of
carbon dioxide and 40 cm3 of water vapour. Use the data to calculate to reacting moles in
the equation and suggest value for a and b.

9 When 8.4 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate are heated 5.30 g of solid residue are produced
1200 cm3 of carbon dioxide are produced and 0.900 g of water are evolved. Show that this
data is consistent with the following equation.

2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

10 When 13.9 g of FeSO4.xH2O is heated 4 g of solid iron (III) oxide is produced together with
the loss of 1.6 g of sulphur dioxide and 2.0 g of sulphur trioxide. The rest of the mass loss
being due to the water of crystallization being lost. Use the data to write the full equation for
the action of heat.

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 Section 8

Amounts of substances

Equations can also tell you how much of a chemical is reacting or is produced. The equation in
Section 7 tells us that 2 moles of (solid) magnesium atoms react with 1 mole of (gaseous)
oxygen molecules to produce 2 moles of (solid) magnesium oxide molecules.

We know that the relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24, and that of oxygen is 16, (see
periodic table on page 113). And from the equation we balanced in Section 6 we can suggest
that 48 g of magnesium react with 32 g of oxygen (because an oxygen molecule contains two
atoms) to give 80 g of magnesium oxide.

Since we know the ratio of reacting masses (or volumes in the case of gases) we can calculate
any reacting quantities based on the equation.

Example 1
a What mass of magnesium oxide would be produced from 16 g of magnesium in the reaction
between magnesium and oxygen?

i Write the full balanced equation

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

ii Read the equation in terms of moles

2 moles of magnesium reacts to give 2 moles of magnesium oxide

iii Convert the moles to masses using the Mr values

∴ (2 x 24g) of magnesium gives 2 x (24+16) = 80 g of Magnesium oxide

80 ×16
∴ 16 g of magnesium gives = 26.7 g of Magnesium oxide
2 × 24

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 b What volume of oxygen would react with 16 g of magnesium in the above reaction?

In this case the oxygen is a gas so the volume of each mole is 24000 cm3 at room
temperature and pressure and you do not have to worry about the molecular mass of the
gas.

From the equation:

2 moles of Mg reacts with 1 mole of O2

∴2 x 24 g of Mg reacts with 1 x 24000 cm3 of O2(g)

1× 24 000 cm 3 ×16 g
∴ 16 g of Mg reacts with = 8000 cm3 of oxygen
2 × 24 g

Example 2

What mass of lead(II) sulphate would be produced by the action of excess dilute sulphuric acid
on 10 g of lead nitrate dissolved in water ?

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

∴ 1 mole of lead nitrate gives 1 mole of lead sulphate

∴ 331 g of lead nitrate gives 303 g of lead sulphate

303 g ×10 g of lead sulphate

∴ 10 g of lead nitrate gives = 9.15 g of lead sulphate
331g

Example 3

What is the total volume of gas produced by the action of heat on 1 g of silver nitrate?

2AgNO3(s) → 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)

2 moles of silver nitrate give 2 moles of nitrogen dioxide gas plus 1 mole of oxygen gas = 3
moles of gas

∴ 2 x 170 g of silver nitrate give 3 x 24000 cm3 of gas

3× 24 000 cm 3 ×1 g of gas
∴1 g of silver nitrate gives = 211.8 cm3 of gas
2 ×170 g

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 Example 4
When excess carbon dioxide is passed into sodium hydroxide solution, sodium carbonate
solution is formed. This can be crystallised out as Na2CO3.10H2O . What mass of crystals would
be produced from 5 g of sodium hydroxide in excess water.

Care. You need the water as moles in the equation.

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) + 9H2O → Na2CO3(aq) + 10H2O(l) → Na2CO3.10H2O(s)

∴ 2 moles of sodium hydroxide give 1 mole of the crystals of sodium carbonate

∴ 2 x 40 g of sodium hydroxide give 286 g of crystals

286 × 5
∴ 5 g of sodium hydroxide give = 17.88 g of crystals
2 × 40

Example 5

What mass of ethanoic acid and what mass of ethanol would be needed to produce 100 g of
ethyl ethanoate assuming the reaction went to completion?

Care! In this question you know how much you want to get and are asked how much you will
need to start with. In these cases you must read the equation from the other end
ie 1 mole of the ethyl ethanoate is produced from 1 mole of acid and 1 mole of alcohol.

CH3CO2H(l) + C2H5OH(l) → CH3CO2C2H5(l) + H2O(l)

(12+3+12+32+1) (24+5+16+1) (12+3+12+32+24+5)

= 60 = 46 = 88

∴ 88 g of ethyl ethanoate are produced from 60 g of ethanoic acid and 46 g of ethanol

∴ 100 g of ethyl ethanoate are produced

60 g ×100 g
from = 68.2 g of ethanoic acid
88 g

and
46 g ×100 g
= 52.3 g of ethanoic acid
88 g

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 Exercise 8

Calculations of products/reactants based on equations

In this exercise the equations you need are given in the question, unless they were included in
Exercise 6a.

1 What mass of barium sulphate would be produced from 10 g of barium chloride in the
following reaction?

BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2HCl

2 What mass of potassium chloride would be produced from 20 g of potassium carbonate?

3 What masses of ethanol and ethanoic acid would need to be reacted together to give 1 g of
ethyl ethanoate?

4 What mass of iron(III) oxide would need to be reduced to produce 100 tonnes of iron in a
blast furnace?

5 What mass of silver nitrate as a solution in water would need to be added to 5 g of sodium
chloride to ensure complete precipitation of the chloride?

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

6 A solution of copper sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to produce a precipitate
of copper hydroxide according to the following equation:

CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

What mass of sodium hydroxide would be needed to convert 15.95 g of copper sulphate to
copper hydroxide and what mass of copper hydroxide would be produced?

7 What volume of ammonia gas would be needed to produce 40 g of ammonium nitrate in the
following reaction?

NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)

8 In the reaction between calcium carbonate and nitric acid what mass of calcium nitrate and
what volume of carbon dioxide would be produced from 33.3 g of calcium carbonate?

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 9 What would be the total volume of gas produced by the action of heat on 33.1 g of lead(II)
nitrate ?

10 Magnesium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce a solution of magnesium sulphate. If this is
allowed to crystallise out the solid produced has the formula MgSO4.7H2O.
Write the equation for this reaction and calculate the mass of magnesium sulphate
heptahydrate that could be produced from 4 g of magnesium.

11 Copper(II) oxide reacts with sulphuric acid to produce copper(II) sulphate. If this is allowed
to crystallise the formula of the crystals is CuSO4.5H2O.
What mass of copper oxide would be needed to produce 100 g of crystals?

12 Sulphur dioxide can be removed from the waste gases of a power station by passing it
through a slurry of calcium hydroxide. The equation for this reaction is:

SO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO3(aq) + H2O(l)

What mass of calcium hydroxide would be needed to deal with 1000 dm3 of sulphur
dioxide?

13 In a fermentation reaction glucose is converted to alcohol and carbon dioxide according to

the following equation:

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

What mass of alcohol and what volume of carbon dioxide would be produced from 10 g of
glucose?

14 In the following reactions calculate the mass of precipitate formed from 20 g of the metal
salt in each case.

(i) ZnSO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

(ii) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6NaOH → 2 Al(OH)3(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq)

(iii) MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

15 What volume of hydrogen would be produced by 1 g of calcium in its reaction with water?

16 What mass of magnesium would be needed to produce 100 cm3 of hydrogen?

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 17 Chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide as follows:

Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) → 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

What mass of sodium chloride and what mass of sodium chlorate(V) be produced from
240 cm3 of chlorine gas?

18 When nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the Haber Process only 17% of the nitrogen is
converted to ammonia. What volume of nitrogen and what volume of hydrogen would be
needed to produce 1 tonne of ammonia? (1 tonne = 1 x 106 g)

19 Nitric acid is produced by the following series of reactions:

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 3H2O

4NO + O2 → 4NO2
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3
What mass of nitric acid would be produced from 17 tonnes of ammonia and what volume of
oxygen would be needed in the reaction?

20 Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium compounds. When heated some of these
break down and deposits calcium carbonate as follows:

Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

This builds up as ‘fur’ on the inside of boilers. It can be removed by reaction with
hydrochloric acid.

What mass of calcium carbonate would be produced from 10000 dm3 of water containing
0.356 g of calcium hydrogen carbonate per dm3 of water and what volume of 10 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid solution would be needed to remove the solid calcium carbonate from the
inside of the boiler?

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 Section 9

Reactions involving gases

Whenever gases are involved in a reaction you need to remember that they have both mass and
volume and that 1 mole of any gas has the same volume, 24 000 cm3, at room temperature
and 1 atmosphere pressure as 1 mole of any other gas. (See Section 4 for more details)
This means:
2 g of hydrogen, H2, has a volume of 24 000 cm3
32 g of oxygen, O2, has a volume of 24 000 cm3
81 g of hydrogen bromide, HBr, has a volume of 24 000 cm3
The effect of this is to make calculations involving gas volumes much easier than you might
expect.
Consider the following reaction:

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

This says:

2 moles of NO(g) react with 1 mole of O2(g) to give 2 moles of NO2(g)

∴ (2 x 24 000) cm3 of NO react with (1 x 24 000) cm3 of oxygen to give (2 x 24 000) cm3 of
NO2

2 cm3 of NO react with 1 cm3 of oxygen to give 2 cm3 of NO2

ie for gases only the reacting volume ratios are the same as the reacting mole ratios in the
equation.

Example 1

What volume of sulphur trioxide would be produced by the complete reaction of 100 cm3 of
sulphur dioxide with oxygen? What volume of oxygen would be needed to just react with the
sulphur dioxide?

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

Ratios 2 1 2
ie 1 ½ 1
100 cm3 50 cm3 100 cm3

Thus 100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide will need 50 cm3 of oxygen and produce 100 cm3 of
sulphur dioxide.

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 Example 2

What would be the composition of the final product in Example 1 if 100 cm3 of oxygen had
been used rather than 50 cm3?
Since 100 cm3 of the sulphur dioxide needs only 50 cm3 of oxygen there must be 50 cm3 of
oxygen unused. Thus the final volume is:

100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide plus 50 cm3 of excess oxygen = 150 cm3

Example 3
What volume of ammonia would be produced if 10 cm3 of nitrogen was reacted with 20 cm3 of
hydrogen?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

You need to think before you start this question. The reacting volumes given in the question are
not the same as those in the reaction. You must have excess of one of the gases.

From the equation:

10 cm3 of nitrogen needs 30 cm3 of hydrogen. You only have 20 cm3 of hydrogen so the
nitrogen is in excess.

In this case you will need to use the hydrogen volume in the calculation.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Ratios 1 3 2
1/3 1 2/3
1/3 x 20 20 2/3 x 20
3 3
6.67 cm 20 cm 13.33 cm3

Thus 20 cm3 of hydrogen will react to give 13.33 cm3 of ammonia and there will be 3.33 cm3 of
hydrogen left over.

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 Exercise 9

Calculations based on equations involving only gases

Section a

In Section a. assume that you have 10 cm3 of the first named reactant and then calculate the
volumes of all the gases involved in the equation. In these examples the reactions are being
carried out at above 100°C and you should assume the water is present as a gas and therefore
has a volume.

1 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

2 C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O

3 2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O

4 2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O

5 N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

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 Section b

In Section b. you are asked to find the total volume of gas produced at room temperature and
pressure. You should ignore the volume of water produced as this will have condensed as a
liquid. Be careful in some cases, as there is an excess of one of the reactants.

1 What volume of oxygen would be needed to convert 1000 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide, NO, to
nitrogen dioxide, NO2? (Assume all volumes are measured at the same temperature and
pressure.)

2 In the production of sulphuric acid sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphur trioxide by

reaction with the oxygen in the air. What volume of air (assume 20% of the air is oxygen)
would be needed to produce 150 cm3 of sulphur trioxide? Assume complete conversion of
sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.

3 In equation for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen monoxide is:

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

What volume of ammonia would be required to produce 2500 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide and
what volume of air would be used in the conversion? Again assume that air is 20% oxygen
by volume.

4 What volume of oxygen at room temperature and pressure would be needed to completely
burn 1 mole of butane?

5 What volume of hydrogen at room temperature and pressure would be needed to convert
1 mole of ethene, C2H4, to ethane, C2H6?

6 What is the final volume of gas produced at room temperature when 10 cm3 of methane is
burnt with 30 cm3 of oxygen?

7 What is the final volume of gas produced at room temperature if 5 cm3 of octane are burnt
with 100 cm3 of oxygen?

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 8 In a reaction between methane and oxygen 60 cm3 of methane was burnt with 60 cm3 of
oxygen. What is the composition of the gas mixture produced?

9 What volume of ammonia would be produced if 10 cm3 of nitrogen was reacted with 60 cm3
of hydrogen?

10 What would be the final volume of gas produced in the reaction between 10 cm3 of hydrogen
and 10 cm3 of oxygen?

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 Section 10

Ions and ionic equations

Ionic theory
Many of the chemicals which you will use at GCE Advanced are ionic, that is the chemical
bonds which hold the atoms together are ionic bonds. When you melt these compounds the ions
are free to move and this gives them some special properties. Often, but not always, these
chemicals are soluble in water and when they dissolve the ions separate to produce a solution
containing positive and negative ions.
A few covalent substances also form ions when they dissolve in water. Some of these are
extremely important: hydrogen chloride and sulphuric acid are examples.

Structures of ionic compounds

In your course you will study bonding and structure, but at a of the most important ideas are set
out below.
• Ions are atoms or groups of atoms, which have a positive or negative electric charge.
• Positive ions are called cations (pronounced cat-ions) and negative ions are called anions
(pronounced an-ions).
• Positive ions attract negative ions all around them and are firmly held in a rigid lattice; this
is what makes ionic compounds solids.
• When an ionic compound is solid it is crystalline, but when it melts or is dissolved in water
the ions become free and can move around.
• Ions have completely different properties from the atoms in them; chlorine is an extremely
poisonous gas, but chloride ions are found in sodium chloride, which is essential to human
life.

Ionic equations and spectator ions

Many of the chemicals, which you study are ionic, and in these cases it is the ions which react,
not the molecules. For instance, copper(II) sulphate is usually written as CuSO4 but it is more
often the ion Cu2+ which reacts. When you write an ionic equation you include only the ions
which actually take part in the reaction.
Let us look at molecular equation and see how it may be converted into an ionic equation. For
example, look at the reaction between iron(II) sulphate solution and aqueous sodium hydroxide.

FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

In water, the iron (II) sulphate and the sodium hydroxide are in the form of freely moving ions.
When the two solutions are mixed together, we see a green precipitate of iron (II) hydroxide
solid. Remaining in solution will be a mixture of sodium ions and sulphate ions.

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)

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 Also when silver nitrate solution reacts with sodium chloride solution the changes do not
involve the nitrate ion from the silver nitrate or the sodium ion from the sodium chloride. These
are referred to as ‘spectator ions’. The equation for this reaction can be written

Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)

This equation represents the reaction between any aqueous solution containing silver ions and
any aqueous solution containing chloride ions. This is the equation for the test for a chloride ion
in solution.
You can work out an ionic equation as follows using the example of the reaction of iron(II)
sulphate solution with excess sodium hydroxide solution.

1 Write down the balanced molecular equation

FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

2 Convert those chemicals that are ions in solution into their ions

Fe2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42–(aq)

3 Cross out those ions that appear on both sides of the equation as they have not changed
during the reaction. They started in solution and they finished in the solution. To give the
ionic equation:

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)

Check that the atoms and the charges balance.

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 Exercise 10

Ionic equations

In questions 1–5 you are required to balance the equations, in questions 6–10 you are required
to complete the equation and then balance it. For questions 1–17 you are required to write the
full, balanced ionic equation. Questions 18–20 involve more complex ions again you are just
asked to balance the equation.

1 Pb2+ (aq) + OH–(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s)

2 Al3+(aq) + OH–(aq) → Al(OH)3(s)

3 Al(OH)3(s) + OH–(aq) → AlO22–(aq) + H2O(l)

4 Cl2(g) + OH–(aq) → ClO33–(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)

5 S2O32–(aq) + I2(s) → S4O62–(aq) + 2I–(aq)

6 Cu2+(aq) + OH–(aq) →

7 CO32–(s) + H+(aq) →

8 Zn(s) + H+(aq) →

9 Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) →

10 H+(aq) + OH–(aq) →

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 11 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of magnesium with sulphuric acid.

12 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate solution with nitric acid.

13 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of copper oxide with hydrochloric acid.

14 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of barium chloride solution with sodium sulphate
solution.

15 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of silver nitrate solution with potassium chloride
solution.

16 Write an ionic equation for the reaction of zinc with silver nitrate solution.

17 Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with
hydrochloric acid.

18 Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with
nitric acid.

19 Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with
sulphuric acid.

20 What do you notice about the answers to questions 17, 18 and 19?

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 Section 11

Calculations involving chemicals in solution

These are often referred to as Volumetric Analysis. The name should not worry you, the basis of
the calculations is the same as all the rest ie moles and equations.

Many reactions take place in solution involving solutions of known concentration.

Concentration in solution is generally measured as moles per 1000 cm3 of solution. For example
the sodium chloride on the bench may be labelled as 1M NaCl. This means that each 1000 cm3
of the solution contains 1 Mole of NaCl (58.5 g).

It does not mean that 58.5 g of NaCl have been added to 1000 cm3 of water.
The solution will have been made up by measuring out 58.5 g of the solid, dissolving it in about
500 cm3 of water and then adding water to make the total volume of the mixture up to 1000 cm3.
(1 dm3)

Concentration in mol dm-3 is called molarity.

concentration in grams per 1000 cm 3

molarity =
M r for the material dissolved

molarity × volume (cm 3 )

number of moles of material in a given volume =
1000

molarity × volume (cm 3 ) × M r

mass of material in a given volume of solution =
1000

In reactions in solution it is often more convenient to use molarity rather than g dm–3.
There are two ways you can approach calculations involving solutions. The first method (A)
detailed below is really a short cut way of using the more detailed method B. Most of the
straight forward calculations you will meet at the start of your course and the ones in this
booklet can be carried through using method A.

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 Method A

Consider the following reaction between two solutions

aA(aq) + bB(aq) → cC(aq) + dD(aq)
In this reaction a moles of substance A react with b moles of substance B
Let us suppose that Va cm3 of the solution of A react with Vb cm3 of the solution of B. If this is
an acid/alkali reaction we could find these volumes out using an indicator.

a aVM
∴ Number of moles of A in Va cm3 of solution
= = a
1000

b VM
b
∴ Number of moles of B in Vb cm3 of solution
= = b
1000

∴ If we divide equation (i) by equation (ii) we get

Va M a a
=
Vb M b b

This relationship will hold good for any reaction between two solutions.

Examples

1 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

M NaOH × VNaOH 2
=
M H 2SO 4 × VH 2SO 4 1

2 BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)

M BaCl2 × VBaCl2 1
=
M H 2SO 4 × VH 2SO 4 1

3 MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

M MnO − × VMnO − 1
4 4
=
M Fe 2 + × VFe 2 + 5

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 Calculation examples
1 What is the molarity of a solution of NaOH which contains 4 g of NaOH in 250 cm3 of
solution?
Mr NaOH = 40 g mol–1
4 g per 250 cm3 = 16 g per 1000 cm3

16
=
∴ molarity = 0.040 mol dm-3
40

This can also be written

( 4 ×1000) ×1
molarity = = 0.040 mol dm-3
250 × 40

2 What mass of KMnO4 would be needed to prepare 250 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm–3 KMnO4
solution? (Mr = 158)
1000 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm–3 KMnO4 will need 158 x 0.02 g

158 × 0.02 × 250

∴ 250 cm3 will need = 0.79 g
1000

3 How many moles of H2SO4 will be contained in 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm–3 H2SO4?

0.10 × 25
number of moles = 0.0025 moles
1000

4 25 cm3 of 0.10mol dm–3 NaOH react with 50 cm3 of a solution of H2SO4. What is the
molarity of the H2SO4?

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

M NaOH × VNaOH 2
=
M H 2SO 4 × VH 2SO 4 1

∴ 0.1× 25
=2
M H 2SO 4 × 50

0.1× 25
∴ M H 2SO 4 = = 0.025 mol dm-3
2 × 50

NB If you are required to calculate the concentration in g dm–3 at this stage you need to
multiply by the Mr of the material. In this case 98 g mol–1

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 5 What volume of 0.02 mol dm–3 KMnO4 solution will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of
0.1 mol dm–3 Iron(II) ammonium sulphate ?
NB in Iron(II) ammonium sulphate only the iron(II) ions react with the manganate(VII) ions

MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

M MnO − × VMnO − 1
4 4
=
M Fe 2 + × VFe 2 + 5

∴ 0.02 × VMnO − 1
4
=
0.1× 25 5

0.1 × 25
∴ VMnO − = = 25 cm 3
4
0.02 × 5

6 25 cm3 of a solution of 0.05 mol dm–3 silver nitrate react with 10 cm3 of a solution of NaCl.
What is the concentration of NaCl in g dm–3 in the solution?
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

M NaCl × VNaCl 1
=
M AgNO3 × VAgNO3 1

10 × M NaCl 1
∴ =
25 × 0.05 1

∴ 25 × 0.05
M NaCl = = 0.125 mol dm −3
10

∴ concentration of NaCl = 0.125 mol dm −3 × 58.5 = 7.31 g dm −3

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 7 In the reaction between an acid HxA and 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH solution. 25 cm3 of a solution
of 0.1 mol dm–3 HxA react with 50 cm3 of the 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH. What is the value of x?
This is not as difficult as it looks. You need to think what the equation for the reaction
would be.

HxA(aq) + xNaOH(aq) → NaxA (aq) + xH2O(l)

∴
M H x A × VH x A 1
=
M NaOH × VNaOH x

∴
25 × 0.1 1
=
50 × 0.1 x

∴x=2

Thus the acid is H2A.

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 Method B

In this method the actual amounts of materials in the volumes involved are calculated rather
than the ratios.
Example
25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm–3 NaOH react with 50 cm3 of a solution of H2SO4.
What is the molarity of the H2SO4?
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

∴ 2 mol of NaOH react with 1 mol of H2SO4

In this case you know the concentration of the sodium hydroxide so
∴ 1 mol of NaOH reacts with 0.5 mol of H2SO4
always put the reactant you know as ‘1 mol’
In this reaction you have used 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm–3 NaOH

25× 0.10
= mol of NaOH
1000

= 2.5 ×10 −3 mol

This will react with 0.5 x 2.5 x 10–3 moles of H2SO4

= 1.25 x 10–3 moles of H2SO4
∴ 1.25 x 10–3 moles of H2SO4 will be found in 50 cm3 of the solution
∴ In 1000 cm3 of the acid the same solution there will be

1000 × (1.25 × 10 −3 )
= moles of H 2 SO 4
50

= 0.0250 moles

∴ The concentration of the sulphuric acid is 0.025 mol dm–3.

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 Exercise 11a

Calculations based on concentrations in solution

Calculate the number of moles of the underlined species in the volume of solution stated.

1 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 HCl

2 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl

3 250 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm-3 HCl

4 500 cm3 of 0.01 mol dm-3 HCl

5 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 NaOH

6 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 KOH

7 50 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm-3 HNO3

8 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4

9 25 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 KMnO4

10 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 FeSO4

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 Calculate the mass of material in the given volume of solution

11 25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 HCl

12 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 NaCl

13 100 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm-3 NH4NO3

14 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 AgNO3

15 25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 BaCl2

16 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 H2SO4

17 20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH

18 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 K2CrO4

19 25 cm3 of 0.02 mol dm-3 KMnO4

20 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 Pb(NO3)2

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 What is the concentration in moles dm-3 of the following?

21 3.65 g of HCl in 1000 cm3 of solution

22 3.65 g of HCl in 100 cm3 of solution

23 6.62 g of Pb(NO3)2 in 250 cm3 of solution

24 1.00 g of NaOH in 250 cm3 of solution

25 1.96 g of H2SO4 in 250 cm3 of solution

26 1.58 g of KMnO4 in 250 cm3 of solution

27 25.0 g of Na2S2O3.5H2O in 250 cm3 of solution

28 25.0 g of CuSO4.5H2O in 250 cm3 of solution

29 4.80 g of (COOH)2.2H2O in 250 cm3 of solution

30 10.0 g of FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O in 250 cm3 of solution

31 240 cm3 of NH3(g) dissolved in 1000 cm3 of solution

32 480 cm3 of HCl(g) dissolved in 100 cm3 of solution

33 120 cm3 of SO2(g) dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution

34 24 cm3 of HCl(g) dissolved in 200 cm3 of solution

35 100 cm3 of NH3(g) dissolved in 10 cm3 of solution

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 Exercise 11b

Simple volumetric calculations

In this series of calculations you should start by writing the equation for the reaction taking
place then generate the molarity/volume ratio. In some cases you will need to calculate the
molarity of the solutions before you start the main part of the question.
For questions 1–10 calculate the molarity of the first named solution from the data below.

1 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide reacts with 21.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 HCl

2 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide reacts with 17.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 H2SO4

3 20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid reacts with 23.6 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH

4 20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid reacts with 20.0 cm3 of a solution of NaOH

containing 40 g dm–3 of NaOH

5 25 cm3 of nitric acid reacts with 15 cm3 of a solution of 0.2 mol dm–3
NH4OH

6 25 cm3 of a solution of barium reacts with 20 cm3 of a solution of 0.05 mol dm–3
chloride sulphuric acid

7 25 cm3 of a solution of NaCl reacts with 10 cm3 of a 0.02 mol dm–3 silver nitrate

8 10 cm3 of a solution of AlCl3 reacts with 30 cm3 of 0.01 mol dm-3 silver nitrate

9 25 cm3 of HxA reacts with 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 NaOH to give
Na2A

10 25 cm3 of H3PO4 reacts with 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH to give
NaH2 PO4

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 11 25 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH reacts with 50 cm3 of a solution of hydrochloric
acid. What is the molarity of the acid?

12 25 cm3 of a solution of 0.2 mol dm–3 KOH reacts with 30 cm3 of a solution of nitric acid. What
is the concentration of the acid in moles dm–3?

13 In a titration 25 cm3 of ammonia solution react with 33.30 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 HCl. What is
the concentration of the ammonia solution in g dm–3?

14 In the reaction between iron(II) ammonium sulphate and potassium manganate(VII) solution.
25 cm3 of the Fe2+ solution reacted with 24.8 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm–3 KMnO4 solution. What is
the molarity of the iron(II) ammonium sulphate solution?

15 10 cm3 of a solution of NaCl react with 15 cm3 of 0.02 mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution. What
is the concentration of the NaCl solution in g dm–3?

16 25 cm3 of a solution of an acid HxA containing 0.1 mol dm–3 of the acid in each 1000 cm3 of
solution reacts with 75 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 mol dm–3 NaOH. What is the value of x?

17 25 cm3 of a solution of sodium carbonate react with 10 cm3 of a 0.1 mol dm–3 HCl. What is the
concentration of the sodium carbonate?

18 What volume of 0.1 mol dm–3 HCl will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3
NaOH?

19 What volume of 0.05 mol dm–3 H2SO4 will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3
NaOH?

20 What volume of 0.02 mol dm–3 KMnO4 will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3
FeSO4 solution?

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 The last five questions will require you to use the skills you have learnt in this section, together
with those from other sections.

21 What weight of silver chloride will be produced if 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 silver nitrate is
added to excess sodium chloride solution?

22 What weight of calcium carbonate will dissolve in 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 HCl?

23 What volume of carbon dioxide will be produced if 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 HNO3 is added
to excess sodium carbonate solution?

24 What weight of magnesium will dissolve in 10 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 HCl and what volume of
hydrogen will be produced?

25 What volume of ammonia gas will be produced in the following reaction if 50 cm3 of
0.5 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide is boiled with 50 cm3 of 0.4 mol dm–3 ammonium chloride
solution? (Care: one of these is in excess.)

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

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 THE PERIODIC TABLE
1 2 Group 3 4 5 6 7 8

Period key
1 Atomic Number 2
Section 12

Symbol
1 H He
Hydrogen Name Helium
1 4
Molar mass in
-1
g mol
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Berylium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Data — The periodic table

7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20

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11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65.4 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 (99) 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
133 137 139 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106

7 Fr Ra Ac Unq Unp Unh

Francium Radium Actinium Unnilquadium Unnilpentium Unnilhexium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (263)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Praseo-
Cerium dymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140 141 144 (147) 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175

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90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

232 (231) 238 (237) (242) (243) (247) (245) (251) (254) (253) (256) (254) (257)
 Exercise 1

1 18 21 11 41 159.5
2 44 22 164 42 161.4
3 17 23 74 43 170
4 46 24 136 44 53.5
5 28 25 208 45 132
6 64 26 1335 46 117.0
7 80 27 213 47 122.5
8 81 28 342 48 166.0
9 98 29 152 49 74.5
10 63 30 127 50 69.0
11 58.5 31 162.5 51 249.5
12 85 32 400 52 278
13 106 33 223 53 964
14 40 34 239 54 248
15 142 35 685 55 126
16 158 36 331 56 246
17 194 37 278 57 2635
18 100 38 303 58 60
19 166 39 99.0 59 58
20 195 40 134.5 60 122

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 Exercise 2

1 NaCl 21 BaSO4 41 PbCO3 61 PCl3

2 NaOH 22 AlCl3 42 PbO 62 PCl5
3 Na2CO3 23 Al2O3 43 PbO2 63 P2O3
4 Na2SO4 24 Al(OH)3 44 PbCl2 64 P2O5
5 NO3PO4 25 Al2(SO4)3 45 PbCl4 65 H3PO4
6 KCl 26 CuSO4 46 PbS 66 H2SO4
7 KBr 27 CuO 47 SnCl2 67 HNO3
8 KI 28 CuCl2 48 SnCl4 68 HCl
9 KHCO3 29 Cu(NO3)2 49 FeSO4 69 CCl4
10 KNO2 30 Cu2O 50 FeCl2 70 SiCl4
11 MgCl2 31 CuCl 51 Fe2(SO4)3 71 SiO2
12 Mg(NO3)2 32 Zn(NO3)2 52 FeCl3 72 SO2
13 Mg(OH)2 33 ZnCO3 53 Fe(OH)3 73 SO3
14 MgO 34 ZnO 54 Fe(OH)2 74 H2S
15 MgCO3 35 AgCl 55 NH4Cl 75 Cl2O
16 CaO 36 AgBr 56 (NH4)2CO3 76 NO2
17 CaCl2 37 AgI 57 NH4OH 77 NO
18 CaSO4 38 AgNO3 58 NH4NO3 78 CO2
19 CaCO3 39 Ag2O 59 (NH4)2SO4 79 CO
20 BaCl2 40 Pb(NO3)2 60 (NH4)3PO4 80 HOH/H2O

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 Exercise 3

1 Water 31 Iron(III) chloride

2 Carbon dioxide 32 Iron(III) sulphate
3 Ammonia 33 Lead(II) oxide
4 Oxygen 34 Lead(IV) oxide
5 Hydrogen 35 Lead(II) nitrate
6 Sulphur dioxide (or IV oxide) 36 Lead(II) chloride
7 Sulphur trioxide (or VI oxide) 37 Lead (II) sulphate
8 Hydrogen chloride 38 Copper(II) nitrate
9 Hydrogen iodide 39 Copper(I) chloride
10 Hydrogen fluoride 40 Copper(II) chloride
11 Methane 41 Copper(II) sulphate
12 Hydrogen sulphide 42 Zinc chloride
13 Hydrogen bromide 43 Silver nitrate
14 Sulphuric acid 44 Ammonium chloride
15 Nitric acid 45 Ammonium sulphate
16 Sodium chloride 46 Ammonium vanadate(V)
17 Sodium nitrate 47 Potassium chlorate(V)
18 Sodium carbonate 48 Potassium iodate
19 Sodium hydroxide 49 Sodium chlorate(I)
20 Sodium sulphate 50 Sodium nitrite
21 Calcium chloride 51 Ethane
22 Calcium nitrate 52 Butane
23 Calcium hydroxide 53 Octane
24 Calcium sulphate 54 Ammonium carbonate
25 Barium chloride 55 Potassium manganate(VII)
26 Aluminium chloride 56 Potassium chromate(VI)
27 Aluminium nitrate 57 Potassium hydrogencarbonate
28 Aluminium sulphate 58 Potassium iodide
29 Iron(II) sulphate 59 Cobalt(II) nitrate
30 Iron(II)chloride 60 Potassium astatide

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 Exercise 4a

1 0.50 26 0.10
2 2.0 27 0.10
3 0.10 28 0.0085
4 5.0 29 0.26
5 20 30 0.104
6 0.010 31 0.20
7 1.0 32 0.082
8 0.22 33 0.050
9 0.0010 34 1.34
10 0.050 35 0.025
11 0.33 36 0.204
12 0.25 37 0.071
13 0.021 38 0.010
14 0.020 39 0.050
15 0.125 40 0.254
16 0.020 41 0.0125
17 0.167 42 0.152
18 1.0 43 0.10
19 0.046 44 0.053
20 0.020 45 0.0043
21 0.0010 46 0.036
22 0.25 47 0.266
23 0.02 48 0.024
24 0.0025 49 0.025
25 0.20 50 1.574

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 Exercise 4b

1 36 g 26 14.95 g
2 132 g 27 76.2 g
3 47.6 g 28 10.03 g
4 23 g 29 17.82 g
5 33.6 g 30 145.2 g
6 40.96 g 31 2.925 g
7 240 g 32 12.25 g
8 81 g 33 21.4 g
9 1.152 g 34 745 g
10 9.45 g 35 0.069 g
11 26.3 g 36 49.9 g
12 59.5 g 37 27.8 g
13 11.66 g 38 4.82 g
14 80.0 g 39 9.92 g
15 127.8 g 40 302.4 g
16 7.9 g 41 756.5 g
17 34.92 g 42 39.53 g
18 90 g 43 10.2 g
19 249 g 44 11.6 g
20 23.4 g 45 9.76 g
21 12.2 g 46 4.34 g
22 672.4 g 47 9.59 g
23 0.296 g 48 41.0 g
24 13.6 g 49 304 g
25 43.68 g 50 1397 g

Exercise 4c

1 24000 cm3 11 134.4 cm3

2 2400 cm3 12 216 cm3
3 12000 cm3 13 960 cm3
4 48000 cm3 14 2952 cm3
5 2880 cm3 15 55.2 cm3
6 81600 cm3 16 192000 cm3
7 2640 cm3 17 0.24 cm3
8 96 cm3 18 144000 cm3
9 240000 cm3 19 182.4 cm3
10 10800 cm3 20 72000 cm3

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 Exercise 4d

1 0.0083 mol 11 0.0292 mol

2 0.0208 mol 12 0.2333 mol
3 0.0416 mol 13 0.0917 mol
4 0.0533 mol 14 0.0088 mol
5 0.0098 mol 15 0.0333 mol
6 0.0094 mol 16 0.0033 mol
7 0.0106 mol 17 0.000080 mol
8 0.0033 mol 18 0.8333 mol
9 0.0833 mol 19 0.0175 mol
10 0.10 mol 20 0.0375 mol

Exercise 4e

1 0.367 g 11 0.875 g
2 0.354 g 12 10.27 g
3 1.166 g 13 2.38 g
4 5.333 g 14 0.263 g
5 0.78 g 15 1.217 g
6 0.763 g 16 0.270 g
7 0.757 g 17 0.011 g
8 0.233 g 18 38.33 g
9 0.167 g 19 0.683 g
10 3.20 g 20 1.05 g

Exercise 4f

1 1091 cm3 11 56000 cm3

2 7059 cm3 12 30545 cm3
3 8571 cm3 13 20308 cm3
4 7500 cm3 14 16000 cm3
5 702 cm3 15 5260 cm3
6 670 cm3 16 2370 cm3
7 3380 cm3 17 375 cm3
8 30000 cm3 18 12000 cm3
9 2400000 cm3 19 26526 cm3
10 180000 cm3 20 77143 cm3

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 Exercise 4g

1 160 11 34
2 64 12 17
3 80 13 38
4 71 14 28
5 2.0 15 44
6 28 16 32
7 30 17 211
8 58 18 36.5
9 32 19 81
10 28 20 128

Exercise 5
Section (a)
1 CaCO3 4 N2H4S2O8
2 Na2SO4 5 P4O10
3 Na2S2O3 6 C2H4O2 - CH3COOH
4 PbO 7 C4H10
5 Pb3O4 8 Fe2O3
6 H3PO3 9 H2S2O8
7 H2SO3 10 C6H6
8 CH4 Section (c)
9 C3H8 1 PbO
10 HO (giving H2O2) 2 KO2
11 H4N2O3 (NH4NO3) 3 C2H2
12 FeSO11H14 (FeSO4 - 7H2O) 4 AlCl3
Section (b) 5 CH4
1 C2H4 6 yes
2 C3H6 7 CuSO4 5H2O
3 P2I4 8 PCl5, PCl3, Cl2

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 Exercise 6a

1 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

2 BaCl2 + 2NaOH → Ba(OH)2 + 2NaCl

3 H2SO4 + 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O

4 K2CO3 + 2HCl → 2KCl + H2O + CO2

5 CaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

6 Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

7 Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaI → PbI2 + 2NaNO3

8 Al2(SO4)3 + 6NaOH → 2Al(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4

9 Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + 2H2O

10 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 O2

11 2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 SO3

12 NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O

13 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2

14 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

15 2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O

16 PCl3 + 3H2O → H3PO3 + 3HCl

17 8HNO3 + 3Cu → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 3NO + 4H2O

18 4HNO3 + Cu → Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O

19 H3PO4 + NaOH → NaH2PO4 + H2O

20 H3PO4 + 3NaOH → Na3PO4 + 3H2O

21 H3PO4 + 2NaOH → Na2HPO4 + 2H2O

22 6NaOH + 3Cl2 → NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O

23 N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

24 2NaBr + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + HBr

25 2HBr + H2SO4 → 2H2O + SO2 + Br2

26 3C2H5OH + PCl3 → 3C2H5Cl + H3PO3

27 Fe3O4 + 4H2 → 3Fe + 4H2O

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 28 Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

29 C2H5OH + CH3CO2H → CH3CO2C2H5 + H2O

30 2KMnO4 + 16HCl → 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5 Cl2

Exercise 6b

1 Hydrogen is not H but H2, which gives

2Na(s) + 2H2O(aq) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2 Since the valency of lead is 2 not 1 lead nitrate is not PbNO3 but Pb(NO3)2 and also lead
chloride is PbCl2
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

3 Calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

4 This does not balance.

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(l)

5 A magnesium compound cannot give a calcium compound!

6 Ozone O3 is not produced by heating a nitrate O2 is.

2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

7 This reaction does not take place and so no equation can be written.

8 Aluminium has a valency of 3 not 2 as in this equation.

AlCl3(s) + 3KOH(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) + 3KCl(aq)

9 Sodium has a valency of 1 not 2 as in this equation

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

10 Silver chloride is not soluble in water. Thus the AgCl needs a (s) symbol

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 Exercise 6c

1 Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

2 Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + H2O(g) + NH3(g)

3 2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

4 SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + HCl(g)

5 Ca(HCO3)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

6 2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)

7 6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g) → NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)

6NaOH(aq) + 3Br2(g) → NaBrO3(aq) + 5NaBr(aq) + 3H2O(l)

6NaOH(aq) + 3I2(g) → NaIO3(aq) + 5NaI(aq) + 3H2O(l)

8 2M(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)

Where M = Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs

9 SnCl2(aq) + 2HgCl2(aq) → 2HgCl (s) + SnCl4(aq)

10 9H2SO4 + 8KI → 4I2 + H2S + 8KHSO4 + 4H2O

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 Exercise 7

1 AlCl3 + 3AgNO3 → Al(NO3)3 + 3AgCl

2 K2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 → PbCrO4 + 2KNO3

3 2AgNO3 → 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

4 i) 1 mole

ii) 2 moles

iii)

H3PO4 + NaOH → NaH2PO4 + H2O

H3PO4 + 2NaOH → Na2HPO4 + 2H2O

iv) 75 cm3

5 x=3

6 x=5

CuSO4.5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O

7 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

8 C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

9 It is

10 FeSO4.7H2O → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3 + 14H2O

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 Exercise 8

1 11.2 g

2 21.6 g

3 0.682 g of ethanoic acid and 0.523 g of ethanol

4 143 tonnes

5 14.5 g

6 8.0 g of sodium hydroxide, 9.75 g of copper hydroxide

7 12000 cm3

8 54. 7 g of calcium nitrate, 8.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide

9 6 dm3 total (4.8 dm3 of nitrogen dioxide and 1.2 dm3 of oxygen)

10 Mg + H2SO4 + 7H2O → Mg SO4.7H2O + H2

41.0 g

11 31.9 g

12 324.3 g

13 5.11 g of ethanol, 2.67 dm3 of carbon dioxide

14 (i) 12.30 g of zinc hydroxide

(ii) 9.12 g of aluminium hydroxide
(iii) 9.67 g of magnesium hydroxide

15 0.600 dm3

16 0.100 g

17 2.94 g of sodium chloride, 1.065 g of sodium chlorate(v)

18 4.15 x 106 dm3 of nitrogen, 12.5 x 106 dm3 of hydrogen

19 63 tonnes of nitric acid, 4.8 x 107 dm3 of oxygen

20 2198 g of calcium carbonate, 4.395 dm3 of 10M HCl

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 Exercise 9

Section (a)
1 20cm3 O2 10cm3 CO2 20cm3 H2O (g)
2 30cm3 O2 20cm3 CO2 20cm3 H2O (g)
3 25cm3 O2 20cm3 CO2 10cm3 H2O (g)
4 125cm3 O2 80cm3 CO2 90cm3 H2O (g)
5 30cm3 H2 20cm3 NH3

Section (b)
1 500cm3 O2 (2NO + O2 →2NO2)
2 375cm3 air (2SO2 + O2 →2SO3)
3 2500cm3 NH3 needed 5
/4 x 2500 = 3125cm3 O2 → 15625cm3 air
4 6.5 x 24000cm3 = 156m3
5 24000cm3

6 Final volume = 20cm3 (10cm3 CO2 + 10 cm3 unused O2)

7 Final volume = 77.5cm3 (40cm3 CO2 + 37.5cm3 used O2)

8 This time the CH4 is in excess. We must assume that CO2 is produced
(not CO or C)!
Final volume = 60 cm3 (30 cm3 CO2 + 30 cm3 CH4)

9 N2 + 3H2 →2NH3
10 cm3 30 cm3 20 cm3
+ 30 cm3excess
20 cm3 NH3 produced + 30 cm3 excess H2

10 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O
10 cm3 5 cm3

+ 5 cm3 excess
Final volume = 5 cm3 (all excess O2)

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 Exercise 10

1 Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq) → Pb(OH)2(s)

2 Al3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Al(OH)3(s)

3 Al(OH)3(s) + OH–(aq) → AlO2–(aq) + 2H2O (l)

4 Cl2(g) + 6OH–(aq) → ClO3–(aq) + 5Cl–(aq) + 3H2O(l)

5 2S2O32–(aq) + I2(s) → S4O62–(aq) + 2I–(aq)

6 Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)

7 CO32–(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

8 Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

9 Zn(s) + Pb2+ (aq) → Pb(s) + Zn2+(aq)

10 H+(aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O(l)

11 Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

12 CO32–(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

13 CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)

14 Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → BaSO4(s)

15 Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)

16 Zn(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

17–20 20H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)

In every case the reaction is the same

634rp271004LT\PD\A LEVEL TEACHERS HANDBOOK\UA008883 GCE CHEM MOLES WKBK [Link].1-150/5

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 Exercise 11a
1 0.025 moles 19 0.079 g
2 0.025 moles 20 0.828 g
3 0.0625 21 0.1 mol dm–3
4 0.005 moles 22 1.0 mol dm–3
5 0.025 moles 23 0.03 mol dm–3
6 0.025 moles 24 0.1 mol dm–3
7 0.0125moles 25 0.03 mol dm–3
8 0.01 moles 26 0.04 mol dm–3
9 0.00125 moles 27 0.40 mol dm–3
10 0.005 moles 28 0.40 mol dm–3
11 0.9125 g 29 0.152 mol dm–3
12 1.463 g 30 0.0102 mol dm–3
13 2 g 31 0.01 mol dm–3
14 1.70 g 32 0.2 mol dm–3
15 5.2 g 33 0.02 mol dm–3
16 0.98 g 34 0.005 mol dm–3
17 0.08 g 35 0.417 mol dm–3
18 0.97 g

Exercise 11b
1 0.168 mol dm–3 16 3.0
2 0.136 mol dm–3 17 0.02 mol dm–3
3 0.118 mol dm–3 18 50 cm3
4 1.0 mol dm–3 19 50 cm3
5 0.12 mol dm–3 20 25 cm3
6 0.040 mol dm–3 21 0.359 g
7 0.0080 mol dm–3 22 1.0 g
–3
8 0.010 mol dm 23 240 cm3
9 0.10 mol dm–3 24 0.12 g Mg
120 cm3 H2
10 0.40 mol dm–3 25 480 cm3
11 0.050 mol dm–3
12 0.167 mol dm–3
13 2.26 g dm–3
14 0.099 mol dm–3
15 1.755 g dm–3

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 Unit – Stoichiometry
Symbols & Formulae of Elements & Compounds
Element symbols
• Each element is represented by its own unique symbol as seen on the Periodic Table e.g. H is
hydrogen
• Where a symbol contains two letters, the first one is always in capital letters and the other
is small, eg. sodium is Na, not NA
• Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer shells of electrons
• The chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms
• Eg. H2O is a compound containing 2 hydrogen atoms which combine with 1 oxygen atom
• The chemical formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms present
• Eg. if a molecule contains 3 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of nitrogen then the formula would
be NH3
• Diagrams or models can also be used to represent the chemical formula

The ammonia molecule consists of a central nitrogen atom bonded to 3 hydrogen atom
Chemical formulae
• The structural formula tells you the way in which the atoms in a particular molecule are
bonded. This can be done by either a diagram (displayed formula) or written (simplified
structural formula)
• The empirical formula tells you the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound
• The molecular formula tells you the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule
of the compound or element e.g. H2 has 2 hydrogen atoms, HCl has 1 hydrogen atom and 1
chlorine atom

Example: Butane
• Structural formula (displayed)

• Structural formula (simplified)

CH3CH2CH2CH3
• Molecular formula
C4H10
• Empirical formula
C2H5

Deducing formulae by combining power

• The concept of valency is used to deduce the formulae of compounds
• Valency or combing power tells you how many bonds an atom can make with another atom
• Eg. carbon is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can make 4 single bonds or 2 double bonds
• The following valencies apply to elements in each group:

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 • We can use the combining power of each atom to work out a formula
• Example: what is the formula of aluminium sulfide?
• We can use the valency of each atom to work out a formula

Writing Word Equations & Balanced Equations

Word equations

• These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full
chemical names
• The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of
reactants into products
• Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst can be written above the arrow
• An example of a word equation for neutralisation is:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

• The reactants are sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid

• The products are sodium chloride and water

Names of compounds
For compounds consisting of 2 atoms:
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 • If one is a metal and the other a nonmetal, then the name of the metal atom comes first and
the ending of the second atom is replaced by adding –ide
o Eg. NaCl which contains sodium and chlorine thus becomes sodium chloride
• If both atoms are nonmetals and one of those is hydrogen, then hydrogen comes first
o Eg. hydrogen and chlorine combined is called hydrogen chloride
• For other combinations of nonmetals as a general rule, the element that has a lower Group
number comes first in the name
o Eg. carbon and oxygen combine to form CO2 which is carbon dioxide since carbon is
in Group 4 and oxygen in Group 6

For compounds that contain certain groups of atoms:

• There are common groups of atoms which occur regularly in chemistry
• Examples include the carbonate ion(CO32-), sulfate ion (SO42-), hydroxide ion (OH–) and the
nitrate ion (NO3–)
• When these ions form a compound with a metal atom, the name of the metal comes first
• Eg. KOH is potassium hydroxide, CaCO3 is calcium carbonate

Writing and balancing chemical equations

• Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product
• When balancing equations, there needs to be the same number of atoms of each element
on either side of the equation
• The following non-metals must be written as diatomic molecules (i.e. molecules that
contain two atoms): H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
• Work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after another
• If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3-) that has not changed from
one side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than counting the
individual atoms.
o Examples of chemical equations:
▪ Acid-base neutralisation reaction:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
▪ Redox reaction:
2Fe2O3 (aq) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
▪ In each equation there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of the
reaction arrow so the equations are balanced
• The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations
• By trial and error change the coefficients (multipliers) in front of the formulae, one by one
checking the result on the other side
• Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process

Equations with State Symbols & Deducing Balanced Equations

Using state symbols:
• State symbols are written after each formula in chemical equations to show which
physical state each substance is in
• Brackets are used and they are not usually subscripted although you may come across
them written in this way
• Aqueous should remind you of the word 'aqua' and means the substance
is dissolved in water
o In other words it is a solution

The four state symbols show the physical state of substances at normal conditions

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 • Symbol equations should be included when writing chemical equations.
• An example of a reaction with state symbols is the reaction of copper carbonate with
hydrochloric acid:
CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ⟶ CuCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
• Sometimes it can be hard to know what the correct state symbol is and we have to look for
clues in the identity of substances in a reaction
• Generally, unless they are in a solution:
o Metal compounds will always be solid, although there are a few exceptions
o Ionic compounds will usually be solids
• Non-metal compounds could be solids, liquids or gases, so it depends on chemical
structure
• Precipitates formed in solution count as solids
• In the worked examples above the final equations with the state symbols would be
o 2Al (s) + 3CuO (s) ⟶ Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
o MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Example 1
Balance the following equation:
aluminium + copper(II)oxide ⟶ aluminium oxide + copper
Unbalanced symbol equation:
Al + CuO ⟶ Al2O3 + Cu

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Example 2:
Balance the following equation:
magnesium oxide + nitric acid ⟶ magnesium nitrate + water
Unbalanced symbol equation:
MgO + HNO3 ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O

EXTENDED
• For some reactions, you will not be given the unbalanced equation but you will be
expected to use your knowledge learnt throughout the course to know or deduce the
formula of compounds and then balance the equations

Worked Example
Aluminium burns in chlorine to form the white solid, aluminium chloride. Write the balanced
symbol equation, including state symbols, for the reaction.

Answer:
Step 1: Work out the formula and state symbols of the reactants and products to construct an
unbalanced symbol equation:
•
o Aluminium is a solid metal, like other pure metals, it is an element so its formula is
the same as its chemical symbol: Al (s)
o From your knowledge of Group VII elements, you should know that chlorine is a
gas that exists as a diatomic molecule: Cl2 (g)
o Aluminum chloride is a solid - this information is given in the question as you
would not be expected to know this. Its formula is deduced from the charges on the
ions present:
▪ Aluminium has a 3+ charge and chloride ions have a 1- charge, therefore
for the compound to be neutral, 3 chloride ions are needed for every 1
aluminium ion: AlCl3 (s)
o The unbalanced symbol equation is thus:
Al (s)+ Cl2 (g) → AlCl3 (s)
Step 2: Balance the equation:
•
o Make the number of Cl on the RHS an even number by adding a 2 in front of
AlCl3:
Al (s)+ Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
•
o This gives 6 Cl on the RHS so now balance the number of Cl on the LHS by
adding a 3 in front of Cl2:
Al (s)+ 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

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 •
o Finally, there are now 2 Al on the RHS but only 1 on the LHS, so add a 2 in front
of the Al on the LHS:
2Al (s)+ 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)

Balancing ionic equations

• In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions, meaning they separate
into the component ions that formed them
• E.g. hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide dissociate as follows:
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• It is important that you can recognise common ionic compounds and their constituent ions
• These include:
o Acids such as HCl and H2SO4
o Group I and Group II hydroxides e.g. sodium hydroxide
o Soluble salts e.g. potassium sulfate, sodium chloride
• Follow the example below to write ionic equations

Example
Write the ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous chlorine and aqueous potassium iodide.

Answer:
Step 1: Write out the full balanced equation:
2KI (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + I2 (aq)

Step 2: Identify the ionic substances and write down the ions separately
2K+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2K+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)

Step 3: Rewrite the equation eliminating the ions which appear on both sides of the equation
(spectator ions ) which in this case are the K+ ions:
2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)

Exam Tip
When balancing equations you cannot change any of the formulae, only the amount of each
atom or molecule. This is done by changing the numbers that go in front of each chemical
species.
You need to be able to identify the products which are not ions in ionic equations. These are
usually molecules such as water or bromine but they may also be precipitated solids.

Relative Atomic Mass & Relative Molecular Mass

Relative atomic mass

• The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
• The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along with
the atomic number
• The relative atomic mass is shown underneath the atomic symbol and is larger than the
atomic number (except for hydrogen where they are the same)
• Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the
masses of atoms
• The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
• It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
• Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
o The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass
of an atom of 12C

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 • The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
o The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is
twice as heavy as carbon
o The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one twelfth the mass
of one carbon-12 atom

Symbol, mass number and atomic number of chlorine

Equation:

The top line of the equation can be extended to include the number of different isotopes of a
particular element present.

Example for Isotopes:

The table shows information about the Isotopes in a sample of rubidium

( 72 x 85 ) + ( 28 x 87 ) ÷ 100 = 85.6
Relative Atomic Mass = 85.6

Relative formula (molecular) mass

• The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the
molecule
• To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms present in the formula
• Relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of an ionic compound
Example:

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Reacting masses
• The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed
• In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products
• We can use this, along with relative atomic/formula masses to perform calculations to
identify the quantities of reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction
• Example:
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
• Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16
• Using the balanced symbol equation shows that 2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium react
with 2 x 16 = 32 units of mass of oxygen to form 2 x (40 + 16) = 112 units of mass of
CaO:
2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
80 + 32 = 112
• The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same, regardless
of the units
o E.g. 80 g of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium oxide
o Or, 40 tonnes of calcium will react in excess oxygen to form 56 tonnes of calcium
oxide

Worked Example
Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced when 32 g of methane, CH4, reacts completely in
excess oxygen:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Relative atomic masses, Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16

Answer
o In terms of relative mass the equation is:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
12 + (4 x 1) + 2 x (2 x 16) → 12 + (2 x 16) + 2 x (2 x 1 + 16)
16 + 64 → 44 + 36
So 16 g of methane would react in excess oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide
Therefore, 32 g of methane would produce 44 x 2 = 88 g of carbon dioxide

The Mole
The Mole & Avogadro’s Constant
The mole
• This is the mass of a substance containing the same number of fundamental units as there are
atoms in exactly 12.000 g of 12C
• The mole is the unit representing the amount of atoms, ions, or molecules
• One mole is the amount of a substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (Atoms, Molecules
or Formulae) of a substance (6.02 x 1023 is known as the Avogadro Number)
Examples
• 1 mole of Sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 Atoms of Sodium
• 1 mole of Hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 Molecules of Hydrogen
• 1 mole of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 Formula units of Sodium Chloride
Linking the mole and the atomic mass
• One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams
• For example one mole of carbon, that is if you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, it
would have a mass of 12g
• So one mole of helium atoms would have a mass of 4g, lithium 7g etc
• For a compound we add up the relative atomic masses
• So one mole of water would have a mass of 2 x 1 + 16 = 18g
• Hydrogen which has an atomic mass of 1 is therefore equal to 1/12 the mass of a 12C atom
• So one carbon atom has the same mass as 12 hydrogen atoms

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 The Mole & the Volume of Gases
Molar volume
• This is the volume that one mole of any gas (be it molecular such as CO2 or monoatomic such
as helium) will occupy
• It’s value is 24dm3 or 24,000 cm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.)

Calculations involving gases

General equation:
Amount of gas (mol) = Volume of gas (dm3) ÷ 24
or
Amount of gas (mol) = Volume of gas (cm3) ÷ 24000
1. Calculating the volume of gas that a particular amount of moles occupies
Equation:
Volume of gas (dm3) = Amount of gas (mol) x 24
or
Volume of gas (cm3) = Amount of gas (mol) x 24000
Example:

2. Calculating the moles in a particular volume of gas

Equation:
Amount of gas (mol) = Volume of gas (dm3) ÷ 24
or
Amount of gas (mol) = Volume of gas (cm3) ÷ 24000
Example:

Calculating Reacting Masses, Solutions & Concentrations of Solutions in g/dm3 &

mol/dm3
Calculating percentage composition, moles, mass and relative formula mass

Formula triangle for moles, mass and formula mass

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1. Calculating Moles
Equation:
Amount in Moles = Mass of Substance in grams ÷ Mr (or Ar)
Example:

2. Calculating Mass
Equation:
Mass of substance (grams) = Moles x Mr (or Ar)
Example:

3. Calculating Relative Formula Mass

Equation:
Mr (or Ar) = Mass of Substance in Grams ÷ Moles
Example:
10 moles of Carbon Dioxide has a Mass of 440 g. What is the Relative Formula Mass of Carbon
Dioxide?
Relative Formula Mass = Mass ÷ Number of Moles
Relative Formula Mass = 440 ÷ 10 = 44
Relative Formula Mass of Carbon Dioxide = 44

4. Calculating Percentage Composition

• The percentage composition is found by calculating the percentage by mass of each particular
element in a compound
Example:
Calculate the percentage of oxygen in CO2

Step 1 – Calculate the molar mass of the compound

Molar mass CO2 = (2 x 16) + 12 = 44
Step 2 – Add the atomic masses of the element required as in the question (oxygen)
16 + 16 = 32
Step 3 – Calculate the percentage
% of oxygen in CO2 = 32/44 x 100 = 72.7%

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Calculations of solutions: moles, concentration and volume
General Equation:
Concentration (mol / dm3) = Amount of substance (mol) ÷ Volume of solution (dm3)
This general equation is rearranged for the term as is asked in the question.

1. Calculating Moles
Equation:
Amount of Substance (mol) = Concentration x Volume of Solution (dm3)
Example:
Calculate the Moles of Solute Dissolved in 2 dm3 of a 0.1 mol / dm3 Solution
Concentration of Solution : 0.1 mol / dm3
Volume of Solution : 2 dm3
Moles of Solute = 0.1 x 2 = 0.2 mol (the dm3 above and below the line cancel out)
Amount of Solute = 0.2 mol

2. Calculating Concentration
Equation:
Concentration (mol / dm3) = Amount of substance (mol) ÷ Volume of
solution (dm3)
Example:
25.0 cm3 of 0.050 mol / dm3 sodium carbonate was completely neutralised by 20.00 cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration in mol / dm3 of the hydrochloric acid.

Step 1 – Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium carbonate reacted by rearranging the equation for
amount of substance (mol) and dividing by 1000 to convert cm3 to dm3
Amount of Na2CO3 = (25.0 x 0.050) ÷ 1000 = 0.00125 mol

Step 2 – Calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrochloric acid reacted

1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mol of HCl, so the Molar Ratio is 1 : 2
Therefore 0.00125 moles of Na2CO3 react with 0.00250 moles of HCl

Step 3 – Calculate the concentration, in mol / dm3 of the Hydrochloric Acid

1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Volume of HCl = 20 ÷ 1000 = 0.0200 dm3
Concentration HCl (mol / dm3) = 0.00250 ÷ 0.0200 = 0.125
Concentration of Hydrochloric Acid = 0.125 mol / dm3

3. Calculating Volume
Equation:
Volume (dm3) = Amount of substance (mol) ÷ Concentration (mol / dm3)
Example:
Calculate the volume of hydrochloric acid of concentration 1.0 mol / dm3 that is required to react
completely with 2.5g of calcium carbonate.

Step 1 – Calculate the amount, in moles, of calcium carbonate that reacts

Mr of CaCO3 is 100
Amount of CaCO3 = (2.5 ÷ 100) = 0.025 mol

Step 2 – Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
1 mol of CaCO3 requires 2 mol of HCl
So 0.025 mol of CaCO3 Requires 0.05 mol of HCl

Step 3 – Calculate the volume of HCl Required

Volume = (Amount of Substance(mol) ÷ Concentration (mol / dm3)
= 0.05 ÷ 1.0
= 0.05 dm3 (the moles cancel out above and below the line)
Volume of Hydrochloric Acid = 0.05 dm3
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The limiting reactant and reacting masses
Limiting reactant
• The limiting reactant is the reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction
• It is always the first reactant to be used up which then causes the reaction to stop
• In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reagent in a reaction, we have to consider
the ratios of each reactant in the balanced equation

Example:
9.2g of sodium is reacted with 8.0g of sulfur to produce sodium sulfide, NaS. Which reactant is in
excess and which is the limiting reactant?

Step 1 – Calculate the moles of each reactant

Moles = Mass ÷ Ar
Moles Na = 9.2/23 = 0.40
Moles S = 8.0/32 = 0.25

Step 2 – Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio
2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratios is 2 : 1

Step 3 – Compare the moles. So to react completely 0.40 moles of Na require 0.20 moles of S and
since there are 0.25 moles of S, then S is in excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

Calculating reacting masses

• Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of reactants and products
• Use information from the question to find the amount in moles of the substances being
considered
• Identify the ratio between the substances using the balanced chemical equation
• Apply mole calculations to find answer

Example 1:
Calculate the Mass of Magnesium Oxide that can be made by completely burning 6 g of
Magnesium in Oxygen
Magnesium (s) + Oxygen (g) → Magnesium Oxide (s)
Symbol Equation:
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Relative Formula Mass: Magnesium : 24 Magnesium Oxide : 40

Step 1 – Calculate the moles of Magnesium Used in reaction

Moles = Mass ÷ Mr Moles = 6 ÷ 24 = 0.25

Step 2 – Find the Ratio of Magnesium to Magnesium Oxide using the balanced Chemical Equation

Step 3 – Find the Mass of Magnesium Oxide

Moles of Magnesium Oxide = 0.25
Mass = Moles x Mr Mass = 0.25 x 40 = 10 g
Mass of Magnesium Oxide Produced = 10 g

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Example 2:
Calculate the Mass, in Tonnes, of Aluminium that can be Produced from 51 Tonnes of
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Oxide (s) → Aluminium (s) + Oxygen (g)
Symbol Equation:
2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2
Ar and Mr: Aluminium : 27 Oxygen : 16 Aluminium Oxide : 102
1 Tonne = 106 g

Step 1 – Calculate the moles of aluminium oxide used

Mass of Aluminium Oxide in Grams = 51 x 106 = 51,000,000 g
Moles = Mass ÷ Ar Moles = 51,000,000 ÷ 102 = 500,000

Step 2 – Find the ratio of aluminium oxide to aluminium using the balanced chemical equation

Step 3 – Find the mass of aluminium

Moles of aluminium = 1,000,000
Mass in grams = Moles x Ar Mass = 1,000,000 x 27 = 27,000,000
Mass in Tonnes = 27,000,000 ÷ 106 = 27 Tonnes
Mass of Aluminium Produced = 27 Tonnes

Using the Mole to Determine Empirical & Molecular Formulae

Empirical Formulae
EXTENDED
The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a
molecule
• E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
• The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
o E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
• Organic molecules, such as ethanoic acid, often have different empirical and molecular
formulae
• The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Deducing Formulae of Ionic Compounds

• The formulae of these compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the ions
• The Periodic Table can help work out the charge on many elements:
o Group I elements form ions with a 1+ charge
o Group II elements form ions with a 2+ charge
o Group III elements form ions with a 3+ charge
o Group V elements form ions with a 3- charge
o Group VI elements form ions with a 2- charge
o Group VII elements form ions with a 1- charge
• Below are some other common ions and their charges
• Note that a Roman numeral next to the element tells you the charge on the ion, e.g.
copper(II) ions have a charge 2+
• There are several common compound ions included in the table
o Some chemists call these polyatomic ions

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 Common Ions & Their Charges Table

• The overall sum of the charges of an ionic compound should be 0

• You therefore need to work out the ratio of the ions to ensure this is the case
• When you write the formula of a compound ion it is necessary to use brackets around the
compound ion where more than one of that ion is needed in the formula
o For example copper(II) hydroxide is Cu(OH)2

What is the formula of?

1. sodium bromide
2. aluminium fluoride
3. aluminium oxide
4. magnesium nitrate
5. ammonium sulfate

Answer 1
Symbol Na Br
Ion charge 1+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 1 sodium ion is needed for each bromide ion
Ratio of ions 1:1
Formula NaBr

Answer 2
Symbol Al F
Ion charge 3+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 3 fluoride ions are needed for each aluminium ion
Ratio of ions 1:3
Formula AlF3

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 Answer 3
Symbol Al O
Ion charge 3+ 2-
Balance the number of ions 2 aluminium ions are needed for 3 oxide ions
Ratio of ions 2:3
Formula Al2O3

Answer 4
Symbol Mg2+ NO3-
Ion charge 2+ 1-
Balance the number of ions 2 nitrate ions are needed for each magnesium ion
Ratio of ions 1:2
Formula Mg(NO3)2

Answer 5
Symbol NH4+ SO42-
Ion charge 1+ 2-
Balance the number of ions 2 ammonium ions are needed for each sulfate ion
Ratio of ions 2:1
Formula (NH4)2SO4

Empirical formula: gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the
compound
• Calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound
Example:
A compound that contains 10 g of Hydrogen and 80 g of Oxygen has an Empirical Formula of H2O.
This can be shown by the following calculations:
Amount of Hydrogen Atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of Hydrogen = (10 ÷ 1) = 10 moles
Amount of Oxygen Atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of Oxygen = (80 ÷ 16) = 5 moles

The ratio of moles of hydrogen atoms to moles of oxygen atoms:

Since equal numbers of moles of atoms contain the same number of atoms, the ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1
Hence the empirical formula is H2O

Molecular formula: gives the exact numbers of atoms of each element present in the formula of the
compound
• Divide the relative formula mass of the molecular formula by the relative formula mass of the
Empirical Formula
• Multiply the number of each element present in the Empirical Formula by this number to find
the Molecular Formula

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Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula:

Example:
The Empirical Formula of X is C4H10S1 and the Relative Formula Mass of X is 180. What is the
Molecular Formula of X?

Relative Formula Mass: Carbon : 12 Hydrogen : 1 Sulfur : 32

Step 1 – Calculate Relative Formula Mass of Empirical Formula

(C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1) = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1) = 90

Step 2 – Divide Relative Formula Mass of X by Relative Formula Mass of Empirical

Formula
180 / 90 = 2

Step 3 – Multiply Each Number of Elements by 2

(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
Molecular Formula of X = C8H20S2

Calculating Percentage Yield & Percentage Purity of the Product

Percentage yield
• This is the calculation of the percentage yield obtained from the theoretical yield
• In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons
• These include some reactants being left behind in the equipment, the reaction may be
reversible or product may also be lost during separation stages
Equation:
Percentage Yield = (Yield Obtained / Theoretical Yield) x 100
Example:
In an experiment to displace copper from copper sulfate, 6.5 g of Zinc was added to an excess of
copper (II) sulfate solution. The copper was filtered off, washed and dried. The mass of copper
obtained was 4.8 g. Calculate the percentage yield of copper.

Equation Of Reaction:
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Step 1: Calculate the Amount, in Moles of Zinc Reacted

Moles of Zinc = 6.5 ÷ 65 = 0.10 moles

Step 2: Calculate the Maximum Amount of Copper that could be formed from the
Molar ratio
Maximum Moles of Copper = 0.10 moles (Molar ratio is 1:1)

Step 3: Calculate the Maximum Mass of Copper that could be Formed

Maximum Mass of Copper = ( 0.10 x 64 ) = 6.4 g

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Step 4: Calculate the Percentage of Yield of Copper
Percentage Yield = ( 4.8 ÷ 6.4 ) x 100 = 75%
Percentage Yield of Copper = 75%

Percentage purity
• Often the product you are trying to fabricate may become contaminated with unwanted
substances such as unreacted reactants, catalysts etc.
Equation:
Percentage Purity = (Mass of pure substance / Mass of impure
substance) x 100
Example:
In an experiment 7.0g of impure calcium carbonate were heated to a very high temperature and 2.5g of
carbon dioxide were formed. Calculate the percentage purity of the calcium carbonate.

Equation Of Reaction:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Step 1: Calculate the relative formula masses
1 mole CaCO3 → 1 mole CO2
40+12+(3×16) 12+(2×16)
100 → 44

Step 2: Calculate the theoretical mass of calcium carbonate used if pure

From 2.5g CO2 we would expect 2.5/44 x 100 = 5.68g

Step 3: Calculate the percentage purity

(Mass of pure substance / mass of impure substance) x 100
= 5.68/7.0 x 100
= 81.1%

Titration Calculations
• Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions
• Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations
• They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of acid –
and vice versa
• You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,
the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
• Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated, you can now
proceed to calculate the unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below

Formula triangle showing the relationship between concentration, number of moles and
volume of liquid

Worked Example

A solution of 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was titrated against a solution of 0.100
mol/dm3 NaOH and 12.1 cm3 were required for complete reaction. Determine the concentration of
the acid.

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Answer:
Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the NaOH

Moles = (volume ÷ 1000) x concentration
Moles of NaOH = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol/dm3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol

Step 3: Deduce the number of moles of the acid

Since the acid reacts in a 1:1 ratio with the alkali, the number of moles of HCl is also 1.21 x 10-
3
mol
This is present in 25.0 cm3 of the solution (25.0 cm3 = 0.025 dm3)

Step 4: Find the concentration of the acid

Concentration = moles ÷ volume (dm3)
Concentration of HCl =1.21 x 10-3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3 = 0.0484 mol/dm3

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 MCQ

1 The equation shows the reaction between magnesium and sulfuric acid.
[Ar: H, 1; O, 16; Mg, 24; S, 32]

Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2

In this reaction, which mass of magnesium sulfate is formed when 6 g of magnesium react with
excess sulfuric acid?

A 8 B 24 C 30 D 60

2 Two atoms of magnesium, Mg, react with one molecule of oxygen, O2.

What is the formula of the product?

A MgO B MgO2 C Mg2O D Mg2O2

3 Copper(II) oxide reacts with ammonia.

The left hand side of the balanced equation for this reaction is:

3CuO + 2NH3 →

What completes the equation?

A 3Cu + 2HNO3
B 3Cu + 2N + 3H2O
C 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
D 3Cu + 2NO + 3H2O

4 What is the relative formula mass, Mr, of CaCO3?

A 50 B 68 C 100 D 204

5 A molecule, Z, contains two atoms of oxygen, six atoms of hydrogen and three atoms of carbon.

What is the formula of Z?

A CH3CH2CHO
B CH3COCH3
C C2H5CO2H
D C3H6CO2H

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6 What are the electrode products when molten silver iodide is electrolysed between inert
electrodes?

7 Iron forms an oxide with the formula Fe2O3.

What is the relative formula mass of this compound?

A 76 B 100 C 136 D 160

8 In athletics, banned drugs such as nandrolone have been taken illegally to improve performance.
Nandrolone has the molecular formula C18H26O2.

What is the relative molecular mass, Mr, of nandrolone?

(Relative atomic mass: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16)

A 46 B 150 C 274 D 306

9 The structure of an organic compound, X, is shown.

H H
H H
C
H C
H
C C
H H
C
H H
H H

What is the molecular formula of X?

A C6H9 B C6H12 C C7H12 D C7H14

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10 What is the relative molecular mass, M r, of nitrogen dioxide?

A 15 B 23 C 30 D 46

11 A compound contains one atom of calcium, two atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen.

What is the correct chemical formula of the compound?

A CaO2H2 B HOCaOH C H2CaO2 D Ca(OH)2

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 12 The formulae of compounds W, X and Y are shown.

W CuSO4.5H2O
X MgSO4.7H2O
Y Cu(NO3)2.6H2O

Which statement is correct?

A W contains twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.

B X contains the most oxygen atoms.
C Y contains the most hydrogen atoms.
D Y contains the same number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

13 Which relative molecular mass, Mr, is not correct for the molecule given?

molecule Mr

A ammonia, NH3 17
B carbon dioxide, CO2 44
C methane, CH4 16
D oxygen, O2 16

14 A compound with the formula XF2 has a relative formula mass of 78.

What is element X?
A argon
B calcium
C neon
D zirconium

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 15 What is the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between calcium and water?

A Ca + H2O → CaOH + H2

B Ca + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

C Ca + 2H2O → CaOH + H2

D Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

16 The equation shows the reaction between magnesium and sulfuric acid.

Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2

(Mg = 24, H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)

In this reaction, what mass of magnesium sulfate will be formed when 6 g of magnesium reacts
with excess sulfuric acid?

A 8 B 24 C 30 D 60

17 A compound has the formula CH3CO2H.

How should the relative molecular mass, Mr, of this compound be calculated?

A 12 + 1 + 16
B 3(12 + 1) + 2(12 + 16) + 1

C (4 × 12) + (2 × 1) + 16

D (2 × 12) + (4 × 1) + (2 × 16)

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18 The equation for the reaction between magnesium and dilute sulfuric acid is shown.

Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Mr of MgSO4 is 120

Which mass of magnesium sulfate will be formed if 12 g of magnesium are reacted with sulfuric
acid?

A 5g B 10 g C 60 g D 120 g

19 Methane, CH4, burns in the air to form carbon dioxide and water.

What is the balanced equation for this reaction?

A CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

B CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

C CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

D CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

20 The relative formula mass, Mr, of copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4, is 160.

Which mass of sulfur is present in 160 g of copper(II) sulfate?

A 16 g B 32 g C 64 g D 128 g

21 What is the relative molecular mass (Mr) of HNO3?

A 5 B 31 C 32 D 63

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22 The chemical compositions of two substances, W and X, are given.

W Na( l Si3)O8
X Ca(Al 2Si2)O8

Which statements are correct?

1 W and X contain the same amount of oxygen.

2 W contains three times as much silicon as X.
3 X contains twice as much aluminium as W.

A 1 and 2 B 1 and 3 C 2 and 3 D 1, 2 and 3

23 Hydrogen and chlorine react as shown.

1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules

+ →
of hydrogen of chlorine of hydrogen chloride

What is the equation for this reaction?

A 2H + 2Cl → 2HCl

B 2H + 2Cl → H2Cl 2

C H2 + Cl 2 → 2HCl

D H2 + Cl 2 → H2Cl 2

24 For each atom of carbon present in a molecule, there is an equal number of atoms of oxygen but
twice as many atoms of hydrogen.

What is the formula of the molecule?

A C2H2O2 B C2H2O4 C C2H4O2 D C2H6O

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 25 Water is formed when 48 g of oxygen combine with 6 g of hydrogen.

What mass of oxygen combines with 2 g of hydrogen?

A 12 g B 16 g C 96 g D 144 g

26 Nitrogen and hydrogen react together to form ammonia.

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

When completely converted, 7 tonnes of nitrogen gives 8.5 tonnes of ammonia.

How much nitrogen will be needed to produce 34 tonnes of ammonia?

A 7 tonnes B 8.5 tonnes C 28 tonnes D 34 tonnes

27 Which relative molecular mass, Mr, is not correct for the molecule given?

molecule Mr

A ammonia, NH3 17
B carbon dioxide, CO2 44
C methane, CH4 16
D oxygen, O2 16

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1 C

2 A

3 C

4 C

5 C

6 C

7 D

8 C

9 C

10 D

11 D

12 D

13 D

14 B

15 D

16 C

17 D

18 C

19 B

20 B

21 D

22 B

23 C

24 C

25 B

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26 C

27 D

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 2QP
1 The law of constant composition states that all pure samples of a compound contain the same
elements in the same proportion by weight.

A typical experiment to test this law is to prepare the same compound by different methods

and then show that the samples have the same composition.

Methods of making copper(II) oxide include:

• heating copper carbonate,

• heating copper hydroxide,
• heating copper nitrate,
• heating copper foil in air.

(a) Complete the following equations.

CuCO [1]
(i) 3 → ............. + .............

[1]
(ii) Cu(OH)
2 → ............. + .............

[2]
(iii) 2Cu(NO
3)2 → ............. + 4NO2 + .............

(b) Copper oxide can be reduced to copper by heating in hydrogen.

(i) What colour change would you observe during the reduction?

.......................................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii) Explain why the copper must be allowed to cool in hydrogen before it is exposed to air.

.......................................................................................................................................
[2]
(iii) Name another gas which can reduce copper(II) oxide to copper.

.......................................................................................................................................

[1]
(iv) Name a solid which can reduce copper(II) oxide to copper.

.......................................................................................................................................
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[1]
(c) The table below shows the results obtained by reducing the copper(II) oxide

(ci) produced by different methods to copper.

(i) Complete the table.

source of copper(II) mass of mass of percentage

oxide copper(II) oxide / g copper / g copper / %

CuCO3 2.37 1.89 79.7

Cu(OH)2 2.51 1.99

Cu(NO3)2 2.11 1.68

Cu and O2 2.29 1.94

[2]
(ii) One of the samples of copper(II) oxide is impure.

Identify this sample and suggest an explanation why the percentage of copper in this sample is
bigger than in the other three samples.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 13]

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2 (a) A compound X contains 82.76% of carbon by mass and 17.24% of hydrogen by mass.

(i) Calculate the empirical formula of compound X.

[2]

(ii) Compound X has a relative molecular mass of 58.

Deduce the molecular formula of compound X.

[2]

(b) Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

(i) State the general formula of alkenes.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) State the empirical formula of alkenes.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(c) What is meant by the term unsaturated hydrocarbon?

unsaturated ................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

hydrocarbon ...............................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
[2]

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 (d) Describe a test that would distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

reagent ......................................................................................................................................

observation (saturated hydrocarbon) .........................................................................................

observation (unsaturated hydrocarbon) .....................................................................................

[3]

(e) Addition polymers can be made from alkenes. The diagram shows part of an addition polymer.

C 2H 5 H C 2H 5 H

C C C C

H H H H

(i) Draw a circle on the diagram to show one repeat unit in this polymer. [1]

(ii) Give the structure and the name of the monomer used to make this polymer.

structure

name ............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iii) Give the structure of an isomer of the alkene in (e)(ii).

[1]

[Total: 15]

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3 Ethanol is manufactured from glucose, C 6H12O6, by fermentation according to the following

equation. C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

(a) State the conditions required for this reaction.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) In an experiment, 30.0 g of glucose was fermented.

(i) Calculate the number of moles of glucose in 30.0 g.

......................... mol [2]

(ii) Calculate the maximum mass of ethanol that could be obtained from 30.0 g of glucose.

......................... g [2]

(iii) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at room temperature and pressure that can be
obtained from 30.0 g of glucose.

......................... dm3 [1]

(c) Ethanol can also be manufactured from ethene.

(i) Name the raw material which is the source of ethene.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Write a balanced equation for the manufacture of ethanol from ethene.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 9]
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4 (a) Definethefollowing

(i) the mole

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) the Avogadro constant

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Which two of the following contain the same number of molecules?
Show how you arrived at your answer.

2.0 g of methane, CH4

8.0 g of oxygen, O2
2.0 g of ozone, O3
8.0 g of sulfur dioxide, SO2

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

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 (c) 4.8 g of calcium is added to 3.6 g of water. The following reaction occurs.

Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

(i) the number of moles of Ca = ....................

the number of moles of H2O = .................... [1]

(ii) Which reagent is in excess? Explain your choice.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iii) Calculate the mass of the reagent named in (ii) which remained at the end of the
experiment.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 8]

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5 Quantities of chemicals, expressed in moles, can be used to find the formula of a
compound, to establish an equation and to determine reacting masses.

(a) A compound contains 72% magnesium and 28% nitrogen. What is its empirical
formula?

[2]

(b) A compound contains only aluminium and carbon. 0.03 moles of this compound reacted
with excess water to form 0.12 moles of Al(OH)3 and 0.09 moles of CH4.

Write a balanced equation for this reaction.

[2]

(c) 0.07 moles of silicon reacts with 25 g of bromine.

Si + 2Br2 SiBr4

(i) Which one is the limiting reagent? Explain your choice.

[3]

(ii) How many moles of SiBr4 are formed?

[1]

[Total: 8]

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6 (a The following method is used to make crystals of hydrated nickel sulphate.

An excess of nickel carbonate, 12.0 g, was added to 40 cm3 of sulphuric acid, 2.0
mol/dm3. The unreacted nickel carbonate was filtered off and the filtrate evaporated to
obtain the crystals.

NiCO3 + H2SO4 NiSO4 + CO2 + H2O

NiSO4 + 7H2O NiSO4.7H2O

Mass of one mole of NiSO4.7H2O = 281 g

Mass of one mole of NiCO3 = 119 g

(i) Calculate the mass of unreacted nickel carbonate.

Number of moles of H2SO4 in 40 cm3 of 2.0 mol/dm3 acid = 0.08

Number of moles of NiCO3 reacted =

Mass of nickel carbonate reacted = g

Mass of unreacted nickel carbonate = g [3]

(ii) The experiment produced 10.4 g of hydrated nickel sulphate. Calculate the
percentage yield.

The maximum number of moles of NiSO4 .7H2O that could be formed =

The maximum mass of NiSO4 .7H2O that could be formed = g

The percentage yield = % [3]

(b) In the above method, a soluble salt was prepared by neutralising an acid with an
insoluble base. Other salts have to be made by different methods.

(i) Give a brief description of how the soluble salt, rubidium sulphate could be made
from the soluble base, rubidium hydroxide.

[3]

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 (ii) Suggest a method of making the insoluble salt, calcium fluoride.

[3]

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 2MS

Question Answer Marks Guidance

(a)
1(a ( 3
) CuO + CO2; A multiples
I state symbols
(Cu(OH)2
) CuO + H2O;

(2Cu(NO3)2
) 2CuO + (4NO2) + O2

species;
balancing; 4
(b)(i) (black to) pink / brown / orange; 1 red
(b)(ii) (hot) copper reacts / is oxidised; A forms copper oxide for 2 marks
with oxygen / air; 2
(iii monoxide / ammonia / methane; 1
(b)(iv) / graphite or any metal more reactive than copper; 1
1(c)(i 79.28 Minimum 3 sig figs
79.6205853; A rounding or truncating
84.7161572; 2 All three correct = 2 marks,
Two correct = 1 mark
(c)(ii) the last one OR Cu and O2 OR the one from copper;

not all the copper oxidised OR the outside of the pieces of copper oxidised 2 ecf of biggest for M1
but the inside did not OR (still) contains copper (metal);

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2 (a) (i) 82.76/12 and 17.2(4)(/1)
or evaluation: 6.89 / 6.9(0) and 17.2(4) [1]

C2H5 [1]

OR
82.76 / 100 × 58 = 48 and 17.24 / 100 × 58 = 10
or evaluation i.e. 48 and 10 [1]

C2H5 [1]

(ii) (C2H5 =) 29 [1]

(58 / 29 =2 ) C4H10 [1]

OR:
82.76 / 100 × 58 = 48 and 17.24 / 100 × 58 = 10
or evaluation i.e. 48 and 10 [1]

48 / 12 = 4 10 / 1 = 10 (therefore) C4H10 [1]

(b) (i) CnH2n [1]

(ii) CH2 [1]

(c) (contains) double bond / triple bond / multiple bond(s) / not all bonds are single [1]

(contains) carbon and hydrogen only [1]

(d) bromine / bromine water [1]

no change / stays brown / orange / yellow / red-brown or only changes in UV [1]

(brown / orange / yellow) to colourless / decolourised

eco

(e) (i) circle / brackets around any 2 consecutive carbon atoms in the main chain
and all attached atoms [1]
e.

(ii) CH3CH2CH=CH2 / C2H5CH=CH2 (double bond must be shown) [1]

butene / but-1-ene
ut-

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 (iii) (CH3)2C=CH2 / CH3CH=CHCH3 / (CH2)2CHCH3 / (CH2)4 [1]

[Total:15]

3 (a) Any two from:

yeast / 20–40 °C / anaerobic or without oxygen or without air / (aqueous)
solution or water or aqueous [2]

(b) (i) Mr = 180 (1) (30/180) = 0.167 (1) [2]

(ii) 2 × 0.167 or 2 × 46 or 0.333 or 92 [1]

(2 × 0.167 × 46) = 15.3(33) (g) [1]

(iii) (2 × 0.167 × 24 ) = 8 (dm3) [1

(c) (i) Crude oil / petroleum

etr

(ii) C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH / CH3CH2OH

H [

[Total:9]

4 (a (i) (the number of particles which is equal to the number of atoms in) 12 g of carbon 12
or
the mass in grams which contains the Avogadro’s constant number of particles
or
Avogadro’s constant or 6 to 6.023 × 1023 of atoms / ions / molecules / electrons /
particles
or
(the amount of substance which has a mass equal to) its relative formula mass / relative
atomic mass / relative molecular mass in grams
or
(the amount of substance which has a volume equal to) 24 dm3 of a gas at RTP
[1]

(ii) (Avogadro’s constant is the) number of particles / atoms / ions / molecules in one mole of
a substance
or
the number of carbon atoms in 12 g of C(12).
or
the number of particles / molecules in 24 dm3of a gas at RTP
or
6 to 6.023 × 1023 (particles / atoms / ions / molecules / electrons) [1]

(b) CH4 and SO2 [1]

2/16 = 1/8 or 0.125 moles of CH4 AND 8/64 = 1/8 or 0.125 moles of SO2 [1]

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 (c) (i) 4.8/40 = 0.12 moles of Ca
3.6/18 = 0.2 moles of H2O both correct [1]

(ii) Ca is in excess (no mark) (because 0.12 moles of Ca need) 0.24 moles / 4.32 g of H2O
to react [1]
there is not enough / there are 0.2 moles / 3.6 g of H2O [1]
or
Ca is in excess (no mark) (because 0.2 moles / 3.6 g of water will react with)
0.1moles/4.0 g of Ca [1]
there is more than that / there are 0.12 moles / 4.8 g of Ca [1]
or
Ca is in excess (no mark) because the mole ratio Ca:H2O is 3:5 / mass ratio 4:3 [1]
which is bigger than the required mole ratio of 1:2 / mass ratio 10:9 [1]
or
Ca is in excess (no mark) because the mole ratio H2O:Ca is 5:3 / mass ratio 3:4 [1]
which is smaller than the required mole ratio of 2:1 / mass ratio 9:10 [1]

(iii) 0.02 × 40 = 0.8 (g) [1]

5 (a 72/24 = 3 and 28/14 = 2 [1]

Mg3N2 [1]
accept just formula for [2] even with incorrect or no working
NOT ecf

(b) Al4C3 + 12H2O = 4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4 [2]

For Al4C3 ONLY [1]

(c)
c) silicon is limiting reagent [1]
0.07 moles of Si and 25/160 = 0.156 moles of Br2 [1]
because 0.14 (2 × 0.07) < 0.156 [1]
If 80 used to find moles of Br2 the mark 1 and 3 still available
arguments based on masses can be used

(ii) 0.07 [1]

NOT ecf

[Total: 8]

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 (a)(i) lattice [1]
6
(ii) high melting point or high fixed points
poor conductor as solid
good conductor as liquid, accept either aqueous or molten
hard
soluble in water
Any TWO [2]

(b)(i) Mg2+ [1]

(ii) N3 [1]

(iii) Mg3N2 [1]

(iv) opposite charges [1]

Do NOT accept "attract" it is in the question
accept electrostatic attraction as a phrase

TOTAL = 7

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 3QP
1 Chemists use the concept of the mole to calculate the amounts of chemicals involved in a
reaction.

(a) Define mole.

[1]

(b) 3.0 g of magnesium was added to 12.0 g of ethanoic acid.

Mg + 2CH3COOH → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2

The mass of one mole of Mg is 24 g.

The mass of one mole of CH3COOH is 60 g.

(i) Which one, magnesium or ethanoic acid, is in excess? You must show your
reasoning.

[3]

(ii) How many moles of hydrogen were formed?

[1]

(iii) Calculate the volume of hydrogen formed, measured at r.t.p.

[2]

(c) In an experiment, 25.0 cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide, 0.4 mol / dm3, was neutralised
by 20.0 cm3 of aqueous oxalic acid, H2C2O4.

2NaOH + H2C2O4 → Na2C2O4 +2H2O

Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid in mol / dm3.

(i) Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 25.0 cm3 of 0.4 mol / dm3 solution.

[1]

(ii) Use your answer to (i) and the mole ratio in the equation to find out the number of
moles of H2C2O4 in 20 cm3 of solution.

[1]

(iii) Calculate the concentration, mol / dm3, of the aqueous oxalic acid.

[2]
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2 Soluble salts can be made using a base and an acid.

(a) Complete this method of preparing dry crystals of the soluble salt
cobalt(II) chloride-6-water from the insoluble base cobalt(II) carbonate.

step 1
Add an excess of cobalt(II) carbonate to hot dilute hydrochloric acid.

step 2

step 3

step 4

[4]

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 (b) (i) 5.95 g of cobalt(II) carbonate were added to 40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration
2.0 mol / dm3.

Calculate the maximum yield of cobalt(II) chloride-6-water and show that the cobalt(II)
carbonate was in excess.

CoCO3 + 2HCl → CoCl2 + CO2 + H2O

CoCl2 + 6H2O → CoCl2.6H2O

maximum yield:

number of moles of HCl used = ………………………………………………...…..…….

number of moles of CoCl2 formed = ……………………………………………..….……

number of moles of CoCl2.6H2O formed = ………………………………………..…..…

mass of one mole of CoCl2.6H2O = 238 g

maximum yield of CoCl2.6H2O = …………………………………………………..…..… g

to show that cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess:

number of moles of HCl used = ……………………….……… (use your value from above)

mass of one mole of CoCO3 = 119 g

number of moles of CoCO3 in 5.95 g of cobalt(II) carbonate = ………………………… [5]

(ii) Explain how these calculations show that cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess.

[1]

[Total: 10]

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3 (a) Propane reacts with chlorine to form a mixture of chloropropanes. This is
a photochemical reaction.
(i) What is meant by the phrase photochemical reaction?

...............................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) The products of this reaction include two isomers, one of which has the following
structural formula.

H H H

H C C C Cl

H H H

Draw the structural formula of the other isomer.

[1]

(iii) Explain why these two different compounds are isomers.

....................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................. [2]

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(b) Bond breaking is an endothermic change and bond forming is an exothermic
change.

Bond energy is the amount of energy in kJ / mol needed to break one mole
of the specified bond.

H H H H H H

H C C C H + C l Cl → H C C C Cl + H
H
H H H H H

Use the following bond energies to determine whether this reaction

is exothermic or endothermic. You must show your reasoning.

bond energies in
bond kJ / mol

C–Cl 338

C–H 412

Cl –Cl 242

H–Cl 431

C–C 348

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

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(c) Chloropropane can be hydrolysed to propanol, CH3CH2CH2OH, by sodium
hydroxide.
Write the equation for this reaction.

........................................................................................................................ [2]

(ii) Propanol can be dehydrated. It loses a water molecule to form a hydrocarbon.

Give the name and structural formula of this hydrocarbon.

name .................................................

structural formula

[2]

(iii) Propanol is oxidised to a carboxylic acid by acidifiedpotassiummanganate( VII).

Deduce the name of this acid.

........................................................................................................................ [1]

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(d) Propanol reacts with methanoic acid to form the ester propyl methanoate.

CH3CH2CH2OH + HCOOH → HCOOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O 4.0

g of methanoic acid was reacted with 6.0 g of propanol.

(i) Calculate the Mr of methanoic acid = ........................................ [1]

(ii) Calculate the Mr of propanol = ........................................ [1]

(iii) Determine which one is the limiting reagent. Show your reasoning.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iv) Calculate the maximum yield in grams of propyl methanoate, Mr = 88.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 17]

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4 Sulfuric acid is an important acid, both in the laboratory and in industry.
Sulfuric acid is manufactured in the Contact Process. Originally, it was made by heating metal
sulfates and by burning a mixture of sulfur and potassium nitrate.

(a) Give a major use of sulfuric acid.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) A group of naturally occurring minerals have the formula of the type FeSO4.xH2O where x is 1,
4, 5, 6 or 7. The most common of these minerals is iron(II) sulfate-7-water.

(i) When this mineral is heated gently it dehydrates.

FeSO4.7H2O FeSO4 + 7H2O

green pale yellow

Describe how you could show that this reaction is reversible.

.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) When the iron(II) sulfate is heated strongly, further decomposition occurs.

2FeSO4(s) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)

The gases formed in this reaction react with water and oxygen to form sulfuric acid.
Explain how the sulfuric acid is formed.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iii) A mineral of the type FeSO4.xH2O contains 37.2% of water.

Complete the calculation to determine x.

mass of one mole of H2O = 18 g

mass of water in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = 37.2 g

number of moles of H2O in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = .................

mass of FeSO4 in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = ................. g

mass of one mole of FeSO4 = 152 g

number of moles of FeSO4 in 100 g of FeSO4.xH2O = .................

x = .................
[4]
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 (c) When a mixture of sulfur and potassium nitrate is burned and the products are dissolved in
water, sulfuric acid is formed.

(i) The sulfuric acid formed by this method is not pure. It contains another acid.
Deduce the identity of this acid.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) The heat causes some of the potassium nitrate to decompose.

Write the equation for the action of heat on potassium nitrate.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 12]

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5 Compound X is a colourless liquid at room temperature.

(a) A sample of pure X was slowly heated from –5.0 °C, which is below its melting point, to 90 °C,
which is above its boiling point. Its temperature is measured every minute and the results are
represented on the graph.

F
90 °C
D
E

temperature

B
t °C C

A
–5 °C
time

(i) Complete the equation for the equilibrium present in the region BC.

X(s) .................... [1]

(ii) What is the significance of temperature t °C?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) What is the physical state of compound X in the region EF?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iv) What would be the difference in the region BC if an impure sample of X had been used?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Compound X is a hydrocarbon. It contains 85.7% of carbon. The mass of one mole of X is 84 g.

(i) What is the percentage of hydrogen in the compound ?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Calculate the empirical formula of X. Show your working.

empirical formula = ................................ [3]

(iii) What is the molecular formula of compound X?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]
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182 9]
 3MS
1 (a Avogadro’s Number of particles
or formula mass in grams
or 6 x 1023 particles accept atoms, ions and molecules
or as many particles as there are carbon atoms in 12.00g of 12Ca
ANY one [1]

(b)
b) moles of Mg = 3/24 = 0.125
moles of CH3COOH = 12/60 = 0.200
magnesium is in excess

OR 3.0g of magnesium react with 15g of acid

only 12.0 g of acid present
magnesium is in excess [3]

(ii) Mark conseq to (i) but NOT to any simple integer

moles of H2 = 0.1 [1]

(iii) Mark conseq to (ii) but NOT to any simple integer

Volume of hydrogen = 0.1 x 24
= 2.4 dm3 [2]

(c)
c) moles of NaOH = 25/1000 x 0.4 = 0.01 [1]

(ii) Mark conseq to (i) but NOT to any simple integer

moles of acid = 0.01/2 = 0.005 [1]

(iii) Mark conseq to (ii) max 10M

concentration of acid = 0.005 x 1000/20 [1]
= 0.25 mol/dm3 [1]

TOTAL = [10]

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2 (a filter / centrifuge / decant; [1]
(partially) evaporate / heat / boil; [1]
allow to crystallise / cool / let crystals form; [1]
dry crystals / dry between filter paper / leave in a warm place to dry; [1]

(b)
b) number of moles of HCl used = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08; [1]
number of moles CoCl2 formed = 0.04; [1]
number of moles CoCl2.6H2O formed = 0.04; [1]
maximum yield of CoCl2.6H2O = 9.52; [1]
allow: 9.5
allow: ecf on number of moles of HCl

number of moles of HCl used = 0.08 note: must use their value
allow: ecf
number of moles of CoCO3 in 5.95 g of cobalt(II) carbonate = 5.95/119 = 0.05; [1]

(ii) 0.05 > 0.04 or stated in words;

allow: ecf on number of moles of CoCl2 formed [1]

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Question Answer Marks

3(a)(i) a reaction whose rate is influenced by light / reaction which occurs in presence of light; 1
(a)(ii) CH3CHClCH3; 1
(a)(iii) (both have) same molecular formula; 2
different structural formula or structure;
(b) M1 bonds breaking = (8 × 412) + (2 × 348) + 242 = 4234; 3
M2 bonds forming = (7 × 412) + (2 × 348) + 338 + 431 = 4349;
M3 4234 – 4349 = –115 and exothermic;
(c)(i) CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaOH → CH3CH2CH2Cl + NaCl 2
NaCl as product;
rest of equation;
(c)(ii) p 2
CH2=CHCH3;
c)(iii) p acid; 1
(d)(i)
(d)( 1
(d)(ii) 1
(d)(iii) moles of CH3CH2CH2OH = 0.1; 2
moles of HCOOH = 0.087 (0.09) and limiting reagent is methanoic acid;
(d)(iv) 88 × (mol of limiting reagent in 4(d)(iii)); 1
expected answer: 88 × 0.087 = 7.65 g;

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4 (a making fertilisers or pickling metals or making fibres or making phosphoric acid/phosphates
making dyes or making paints/pigments/dyes or making paper making plastics or making
detergents or tanning leather or battery acid. [1]

(b) (i) add water (to yellow solid or to (anhydrous) iron(II) sulfate or to FeSO4 or to products [1]

goes green [1]

(ii) M1 Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to make sulfuric acid or equation [1]

M2 sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide or equation [1]

(iii) M1 = 2.07 Allow 2.1 or 2.0666…7

M2 = 62.8.g

M3 =( M2/152 =) 0.41(3)

M4 (=M1/M3) rounded to the nearest whole number × = 5 [4]

(c (i) nitric acid or nitric(V) acid or HNO3 [1]

(ii) 2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2 [2]

Species (1)
Balance (1)
[Total: 12]

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5 (a (i) (X(s) ↔) X(l) [1]

(ii) melting point/freezing point (of X) [1]

(iii) gas/gaseous or vapour [1]

(iv) not horizontal or line slopes or line is lower [1]

(b) (i) 14.3 [1]

(ii) 85.7 ÷ 12 and 14.3 ÷ 1 or 7.14 and 14.3 [1]

ratio 1:2 [1]
CH2 [1]
note: Award all 3 marks for correct answer
allow: alternative working e.g.
85.7 × 84 ÷ 100 and 14.3 × 84 ÷ 100 or 71.988/72 and 12/12.012 [1]
6:12 or ratio 1:2 [1]
CH 2 [1]

(iii) C6H12 [1]

[Total: 9]

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 4QP
1 20.0 g of small lumps of calcium carbonate and 40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration
2.0 mol / dm3, were placed in a flask on a top pan balance. The mass of the flask and contents
was recorded every minute.

cotton wool to prevent

drops of acid spray escaping

flask

40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol / dm3

20.0 g of small lumps of

calcium carbonate

balance

The mass of carbon dioxide given off was plotted against time.

mass of
carbon dioxide

0
0 time

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl 2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

In all the experiments mentioned in this question, the calcium carbonate was in excess.

(a)
a) Explain how you could determine the mass of carbon dioxide given off in the first five
minutes.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Label the graph F where the reaction rate is the fastest, S where it is slowing down
and 0 where the rate is zero. [2]

(iii) Explain how the shape of the graph shows where the rate is fastest, where it is
slowing down and where the rate is zero.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) Sketch on the same graph, the line which would have been obtained if 20.0 g of small
lumps of calcium carbonate and 80 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration 1.0 mol / dm3,
hadby
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 (c) Explain in terms of collisions between reacting particles each of the following.

(i) The reaction rate would be slower if 20.0 g of larger lumps of calcium carbonate and
40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration 2.0 mol / dm3, were used.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) The reaction rate would be faster if the experiment was carried out at a higher
temperature.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(d) Calculate the maximum mass of carbon dioxide given off when 20.0 g of small lumps of
calcium carbonate react with 40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration 2.0 mol / dm3.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl 2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

number of moles of HCl used =

mass of carbon dioxide = ................. g [4]

[Total: 15]

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2 Soluble salts can be made by the neutralisation of an acid by a base. Insoluble salts can be
made by precipitation.

(a) The following is a brief description of the preparation of the soluble salt,
nickel(II) chloride-6-water, from the insoluble base nickel(II) carbonate.

Nickel(II) carbonate is added in small amounts to hot dilute hydrochloric acid until it is
in excess. The mixture is filtered. The filtrate is partially evaporated and then allowed to
cool until crystals of nickel(II) chloride-6-water form.

(i) Why is it necessary to use excess carbonate?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Explain why it is necessary to filter.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Why partially evaporate rather than evaporate to dryness?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iv) What additional steps are needed to obtain dry crystals?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) Potassium chloride can be made from hydrochloric acid and potassium carbonate.

(i) Why must a different experimental method be used for this preparation?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Give a description of the different method used for this salt preparation.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [4]

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 (c) Insoluble salts are made by precipitation. An equation for the preparation of barium
sulfate is given below.

BaCl 2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + MgCl 2(aq)

This reaction can be used to find x in the formula for hydrated magnesium sulfate
MgSO4.xH2O.

A known mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO4.xH2O, was dissolved in water.

Excess aqueous barium chloride was added. The precipitate of barium sulfate was
filtered, washed and dried. Finally it was weighed.

Mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate = 1.476 g

Mass of barium sulfate formed = 1.398 g

The mass of one mole of BaSO4 = 233 g

The number of moles of BaSO4 formed = ............... [1]

The number of moles of MgSO4.xH2O = ............... [1]

The mass of one mole of MgSO4.xH2O = ............... g [1

The mass of one mole of MgSO4 = 120 g

The mass of xH2O in one mole of MgSO4.xH2O = ............... [1]

x = ............... [1]

[Total: 15]

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3 Titanium is a transition element. It is isolated by the following reactions.

titanium ore → titanium(IV) oxide → titanium(IV) chloride → titanium

TiO2 TiCl 4 Ti

(a) Why is it usually necessary to include a number in the name of the compounds of
transition elements?

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Titanium(IV) chloride is made by heating the oxide with coke and chlorine.

TiO2 + 2Cl 2 TiCl 4 + O2

2C + O2 2CO

Explain why the presence of coke ensures the maximum yield of the metal chloride.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Explain why the change, titanium(IV) chloride to titanium, is reduction.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(d) Complete the table which shows some of the properties of titanium and its uses.
The first line has been completed as an example.

property related use

soluble in molten steel making steel titanium alloys

........................................................................ making aircraft and space vehicles

resistant to corrosion, especially in sea water ...............................................................

[2]

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 (e) The titanium ore contains 36.8% iron, 31.6% titanium and the remainder is oxygen.

(i) Determine the percentage of oxygen in this titanium compound.

percentage of oxygen = ........................................................................... % [1]

(ii) Calculate the number of moles of atoms for each element.

The number of moles of Fe is shown as an example.
number of moles of Fe = 36.8 / 56 = 0.66

number of moles of Ti = ...........................................................................................

number of moles of O = ..................................................................................... [1]

(iii) What is the simplest ratio for the moles of atoms?

Fe : Tii

............. ............. .............

[1]

(iv) What is the formula of this titanium compound?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 10]

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4 Soluble salts can be made using a base and an acid.

(a) Complete this method of preparing dry crystals of the soluble salt
cobalt(II) chloride-6-water from the insoluble base cobalt(II) carbonate.

Step 1
Add an excess of cobalt(II) carbonate to hot dilute hydrochloric acid.

Step 2

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

Step 3

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

Step 4

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [4]

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 (b) 6.0 g of cobalt(II) carbonate was added to 40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid, concentration
2.0 mol / dm3. Calculate the maximum yield of cobalt(II) chloride-6-water and show that
the cobalt(II) carbonate was in excess.

CoCO3 + 2HCl → CoCl 2 + CO2 + H2O

CoCl 2 + 6H2O → CoCl 2.6H2O

Maximum yield

Number of moles of HCl used = .........................

Number of moles of CoCl 2 formed = .........................

Number of moles of CoCl 2.6H2O formed = .........................

Mass of one mole of CoCl 2.6H2O = 238 g

Maximum yield of CoCl 2.6H2O = ......................... g [4]

To show that cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess

Number of moles of HCl used = ......................... (use value from above)

Mass of one mole of CoCO3 = 119 g

Number of moles of CoCO3 in 6.0 g of cobalt(II) carbonate = ......................... [1]

Explain why cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess .................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 10]

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 4MS

1 (a (i) (mass at t =0) – (mass at t = 5) [1]

NOTE: must have mass at t = 5 not final mass

(ii) fastest at origin

slowing down between origin and flat section gradient = 0
where gradrient = 0
three of above in approximately the correct positions [2]

(iii) 3 correct comments about gradient = [2]

2 correct comments about gradient = [1]
1 correct comment about gradient = [0] [2]

(b) start at origin and smaller gradient [1]

same final mass just approximate rather than exact [1]

(c)
c) smaller surface area [1]
lower collision rate [1]

(ii) molecules have more energy [1]

collide more frequently / more molecules have enough energy to react [1]

(d) number of moles of HCl in 40 cm3 of hydrochloric acid,

concentration 2.0 mol / dm3 = 0.04 × 2.0 = 0.08 [1]
maximum number of moles of CO2 formed = 0.04 [1]
mass of one mole of CO2 = 44 g [1
maximum mass of CO2 lost = 0.04 × 44 = 1.76 g [1

[Total: 15]

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2 (a (i) to neutralise all the acid / so all acid reacts [1]
not: reaction goes to completion

(ii) remove excess carbonate / removes unreacted carbonate [1]

not: remove solid

(iii) need water of crystallisation / hydrated crystals / to get crystals [1]

(iv) filter / decant / wash crystals [1]

dry with filter paper or tissues etc. [1]
accept: in warm oven / warm place / in sun
not: just heat

(b)
b) ( potassium carbonate is soluble / both salts soluble [1]

(ii) use potassium carbonate solution [1]

accept: implication of solution – in pipette / burette / 25 cm3
titrate / titration term required [1]
use an indicator accept: any named acid/base indicator [1]
repeat without indicator / use carbon to remove indicator [1]

(c) mass of hydrated magnesium sulfate = 1.476 g

mass of barium sulfate formed = 1.398 g
the mass of one mole of BaSO4 = 233 g
the number of moles of BaSO4 formed = 0.006 [1]
the number of moles of MgSO4.xH2O used in experiment = 0.006 [1]
the mass of one mole of MgSO4.xH2O = 1.476/0.006 = 246 g [1
the mass of xH2O in one mole of MgSO4.xH2O = 246 – 120 = 126 g [1
x = 126/18 = 7 [1]
if x given without method = max 1
note: apply ecf but x must be an integer and less than 10

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3 (a a transition element has more than one oxidation state or valency [1]
accept different oxidation states

(b) by removing oxygen concentration of O2 decreases [1]

prevents the back reaction / equilibrium shifts to right [1]

(c) oxidation number reduced (from (+) 4 to 0) [1]

accept accepts electrons or accepts four electrons
if number given must be 4

(d) low density / lightweight / light [1]

propellers / fittings on ships / inert anodes in electrolysis / hip replacements /
ship building / chemical plants / cathodic protection / diving equipment [1]

(e) (i) percentage of oxygen = 31.6 % [1

(ii) calculate the number of moles of atoms for each element

number of moles of Ti = 31.6/48 = 0.66

number of moles of O = 31.6/16 = 1.98 accept 2 [1]

both correct for one mark

(iii) the simplest whole number ratio for moles of atoms:

Fe : Ti : O
1 1 3 [1]

(iv) formula is FeTiO3 accept TiFeO3 [1]

must be whole numbers from (iii) or cancelled numbers from (iii)
mark ecf throughout

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4 (a filter / centrifuge / decant [1]
(partially) evaporate / heat / boil [1]
allow to crystallise / cool / let crystals form [1]
dry crystals / dry between filter paper / leave in a warm place to dry [1]
“dry” on its own must be a verb
evaporate to dryness only marks 1 and 2
note if discuss residue only mark 1

(b) number of moles of HCl used = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08

number of moles CoCl2 formed = 0.04
number of moles CoCl2.6H2O formed = 0.04
mass of one mole of CoCl2.6H2O = 238 g
maximum yield of CoCl2.6H2O = 9.52g [4]
accept 9.5 g
mark ecf to moles of HCl
do not mark ecf to integers

to show that cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess

number of moles of HCl used = 0.08 must use value above ecf
mass of one mole of CoCO3 = 119g
number of moles of CoCO3 in 6.0g of cobalt(II) carbonate = 6.0/119 = 0.050 [1]
reason why cobalt(II) carbonate is in excess 0.05 > 0.08/2 [1]

[Total: 10]

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