Some Properties of the Set of

1
Real Numbers
CHAPTER

This chapter provides a quick overview of some key mathematical concepts that are essential to
the study of Mathematical Analysis. While many of these concepts may already be familiar to
the reader (with more details), others will be new .

1.1 Usual sets of numbers

In this section, we’ll take a quick look at the primary number sets. This overview is intentionally
brief, as the reader should already be familiar with their main characteristics.

1.1.1 The set of natural numbers

The set of natural numbers, denoted by N = {0, 1, 2, · · · }.

The addition and multiplication operations are defined for the set N and exhibit the familiar
properties of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity.

1.1.2 The set of integer numbers

The set of integer numbers, denoted by Z = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · }

The set N can be seen as a subset of Z, containing {0, +1, +2, · · · }. The numbers +1, +2, · · · are
called positive integers, while −1, −2, · · · are called negative integers. In Z, addition, multiplica-
tion, and subtraction (the inverse of addition) are all defined.

5
6 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

1.1.3 The set of rational numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q.
A rational number is the result of dividing one integer p by another q, where the second integer
p (the denominator) is different from zero. We can assume that the denominator p is positive,
so every rational number can be represented as a ratio of two integers. which is given by

p
½ ¾
Q= , p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+ .
q

Sum, product and difference, the operation of division between two rationals is defined on Q.

1.1.4 The set of real numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by R.
We merely recall that real numbers that are not rational are known as irrational numbers. These
numbers have infinite, non-repeating decimal expansions, such as:
p
2 = 1.4142135623731 · · · , π = 3.1415926535897 · · · .

For sake of simplicity, the set of real numbers R includes both rational and irrational numbers.

Remark 1.1.1 What captures one’s attention are the characteristics of real numbers. We recall
some of them:

• The properties of arithmetic operations on rational numbers are analogous when applied
to real numbers.

• The order relation x < y, which is defined for rational numbers, also applies to real numbers
and exhibits similar characteristics. We will explore this further in the next sections.

• Rational numbers are dense in the set of real numbers. In other words, there are an infinite
number of rational numbers between any two real numbers. This means that we can find
a rational number that is very close to any real number.

•
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

1.2 Axioms for the Real Numbers

1.2.1 Arithmetic Axiom (R is a field)

These axioms define the ways we can use the two binary operations addition (x + y) and multi-
plication (x · y) with real numbers. There are also two unique numbers, 0̄ and 1̄, that must follow
six particular rules:

1. (Commutative laws) For all x and y we have

x + y = y + x and x · y = y · x.
1.2. AXIOMS FOR THE REAL NUMBERS 7

2. (Associative laws) For all x, y and z we have

(x + y) + z = x + (y + z) and (x · y) · z = x · (y · z).

3. (Neutral elements) For all x we have

x + 0̄ = x and x · 1̄ = x.

4. (Additive inverses) For all x there exists y, such that

x + y = 0̄.

5. (Multiplicative inverses) For all x not equal to 0̄ there exists y, such that

x · y = 1̄.

6. (Distributive law) For all x, y and z we have

x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z).

From axioms (1–5) we can figure out some familiar algebraic rules:

i. (Cancellation in sums) If x + y = x + z then y = z.

ii. (Cancellation in products) If x · y = x · z and x = 0̄ then y = z.

According to the cancellation rules, if x + y = 0̄, then y is uniquely determined by x and we can
call it −x. In the same way, if x · y = 1̄ and x is not equal to 0̄, then y is uniquely determined by x
and we can call it x − 1.

1.2.2 Ordering Axioms (R is an ordered field)

There is an order relation, written as (x < y), that can be used to compare pairs of elements in
the set of real numbers R. This relation must follow specific axioms:

1. (Trichotomy) For each x and y exactly one of the following three possibilities must hold:

x = y, x < y, y < x.

2. (Reflexivity) for all x we have x ≤ x.

3. (Anti-symmetry) for all x, y we have x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then x = y.

4. (Transitivity) for all x, y, z, if x < y and y < z then x < z.

5. For all x, y, z, if x < y then x + z < y + z.

6. For all x, y, z, if 0̄ < z and x < y then x · z < y · z.

We define further relations:

• x > y means y < x,

8 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

• x ≤ y means (x < y or x = y),

• x ≥ y means (x > y or x = y).

We use the terms positive and negative to describe numbers. If x > 0̄, we say it’s positive. If x 0̄,
we say it’s negative.
The axioms imply the following familiar rules:

1. x is positive if and only if −x is negative.

2. x > y if and only if x − y is positive.

3. 1̄ is positive.

4. If x is positive then x −1 is positive.

5. For all x not equal to 0̄ the number x 2 is positive.

6. If x < y and z < 0̄ then x · z > y · z.

Before stating the notion of boundedness of a set, we need the following definitions.

Definition 1.2.1 (Upper and Lower Bounds)

A subset E of R is called bounded from above if there exists a real number M such that

x ≤ M, ∀x ∈ E .

The set E is bounded from below if there is a real number m with the following property

m ≤ x, ∀x ∈ E .

In this case, m and M are called, respectively, a lower bound and an upper bound of E . We say
that E is bounded if both bounds (upper and lower) exist. i.e. If there exist two real numbers m
and M such that, for all x ∈ E , m ≤ x ≤ M .

Example 1.2.1

1. E =]0, 3].
−2 and 0 are two lower bounds of E , because for all x ∈ E , −2 ≤ x and 0 ≤ x.
3 and 4 are two upper bounds of E , because for all x ∈ E , x ≤ 3 and x ≤ 4.

2. E = {−5, −3, 0, 4, 5, 10}.

−6 is a lower bound of E , because for all x ∈ E , −6 ≤ x.
10 is an upper bound of E , because for all x ∈ E , x ≤ 10.

3. E = {1, 3, 5} ∪ [−5, 2[.

−5 is a lower bound of E and 5 is an upper bound of E .

4. E = {−10, 0, 2, 4}∩] − 2, 2[.

−1 is a lower bound of E and 1 is an upper bound of E .

5. E = N is bounded from below (each number x < 0 is a lower bound), but not from above.
1.2. AXIOMS FOR THE REAL NUMBERS 9

Remark 1.2.1

1. The upper bound and lower bound of a set E are not unique. Indeed, in R the set E =]0, 3]
has an infinite number of lower bounds and upper bounds.

2. The upper bound and lower bound of a set E can belong to E or not. Indeed, for the set
E = −5, −3, 0, 4, 5, 10, −6 and −5 are two lower bounds of E , −5 belonging to E and −6 not
belonging to E .

Definition 1.2.2 Let E be a non-empty subset of R.

• The lower bound of E that belongs to E (necessarily unique) is called the minimum of the
set E . It is denoted by mi n(E ). In other words,

 m is a lower bound of E .



m = min(E ) ⇐⇒ and



m belonging to E .


• The upper bound of E that belongs to E (necessarily unique) is called the maximum of the
set E . It is denoted by max(E ). In other words,



 M is an upper bound of E .

M = max(E ) ⇐⇒ and



M belonging to E .


Example 1.2.2

1. E = [2, 4]. min(E ) = 2 and max(E ) = 4.

2. I =]0, 1[. min(I ) and max(I ) do not exist.

If a set has a maximum, then it must be bounded from above. The maximum is an upper bound
for the set and is actually the smallest of all possible upper bounds. The opposite is not true: a
set can be bounded from above but not admit a maximum. We know that 1 is the smallest of
upper bounds of the interval I =]0, 1[, but it does not belong to I . Thus, 1 is the supremum, or
least upper bound, of I , sup(I ) = 1 .

Definition 1.2.3 Let E ⊂ R be bounded from above. The supremum or least upper bound of E is
the smallest of all upper bounds of E , denoted by sup(E ). In other words,




 M is an upper bound of E .

M = sup(E ) ⇐⇒ and



M is the smallest of all upper bounds of E .


If E ⊂ R is bounded from below, one calls infimum or greatest lower bound of E the largest of all
lower bounds of E . This is denoted by inf(E ). In other words,



 m is a lower bound of E .

m = inf(E ) ⇐⇒ and



m is the largest of all lower bounds of E .

10 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 1.1 (Characterisation of supremum and infimum): Let E be a non-empty subset

of R, we have: 
 ∀x ∈ E , x ≤ M
1. M = sup(E ) ⇐⇒
 ∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ E , M − ε < x.

 ∀x ∈ E , m ≤ x
2. m = inf(E ) ⇐⇒
 ∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ E , x < m + ε.

Remark 1.2.2 1. The supremum of a set is a more general concept than the maximum of a set. It
is easy to show that if a set has a maximum, then this maximum is also the supremum of the set.
For sake of simplicity:

• If E has a maximum then sup(E ) = max(E ).

• If E has a minimum then inf(E ) = min(E ).

• If inf(E ) ∈ E then inf(E ) = min(E ).

• If sup(E ) ∈ E then sup(E ) = max(E ).

2. If a set E has no upper bound, then we say that its supremum is +∞, which means that we
define
sup(E ) = +∞.

Likewise, if a set E has no lower bound, then we say that its infimum is −∞, which means that we
define
inf(E ) = −∞.

1.3 Some fundamental properties of R

1.3.1 Completeness of R
The property of completeness of R involves the notion of supremum of a set: every bounded set
from above admits a supremum in R, that is for all E ⊂ R and E ̸= φ; E is bounded from above
implies sup(E ) exists in R.i.e.,there is a real number smaller or equal than all upper bounds of
the set.

1.3.2 Inequalities
Let x, y, z, t ∈ R we have:

1. If x ≤ y then x − z ≤ y − z.

 x ·z ≤ y ·z if z ≥ 0
2. If x ≤ y then
 x ·z ≥ y ·z if z ≤ 0.

 x2 ≤ y 2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ y
3. If x ≤ y then
 y 2 ≤ x2 if x ≤ y ≤ 0.
1.3. SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF R 11

1
4. If 0 < x ≤ y then 0 < y ≤ x1 .

1 1
5. If x ≤ y < 0 then y ≤ x < 0.

1
6. If x ≤ y with x < 0 and y > 0 then x < 1y .

7. If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 then ∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 ≤ x n ≤ x n−1 ≤ · · · ≤ x 2 ≤ x ≤ 1.

8. If 1 ≤ x then ∀n ∈ N∗ , 1 ≤ x ≤ x 2 ≤ · · · ≤ x n−1 ≤ x n .

9. If x ≤ y and z ≤ t then x + z ≤ y + t

10. If x ≤ y and z ≤ t with x ≥ 0 and z ≥ 0 then x · z ≤ y · t .

1.3.3 Absolute value

We will now define a basic but essential concept.

Definition 1.3.1 If x is a real number, then the real number that is called the absolute value of x
is 
 x if x ≥0
|x| =
 −x i f x < 0.

Properties of absolute value

Let x, y ∈ R, we have

1. |x| ≥ 0 for any x in R.

2. | − x| = |x|.

3. x ≤ |x| and −x ≤ |x|.

4. x = max(−x, x).

5. |x| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.

6. Let a ≥ 0 then |x| ≤ a ⇐⇒ −a ≤ x ≤ a.

7. |x · y| = |x| · |y|.
¯ ¯
|x|
8. If y ̸= 0 then ¯ xy ¯ = |y| .
¯ ¯

¯ ¯
9. ¯|x| − |y|¯ ≤ |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|. (Called triangle inequality)
¯ ¯
10. ¯|x| − |y|¯ ≤ |x − y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

1.3.4 Integer part of a real number

Definition 1.3.2 Let x be a real number. The largest integer less than or equal to x is called the
integer part of x. We will denote it by E (x) or ⌊x⌋.

p
Example 1.3.1 a) E (3.4) = 3, b) E ( 2) = 1, c) E (−2.5) = −3, d) E (1) = 1.
12 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Properties of the integer part of a real number

1. ∀x ∈ R we have E (x) ≤ x < E (x + 1).

2. ∀x ∈ R, n ∈ N. We have E (x + n) = E (x) + n.

3. ∀x, y ∈ R we have E (x) + E (y) ≤ E (x + y) ≤ E (x) + E (y) + 1.

Figure 1.1: The integer part function

Remark 1.3.1 For all x, y ∈ R, we have




 E (x) + E (y)

E (x + y) = or



E (x) + E (y) + 1.


1.3.5 The Archimedes property

For any x ∈ R∗+ and any y ∈ R, there is an n ∈ N such that n · x > y.

1.3.6 Density of Q in R
Between any two real numbers, there is always a rational number.i.e.,

∀a, b ∈ R ( with a < b), ∃q ∈ Q such that a < q < b.

This means that the rational numbers are dense in the real numbers.

1.4 Interval
As we have seen, Mathematical Analysis often studies subsets of R that have elements between
two fixed numbers. These subsets are called intervals.
1.4. INTERVAL 13

Definition 1.4.1 let I be a part of R (subset)

I is an interval of R if and only if

∀x, y ∈ I , ∀c ∈ R; x < c < y =⇒ c ∈ I .

Remark 1.4.1

• The intersection of two intervals of R is an interval of R.

• The union of two non-disjoint intervals of R is an interval of R.

• The union of two disjoint intervals of R is not an interval of R.

1.4.1 Characterization of bounded parts in R

Lemma 1.4.1 Let E be a non-empty part of R, the following propositions are equivalent

1. E is bounded in R.

2. There exists a bounded interval I of R such that: E ⊂ I .

3. ∃M ≥ 0 such that, ∀x ∈ E , |x| ≤ M .

1.4.2 Neighborhood
Let us introduce the notion of neighbourhood of a point.

Definition 1.4.2 Let x 0 ∈ R be a point on the real line, and ε > 0 a real number. We call V ⊂ R the
neighborhood of x 0 the open and bounded interval

]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[= {x ∈ R : |x − x 0 | < ε} ⊂ V.

In other words, A neighborhood of a point is a set that contains an open interval around that
point.

Example 1.4.1

• V = [2, 4] is a neighborhood of 3, but [2, 4] is not a neighborhood of 2 and 4.

• E = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 2, 4}, E is not a neighborhood of each of its points.

Remark 1.4.2

• Let V ∈ R be a neighborhood of +∞ if and only if there exists a ∈ R such that

]a, +∞[⊂ V.

• Let V ∈ R be a neighborhood of −∞ if and only if there exists a ∈ R such that

] − ∞, a[⊂ V.

Result

Every non-empty interval I of R contains an infinity of rational numbers.

14 CHAPTER 1. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

1.4.3 Accumulation point, adherent point

Definition 1.4.3 Let A be a non-empty subset of R and x 0 ∈ R.

1. We say that x 0 is an adherent point to A if every open interval centered at x 0 contains at

least one element of A, that is

∀ε > 0, ]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[∩A ̸= φ.

2. We say that x 0 is an accumulation point of A, if every open interval centered at x 0 contains

at least one element of A other than x 0 , that is

∀ε > 0, ]x 0 − ε, x 0 + ε[\{x 0 } ∩ A ̸= φ.

Result

• An adherent point of a part of R is a point that is either in the part or in its boundary.

• An accumulation point of a part of R is a point that is not in the part but can be
arbitrarily close to it.

The set of points adhering to A is denoted Ā and is called adhesion of A.

Example 1.4.2 Let A =]1, 2] ∪ {3}, we have:

• 1 is an adherent point to A and an accumulation point of A, but 1 ∉ A.

• 2 is an adherent point to A and an accumulation point of A, but 2 ∈ A.

• 3 is an adherent point to A but it is not an accumulation point of A, because if we choose

ε = 12 , then ]3 − ε, 3 + ε[\{3} ∩ A = φ.

Remark 1.4.3

• An accumulation point of A is an adherent point of A but the converse is false.

• An adherent point to the set A that is not an accumulation point is called an isolated point.

• If A is a bounded set in R then: M = sup(A) and m = i n f (A) are two adherent points of A.

• The adhesion of an interval of ends a and b is the closed interval [a, b].
 2023/2024 Tutorial=1 Department: Common Core in Mathematics
Analysis 1 Real Numbers and Computer Science Batna 2-University.

Exercise 1
Given x, y, z ∈ R, Prove the following inequalities:

1. |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|, 1 2
4. (x + y 2 ) ≥ xy
2
2. ||x| − |y|| ≤ |x − y|
p
3. x2 + y 2 ≤ |x| + |y| 5. xy + xz + yz ≤ x2 + y 2 + z 2

Exercise 2
Show that:
√
1. 3 is irrational
√
2. for all (a, b) ∈ Q × Q∗ , the numbers a + b 3 are irrational.
ln 3
3. is irrational.
ln 2

Exercise 3
Justify whether the following assertions are true or false :

a. The sum, the product of two rational numbers, the inverse of a non-zero rational number is a
rational number.

b. The sum or product of two irrational numbers is an irrational.

c. The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is an irrational.

d. The product of a rational number and an irrational number is an irrational.

Exercise 4
Let x, y ∈ R, show that:

1. f (x) = E(x) is an increasing function.

2. E(x) + E(y) ≤ E(x + y) ≤ E(x) + E(y) + 1

E(nx)
3. ∀n ∈ N∗ , E( ) = E(x)
n

Exercise 5
For each of the following sets, describe the set of all upper bounds for the set :

1. the set of odd integers;

 
1
2. 1 − : n ∈ N ;
n
3. {r ∈ Q : r3 < 8};
 4. {sin x : x ∈ R}

Exercise 6
For each of the sets in (1),(2),(3) of the preceding exercise, find the least upper bound of the set, if
it exists.

Exercise 7
Let A, B be two non-empty bounded parts of R. Note −A = {−x, x ∈ A}. Show that:

1. sup(−A) = − inf(A)

2. inf(−A) = − sup(A)

3. If A ⊂ B, then: 
sup(A) ≤ sup(B)
inf(B) ≤ inf(A)

4. sup(A ∪ B) = max(sup(A), sup(B))

5. inf(A ∪ B) = min(inf(A), inf(B))

Exercise 8
Determine ( if they exist ) sup, inf, max, min of the following sets :

1. A = [1, 2] ∩ Q 4. D = {x ∈ R : x2 ≤ 3}
2. B = [1, 2[∩Q
5. E = {x ∈ R : |x| > 1}
 
1
3. C = vn = , n∈N 6. F = {x ∈ R : |x2 − 1| > 1}
n+1

Exercise 9
Let a, b ∈ Q such that a < b, Show that:

∃c∈Q: a<c<b
Chapter 2
Complex numbers

2.1 Algebraic form:

the set of complex numbers is created as an extension of the set of real numbers, containing
in particular an imaginary number denoted i. This new number, combined with the real
numbers, is the basis of the complex numbers. The appearance of these numbers has simplified
the resolution of many physical problems. In particular, electronics and electrical engineering
make extensive use of complex numbers.
Definition 2.1
Every number z can be uniquely written in the algebraic form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R
and i2 = −1. This is called the algebraic form of the complex number z. The real x is
called the ”real part of z” and is written Re(z). The real y is called the ” imaginary part
of z” and is denoted by Im(z). If y = 0 then z ∈ R is a real number, if x = 0 then z is a
pure imaginary.

Example 2.1
1. 2 + 4i is a complex number whose real part is 2 and imaginary part is 4.
√ √
2. π + 2i is a complex number which real part is π and imaginary part is 2.

3. 3i is pure imaginary.

Complex numbers follow the same rules as the four operations on real numbers (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division).
1. Equality: Two complex numbers z = x + iy and z prime = a + ib are equal if
(x, y) = (a, b). pay attention: there is no inequality in C.
2. addition, multiplication: Let be two complex numbers z = x + iy and
z ′ = a + ib. (
z + z ′ = (x + a) + i(y + b)
zz ′ = (xa − yb) + i(xb + ay).

Definition 2.2: Conjugate Complex Numbers

Let z = x + iy be any complex number. The complex number x − iy is called the complex
conjugate of z , and is denoted by z̄ .

1
Chapter 02 Complex numbers

Example 2.2
For example, the conjugate of z = 2 − 3i est z̄ = 2 + 3i

Proposition 2.1

Let z and z ′ be two complex numbers then:

1. z=z
2. z + z′ = z + z′
3. z.z ′ = z.z ′
4. z + z = 2 × Re(z)
5. z − z = 2i × Im(z)
z z
6. ( ′ ) = ′ with z ′ ̸= 0
z z

2.2 Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers :

Definition 2.3: Modulus of Complex Number

For any complex number z = x + iy, the real number r = |z|, defined by:
q
r = |z| = x2 + y 2

is called the modulus of z.

Example 2.3
√ q √ √
The modulus of the complex number z = 2 − 2i is |z| = 22 + ( 2)2 = 6.

Proposition 2.2

Let z and z ′ be two complex numbers then:

1. |z| ≥ 0
2. |z| = |z|
3. z.z = |z|2
4. |z| = 0 ⇐⇒ z = 0
5. |z.z ′ | = |z||z ′ |
6. |Re(z)| ≤ |z| and |Im(z)| ≤ |z|
7. |z n | = |z|n , n ∈ N
8. |z + z ′ | ≤ |z| + |z ′ | et ||z| − |z ′ || ≤ |z − z ′ |

2
Chapter 02 Complex numbers

Definition 2.4: Argument of Complex Number

x
Every non-zero complex number z = x + iy can be written in the form z = |z|( +
|z|
y
i),Ṫhe argument of the complex number z, denoted (arg(z)), is the real number θ ∈
|z|
[0, 2π[ defined by :  x
 cos θ =


|z|
y
 sin θ = .


|z|
where |z| is the modulus of the complex number z .

Example 2.4
√
for z = 1 + 3i, we have:
√
z =1+ 3i
√
1 3
= 2( + )
2 2
π π
= 2(cos + sin )
3 3
π
in this example arg(z) = θ = and r = |z| = 2
3

Proposition 2.3

Let z and z ′ be two complex numbers then:

1. arg(z.z ′ ) = arg(z) + arg(z ′ )

2. arg(z) = − arg(z)
1
3. arg( ) = − arg(z)
z

Theorem 2.1: Trigonometric

Any non-null complex number z can be written as:

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) with r = |z| et θ = arg(z) + 2kπ, k ∈ Z

2.3 Exponential Form

Remark 2.1
From proposition (2.3) and since the product of two exponentials is equal to the expo-
nential of the sum. For this reason, we introduce the following notation:

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

3
Chapter 02 Complex numbers

Definition 2.5
Any non-zero complex number z can be written in exponential form

z = |z|ei arg(z)

Example 2.5
π √ √
i π π 2 2
1. e 4 = cos + i sin = +i
4 4 2 2
√
2. For z = 1 + i 3, we have:
√
z =1+i 3
√
1 3
= 2( + i )
2 2
π π
= 2(cos + i sin )
3 3
π
i
= 2e 3

2.4 De Moiver’s Theorem and Euler’s Formula

De Moiver’s Formula
For any real number θ and for any integer n:

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ

Or
(eiθ )n = einθ

Euler’s Formulas
for all x ∈ R and all n ∈ Z we have
eix + e−ix
1. cos x =
2
eix − e−ix
2. sin x =
2i
e + e−inx
inx
3. cos nx =
2
einx − e−inx
4. sin nx =
2i

Linearization of trigonometric polynomials

It consists in transforming the powers cosn (x), sinn (x) into sums and multiples of expres-
sions of the type sin(kx) and cos(k.x) . To do this, we use Euler’s formulas and Newton’s
binomial (a + b)n .

4
Chapter 02 Complex numbers

Example 2.6
From Euler’s formula
1  ix 
cos(x) = e + e−ix
2
We have:

1.
(a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab

 1
2 1 i2x −i2x ⇒ cos2 (x) = (2 cos(2x) + 2)
 cos (x) = (e + e + 2) 4
4
which implies that:
1
cos2 (x) = (cos(2x) + 1)
2
2.
(a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2

 1
1 i3x −i3x ix −ix ⇒ cos3 (x) = (2 cos(3x) + 6 cos(x))
 cos3 (x) = (e + e + 3e + 3e ) 8
8
which implies that:
1
cos3 (x) = (cos(3x) + 3 cos(x))
4
3.
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4


1 i4x
 cos4 (x) = (e + e−i4x + 4ei2x + 4e−i2x + 6)
16
1
⇒ cos4 (x) = (2 cos(4x) + 8 cos(2x) + 6)
16
which implies that:

1
cos4 (x) = (cos(4x) + 4 cos(2x) + 3)
8

4.
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5


1 i5x
 cos5 (x) = (e + e−i5x + 5(ei3x + e−i3x ) + 10(eix + e−ix ))
32
which implies that:

1
cos5 (x) = (cos(5x) + 5 cos(3x) + 10 cos(x))
16

5.
(a + b)6 = a6 + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6


1 i6x
 cos6 (x) = (e + e−i6x + 6(ei4x + e−i4x ) + 15(ei2x + e−i2x ) + 20)
64
which implies that:
1
cos6 (x) = (cos(6x) + 6 cos(4x) + 15 cos(2x) + 10)
32

5
Chapter 02 Complex numbers

2.5 Square roots

Definition 2.6
The square root of a complex number a is any number b whose square is a

Example 2.7

a. 1 + i and −1 − i are the square roots of 2i because (1 + i)2 = (−1 − i)2 = 2i.

b. −4 has two opposite square roots : +2i, −2i.

Remark 2.2
To determine the square roots of z = x + iy it is sometimes simpler to proceed by
identification, i.e. to find the real numbers α and β such that (x + iy) = (α + iβ)2 we
obtain:
2 2

 α −β
 =x
2αβ = y√
 2 2
α + β = x2 + y 2


Definition 2.7
Let n ∈ N∗ , a ∈ C. The complex number z such that z n = a is called an n-th root of a.

Example 2.8
√ √
a = 2, b = −1 − i 3, c = −1 + i 3 : these are the cubic roots of 8 in C, also known as
the third roots of 8.

6
 2023/2024 Tutorial=2 Department: Common Core in Mathematics
Analysis 1 Complex numbers and Computer Science Batna 2-University.

Exercise 1
Put the following complex numbers into algebraic form:
1 i 1 1
1. 3. 5. +
i i+1 2+i 2−i
2+i 1 1 i
2. 4. 6. +
5−i 2−i 1+i 1+i

Exercise 2
Determine the modulus and an argument for each complex number :

1. −2 3. 2e−2i 1+i
5. √
3−1
√ √
2. 3i 4. −1 + i 3 6. ( 3 − i)9

Exercise 3
Find the points of the complex plane which satisfy the following conditions.

1. |z| ≤ 2 2. z + z = 1 3. |z − 3 + 5i| = 2

Exercise 4
Let α ∈ R. Express cos 5α as a function of cos 5α, then sin 5α as a function of sin 5α, give the value
π
of cos .
10

Exercise 5
Find the square roots of the following complex numbers:
√
1. 5+i 2. 6-8i 3. 4 3+i

Exercise 6
Solve the following equation in C:

1. z 2 + (2 − 2i)z = 3i + 1 1+i 3. z 6 = 27i

2. z 3 = √
2

Exercise 7
1. For all x ∈ R, compute the following sums using the exponential form of a complex number:

A = cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x + cos 4x + cos 5x + cos 6x + cos 7x

B = sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + sin 5x + sin 6x + sin 7x

2. by using Euler formulas, linearize: cos x3 , sin x3 , cos x3 sin x4 .

Chapter 3

Sequences of real numbers

3.1 Definitions and examples

Définition 1
A sequence of real numbers is a real-valued function whose domain is the set of natural numbers N
or an infinite subset N1 ⊂ N to the real numbers i.e:
u : N −→ R u : N1 −→ R
ou
n 7−→ u(n) n 7−→ u(n)

Notations:

• For n ∈ N, u(n) is denoted by un and is called the general term or n-th term of the sequence.

• The sequence u is denoted by (un )n∈N or (un )n∈N1 .

Exemple 1
1 1 1
1 The sequence (un )n∈N∗ defined by: un = , starts with u1 = 1, and u2 = , u3 = ,......
n 2 3

u1 = 1
2 The recurrent sequence defined by: 1 starts with u1 = 1, and u2 = 2, u3 =
un = 1 +
un−1
3
,....
2

Remark
The ways in which a sequence can be defined.

• By an explicit definition of the general term of the sequence (un ) i.e.: Express un in terms of n.
2n + 1
For example, un = .
n+7
• By a recurrence formula, i.e. a relationship that links any term in the sequence to the one that
precedes it. In this case, to calculate un , you need to calculate all the terms that precede it. For
example :

1
3.2. BOUNDED SEQUENCES

(
u0 = 2
un+1 = 3un − 1

3.2 Bounded sequences

Définition 2
Let (un )n∈N be a real sequence.

• A sequence (un )n∈N is bounded above iff: ∃M ∈ R, ∀n ∈ N; un ≤ M

• A sequence (un )n∈N is bounded below iff: ∃m ∈ R, ∀n ∈ N; m ≤ un

• A sequence (un )n∈N is bounded iff: it is bounded above and bounded below which means :

∃M ∈ R+ , ∀n ∈ N; |un | ≤ M

3.3 Increasing and decreasing sequences

Définition 3
Let (un )n∈N be a sequence

• (un )n∈N is an increasing sequence iff: ∀n ∈ N; un ≤ un+1

• (un )n∈N is a strictly increasing sequence iff: ∀n ∈ N; un < un+1

• (un )n∈N is a decreasing sequence iff: ∀n ∈ N; un ≥ un+1

• (un )n∈N is a strictly decreasing sequence iff: ∀n ∈ N; un > un+1

• (un )n∈N is monotonic if it is increasing or decreasing.

• (un )n is strictly monotonic if it is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.

• (un )n∈N is a constant sequence iff ∀n ∈ N; un+1 = un

3.4 Finite and infinite limit of a numerical sequence

Définition 4: Convergent sequences
Let (un )n∈N be a real sequence. We say that the sequence (un )n∈N converges to l iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |un − l| ≤ ε

In this case, we say that the sequence (un )n∈N is convergent to the limit l and we note lim un = l
n→+∞

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 2/12 2023-2024

3.4. FINITE AND INFINITE LIMIT OF A NUMERICAL SEQUENCE

Remark

|un − l| ≤ ε ⇔ l − ε ≤ un ≤ l + ε ⇔ un ∈ [l − ε, l + ε]
The above definition means that for any strictly positive real ε, there exists an integer n0 (rank) such
that: all terms un0 , un0 +1 , un0 +2 .... are in the interval [l − ε, l + ε].

Exemple 2
n
• The sequence un = converges to 1
n+1
Using the definition of convergence, we show that lim un = 1
n→+∞
Let ε > 0 we have:

|un − 1| ≤ ε
n
⇔| − 1| ≤ ε
n+1
n
⇔| − 1| ≤ ε
n+1
1
⇔ |1 − − 1| ≤ ε
n+1
1
⇔ ≤ε
n+1
1
⇔ −1 ≤ n
ε
1 1
By setting n0 = ⌊ ⌋ > − 1, we obtain :
ε ε
1
∀ε > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N (n0 = ⌊ ⌋), ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |un − 1| ≤ ε
ε
=⇒ (un )n∈N converges to l = 1
Using Maple, we get the following graph:

Figure 3.1: ε = 0.1

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 3/12 2023-2024

3.4. FINITE AND INFINITE LIMIT OF A NUMERICAL SEQUENCE

Définition 5
1 We say that the sequence (un )n∈N tends to +∞ as n tends to infinity and we note lim un = +∞
n→+∞
iff:
∀A > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ un ≥ A

2 We say that the sequence (un )n∈N tends to −∞ as n tends to infinity and we note lim un = −∞
n→+∞
iff:
∀A > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ un ≤ −A

Exemple 3
• Let be the following sequences : (
un = 2n + 1
vn = −3n + 4

We show that lim un = +∞ and lim vn = −∞

n→+∞ n→+∞

1 Let A > 0 on a:

un ≥ A
⇔ 2n + 1 ≥ A
⇔ 2n ≥ A − 1
A−1
⇔ 2n ≥
2

A−1 A−1
Let’s put n0 = [ ]+1 >
2 2
A−1
=⇒ (∀A > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N (n0 = [ ] + 1), ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ un ≥ A)
2

2 The same method used for the sequence (vn )n∈N

Définition 6: divergent sequences

Let (un )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers. We say that the sequence (un )n∈N is divergent if it is not
convergent, i.e

∀l ∈ R, ∃ε > 0, ∀n0 ∈ N, ∃n ∈ N; (n ≥ n0 ) ∧ (|un − l| > ε)

Remark
here are two types of divergence

1 Divergence of infinite type: in this case the sequence converges to +∞ or −∞. For example the
sequence with general term un = 2n + 4.

2 Divergence of type limit does not exist: in this case the sequence has no finite or infinite limit.

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 4/12 2023-2024

3.4. FINITE AND INFINITE LIMIT OF A NUMERICAL SEQUENCE

For example, the sequence with general term un = (−1)n

Proof:
We will show that the sequence (−1)n does not have a finite or infinite limit.

1 By contradiction, suppose that: lim (−1)n = l /l ∈ R. According to the convergence definition with
n→+∞
1
ε = we get:
4
1 1
∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ un ∈ [l − , l + ]
4 4
1 1
=⇒ −1, 1 ∈ [l − , l + ]
4 4
1 1


 l− ≤1≤l+
 4
 4
=⇒
l − 1 ≤ −1 ≤ l + 1



4 4
1 1


 l− ≤1≤l+
 4
 4
=⇒
−l − 1 ≤ 1 ≤ −l + 1



4 4

1 1
=⇒ − ≤ 2 ≤
2 2
It’s a contradiction.

2 By contradiction, suppose that: lim (−1)n = +∞. According to the convergence definition with
n→+∞
A = 4 we get:
∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ un ≥ 4
=⇒ un ∈ [4, +∞[ =⇒ −1, 1 ∈ [4, +∞[
It’s a contradiction.

3 We use the same method for the case: lim (−1)n = −∞

n→+∞

Proposition 1:
If a sequence of real numbers (un )n∈N has a limit, then this limit is unique.

Proof:

By contradiction

 lim un = l1
Suppose that:; n→+∞
 lim un = l2
n→+∞
|l1 − l2 |
Taking ε = with l1 ̸= l2 which implies
4
(
∃n1 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n1 =⇒ |un − l1 | ≤ ε
∃n2 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n2 =⇒ |un − l2 | ≤ ε

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 5/12 2023-2024

3.5. FINDING LIMITS: PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

Putting n0 = max(n1 , n2 )

=⇒ (∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |un − l1 | + |un − l2 | ≤ 2ε)

With n ≥ n0 we get

|l1 − l2 | ≤ |un − l1 | + |un − l2 | ≤ 2ε

=⇒ |11 − l2 | ≤ 2ε
|11 − l2 | ε
=⇒ ≤
4 2
ε
=⇒ ε ≤ it’s a contradiction
2

Proposition 2
2mm If (un )n∈N is a convergent sequence, then (un )n∈N is a bounded sequence.

Proof:

We’ll show the following implication:

(un )n∈N is a convergent sequence =⇒ (un )n∈N is bounded

Suppose that (un )n∈N is convergent, then for ε = 1 we have:

∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |un − l| ≤ 1
=⇒ m = l − ε ≤ un ≤ 1 + ε = M

So the set {un0 , un0 +1 , .......} is bounded.

On the other hand A = {u0 ....., un0 −2 , un0 −1 } is bounded (because Card(A) < +∞). Then the set of values
of (un ) is: {u0 ....., un0 −2 , un0 −1 , un0 , un0 +1 , .......} is bounded, tihs means (un ) is bounded.

3.5 Finding Limits: Properties of Limits

Theorem 1
Let (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N two convergent sequences with: lim un = l and lim vn = l ′ . The
n→+∞ n→+∞
properties of limits are summarized as follows:

1 lim λ un = λ l with λ ∈ R
n→+∞

2 lim (un + vn ) = l + l ′
n→+∞

3 lim un vn = ll ′
n→+∞

1 1
4 If un ̸= 0 pour n ≥ n0 and l ̸= 0 then lim =
n→+∞ un l
un l
5 If vn ̸= 0 pour n ≥ n0 and l ′ ̸= 0 then lim = ′
n→+∞ vn l

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 6/12 2023-2024

3.6. LIMITS AND INEQUALITIES

Remark
lim un = l =⇒ lim |un | = |l|. Be careful the reverse is not true. For example, if we take the
n→+∞ n→+∞
sequence un = (−1)n we have lim |un | = 1 but lim un doesn’t exist.
n→+∞ n→+∞

Proposition 3: Infinite limit’s operations

Let (un )n∈N , (vn )n∈N two sequences with: lim un = +∞ and lim vn = +∞ then:
n→+∞ n→+∞

1 lim (un + vn ) = +∞
n→+∞

1
2 If ∀n ≥ n0 , un ̸= 0 then lim =0
n→+∞ un

3.6 Limits and inequalities

Theorem 2
1 Let (un )n∈N , (vn )n∈N be two convergent sequences, then:
If ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ≥ n0 ; un ≤ vn this implies lim un ≤ lim vn
n→+∞ n→+∞


∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ≥ n0 ; un ≤ vn


2 If, we have (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N two sequences which verify:- and

 lim un = +∞

n→+∞
this implies lim vn = +∞
n→+∞

3 Squeeze Theorem : If (un )n∈N , (vn )n∈N and (wn )n∈N three sequences with:

∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ≥ n0 ; un ≤ vn ≤ wn


and

 lim un = lim wn = l

n→+∞ n→+∞

then the sequence (vn )n∈N is convergent and lim vn = l

n→+∞

3.7 Convergence theorems

Theorem 3: Convergence of monotonic sequences
• If a sequence of real numbers is increasing and bounded above, then it converges.

• If a sequence of real numbers is decreasing and bounded below, then it converges.

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 7/12 2023-2024

3.7. CONVERGENCE THEOREMS

Exemple 4

u0 = 1
Let (un )n∈N be a numerical sequence defined by: 2 .
un+1 = 1 + un
2

1 Prove that ∀n ∈ N; un ≤ 1
2 Deduce that the sequence (un )n∈N is convergent.
1
• by using proof by induction, we have for n = 0, u0 = ≤ 1 so the proposition is true. Let’s
2
assume that the proposition is true for k ∈ {1, ..., n} and we’ll show that un+1 ≤ 1. According
to the assumption we have:

1 + u2n
un ≤ 1 =⇒ u2n ≤ 1 =⇒ 1 + u2n ≤ 2 =⇒ ≤ 1 =⇒ un+1 ≤ 1
2

So, assertion ∀n ∈ N; un ≤ 1 is true.

1 + u2n (un − 1)2
• On a ∀n ∈ N; un+1 − un = − un = ≥0
2 2
• Since (un )n∈N is increasing and bounded above so (un )n∈N is convergent.

Définition 7: Adjacent sequences

Let (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N be two real sequences. We say that (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N are adjacent iff:


(un )n∈N is increasing




 and
(vn )n∈N is decreasing



 and

 lim (un − vn ) = 0

n→+∞

Theorem 4:
If the sequences (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N are adjacent then they converge to the same limit.

Exemple 5
n 1 2
The sequences un = ∑ 2
and vn = un + are adjacent :
k=1 k n

n+1 1 n 1 1
• un+1 − un = ∑ 2
− ∑ 2
= ≥ 0 =⇒ (un )n∈N is increasing
k=1 k k=1 k (n + 1)2
1 2 2 (n + 2)
• vn+1 − vn = 2
+ − =− ≤ 0 =⇒ (vn )n∈N is decreasing
(n + 1) n+1 n n(n + 1)2

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 8/12 2023-2024

3.7. CONVERGENCE THEOREMS

2
• lim (un − vn ) = lim (− ) = 0
n→+∞ n→+∞ n
Therefore the sequences (un )n∈N and (vn )n∈N are convergent to the same limits.

Figure 3.2: (un ) and (vn ) are adjacent

Définition 8: Cauchy sequence

Let (un )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers.
(un )n∈N is called a Cauchy sequence in R iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀p, q ∈ N; p, q ≥ n0 =⇒ |u p − uq | ≤ ε

Remark
|u p − uq | ≤ ε ⇔ the distance between u p , et uq is less than ε.
So the definition above means that:- for any strictly positive real ε, there exists n0 (rank), such that
the distance between each two terms u p ,uq (with p, q ≥ n0 ) is less than ε.

Using Maple, we obtain the following graph of a Cauchy sequence:

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 9/12 2023-2024

3.8. SUBSEQUENCE

‘
cos(n) + sin(n) + n
Figure 3.3: un = , ε = 0.08
n

Exemple 6
1
• un = is a Cauchy sequence
n

Let p, q ∈ N∗ with p ≤ q then we have:

1 1 1 1
|u p − uq | = − ≤ + according to the triangular inequality
p q p q
2 1 1
=⇒ |u p − uq | ≤ ( because: ≤ )
p q p
 
2 2
Let ε > 0, we put n0 = +1 >
ε ε
So, ∀ε > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N∗ , ∀p, q ∈ N∗ ; p, q ≥ n0 =⇒ |u p − uq | ≤ ε

Theorem 5:
Let (un )n∈N be a real sequence then:
(un )n∈N is a Cauchy sequence ⇐⇒ (un )n∈N is convergent

3.8 Subsequence
Définition 9
The sequence (uφ (n) )n∈N is a subsequence of the sequence (un )n∈N if φ : N −→ N is a strictly
increasing sequence of of natural numbers.

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3.8. SUBSEQUENCE

Exemple 7

2n
u2n = (−1) = 1

1 un = (−1)n −→

u2n+1 = (−1)2n+1 = −1

(u2n )n∈N and (u2n+1 )n∈N are subsequences taken from (un )n∈N

2 vn = cos( nπ3 ) −→ v3n = cos(nπ) = (−1)n

(v3n )n∈N is a sub-sequence of (vn )n∈N

Proposition 4:
Let (un )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers:

1 If lim un = l, then for any subsequence (uφ (n) )n∈N ; lim uφ (n) = l
n→+∞ n→+∞

2 If (un )n∈N admits a divergent subsequence then (un )n∈N is divergent

3 If (un )n∈N has two subsequences converging to distinct limits then (un )n∈N is divergent.

Exemple 8
the sequence with general term un = (−1)n is divergent:
We have:

lim u = 1

u2n = 1 n→+∞ 2n
 

and =⇒ and
 
u2n+1 = −1  lim u2n+1 = −1
 
n→+∞

So,(u2n )n∈N and (u2n+1 )n∈N are two subsequences of (un )n∈N which converge to distinct limits,
therefore (un )n∈N is divergent.

Theorem 6: Bolzano-Weierstrass Property

Every bounded sequence has a convergent sub-sequence.

Définition 9: Cluster Points of the sequence

A cluster Point of a numerical sequence (un )n∈N is any scalar which is the limit of a subsequence of
(un )n∈N .

Exemple 9
• Let’s consider the sequence (un )n∈N defined by: un = cos(n π2 )

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3.9. LIMIT INFERIOR AND LIMIT SUPERIOR


u4n = cos(2nπ) = 1 =⇒ lim u4n = 1
n→+∞




u4n+1 = cos( π2 ) = 0 =⇒ lim u4n+1 = 0

n→+∞
u4n+2 = cos(π) = −1 =⇒ lim u4n+2 = −1
n→+∞



 π
u4n+3 = cos(3 2 ) = 0 =⇒ lim u4n+3 = 0

n→+∞

So the sequence (un )n∈N is divergent. The numbers 1, −1, 0 are the cluster points of the sequence
(un )n∈N .

3.9 Limit inferior and limit superior

Définition 10
Let (un )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers.
Denoting by S = The set of cluster points of the sequence (un )n∈N .
We define the limit superior (resp. inferior) of (un )n∈N as

lim sup un = sup S



lim inf un = inf S


Exemple 10
Let (un )n∈N defined by: un = (−1)n
The set of all cluster points of the sequence (un )n∈N is S = {1, −1}
so, lim sup un = 1, and lim inf un = −1

Common Core in Math-Inf, Batna 2-University. 12/12 2023-2024

 2023/2024 Tutorial=3 Department: Common Core in Mathematics
Analysis 1 Sequences of Real Numbers and Computer Science Batna 2-University.

Exercise 1
Let (un )n∈N∗ be the sequence defined by :
n+2
un =
n+1
1. Show that (un )n∈N∗ converges to 1.

2. Find an integer n0 ∈ N such that all terms un of index n ≥ n0 are in the interval I =]0.98; 1.2[.

Exercise 2
Let (un )n a sequence of real numbers, and assume that it converges to a positive limit l > 0. Show
that there exists some N ∈ N such that ∀n ≥ N : un > 0.

Exercise 3
Study the nature of the following sequences and determine their possible limits:
√ √ 2
1. n2 + n + 1 − n sin n2 + 2 cos n
3. 5. (1 + )n
n2 n
n cos n an − b n 3 3
2. 4. ; a, b ∈]0, +∞[ 6. n3 (tan − sin )
n3 + 1 an + b n n n

Exercise 4
Let the sequences (xn ), (yn ), (un ), and (vn ) of real numbers such that:

1. (∀n ∈ N, xn ≤ 2 et yn ≤ 3) et xn + yn → 5

2. (∀n ∈ N, 0 ≤ un ≤ 1 et 0 ≤ vn ≤ 1) et un .vn → 1

Show that the sequences defined above are convergent

Exercise 5
Let (un ) be a sequence of real numbers

1. If lim un = +∞, show that lim E(un ) = +∞.

2. If the sequence (un ) converges, can we say that E(un ) converges?

1
Exercise 6
4
Let (un ) be a sequence such that u0 = 4 and ∀n ∈ N : un+1 = 3 − .
2 + un
1. Show that un ≥ 2, for all n ∈ N.

2. Prove that (un ) is a monotonic sequence.

3. Study its convergence. If it converges, compute its limit.

Exercise 7
1 1 1
For any n ∈ N∗ , consider the sequence defined by: Hn = 1 + + + ... +
2 3 n
1. Compute H2n − Hn

2. Show that Hn is divergent.

2
Chapter 4
Limits and continuous functions

Contents
4.1 Overview concepts: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.1.1 Real function of one real variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.1.2 The Graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.1.3 Operations on Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.4 Monotonicity, parity and periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1.5 Bounded functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.6 La composition de deux fonctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1 Limite finie en un point x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.2 Left and Right-Hand Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.3 Infinite limit of a function at x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.4 Finite limit of a function at −∞ and +∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.5 Infinite limit of a function at +∞ and −∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2.6 Relationship between limits and sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2.7 Limits operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.8 Limit of Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2.9 Finding Limits: Properties of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.1 Continuity at a point x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.2 Left and right continuity at a point x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3.3 Continuous extension to a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.4 Operations on continuous functions at x0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.5 The sequential continuity theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.6 Continuity over an interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.7 Uniform continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3.8 Theorems about continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.9 Monotonic functions and continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.1 Overview concepts:

In this chapter we are going to study real functions of one real variables, or simply functions
which are defined on a non-empty part E of R to R with (E ⊂ R; or E = R).

4.1.1 Real function of one real variable

Definition 4.1
Any application from E to R is called a numerical function.
If E ⊂ R, we say that f is a numerical function of a real variable, or a real function of a
real variable.
We write;
f : E −→ R
x 7−→ f (x)
E is called the domain of definition of f and is denoted by Df .

Example 4.1
For example, the function defined by:

f : R∗ −→ R
1
x 7−→
x
is a numerical function of one real variable. In this case the domain of definition of f is
Df = R∗ .

4.1.2 The Graph of a function

Definition 4.2
Let f : Df −→ R be a numerical function of a real variable, the Graph of f is a set of
ordered pairs of the form (x, f (x)). And denote it by Γf i.e:

Γf = {(x, f (x))/x ∈ Df } ⊂ R2

Remark 4.1 Γf is a subset of R2 , i.e Γf ⊂ R2

Example 4.2
1
The graph of f (x) = is shown below
x

2
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

‘
1
Figure 4.1: Graph of f (x) =
x

4.1.3 Operations on Functions

Definition 4.3: (The sum and product of two functions)

Let f : D −→ R and g : D −→ R two functions defined on D to R

• The sum of f and g is the function defined by f + g:

f + g : D −→ R
x 7−→ (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

• The product of f and g is the function defined by f.g:

f.g : D −→ R
x 7−→ (f.g)(x) = f (x).g(x)

• Let λ ∈ R, the function λ.f is defined by:

λ.f : D −→ R
x 7−→ (λ.f )(x) = λ.f (x)

3
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Figure 4.2: Graph of the sum of two functions f + g

4.1.4 Monotonicity, parity and periodicity

Definition 4.4
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function.

• The function f is said to be increasing on Df iff:

∀x, y ∈ Df ; x ≤ y =⇒ f (x) ≤ f (y)

• The function f is said to be strictly increasing on Df iff:

∀x, y ∈ Df ; x < y =⇒ f (x) < f (y)

• The function f is said to be decreasing on Df iff:

∀x, y ∈ Df ; x ≤ y =⇒ f (x) ≥ f (y)

• The function f is said to be strictly decreasing on Df iff:

∀x, y ∈ Df ; x < y =⇒ f (x) > f (y)

• The function f is said to be a constant function on Df iff:

∃a ∈ R, ∀x, y ∈ Df ; f (x) = f (y) = a

• The function f is said to be monotonic on Df if it is either increasing or decreasing

on Df

• The function f is said to be strictly monotonic on Df if it is either strictly increasing

or strictly decreasing on Df

4
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.3
√
1. The x function is strictly increasing on [0, +∞[.

2. The function exp(x) is strictly increasing on R and ln(x) is strictly increasing on

]0, +∞[.

3. The function ⌊x⌋ is increasing on R.

4. The function |x| is neither increasing nor decreasing on R.

‘
√
Figure 4.3: The functions exp(x), x and ln(x) (The function |x| on the right)

Figure 4.4: The integer part function

5
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Definition 4.5
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function.

∈ R; x ∈ Df =⇒ −x ∈ Df
∀x
• We say that f is even iff: 
∀x ∈ Df : f (−x) = f (x)

∈ R; x ∈ Df =⇒ −x ∈ Df
∀x
• We say that f is odd iff: 
∀x ∈ Df : f (−x) = −f (x)

Graphical interpretation:

• The graphical representation of an even function has the y-axis as the axis of symmetry.

• The graphical representation of an odd function has the origin of the coordinate system
as the centre of symmetry.

Example 4.4
1. Since: 
∀x ∈ Df = R =⇒ −x ∈ Df
∀x ∈ Df ; f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x),
then the function f (x) = x2 is even.

2. Since: 
D =R
f
∀x ∈ Df ; f (−x) = −x3 = −f (x),

then the function f (x) = x3 is odd.

Figure 4.5: The function x2 and x3

6
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Definition 4.6
Let f : Df ←− R be a real function.
We say that a function f is periodic, with period p ∈ R∗+ , if

∀x ∈ R; x ∈ Df =⇒ x + p ∈ Df
∀x ∈ Df ; f (x + p) = f (x)

Graphical interpretation:
• If f is a periodic function with period p, then the graph of f is invariant by the translation
→
−
of vector p i .

Figure 4.6: sin(x) is 2π-periodic

4.1.5 Bounded functions

Definition 4.7
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function.

• If there exists m ∈ R such that: m ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ Df , then the function f is
said to be bounded below by m. i.e

∃m ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df ; m ≤ f (x) ⇔ the function f is bounded below

• If there exists M ∈ R such that: f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ Df , then the function f is
said to be bounded above by M . i.e

∃M ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df ; f (x) ≤ M ⇔ the function f is bounded above

• If there exists M, m ∈ R such that: m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ Df , then the

function f is said to be bounded. i.e

∃M, m ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df ; m ≥ f (x) ≤ M ⇔ the function f is bounded

Remark 4.2 Also, we can say that f is bounded on Df iff: ∃M ∈ R+ , ∀x ∈ Df ; |f (x)| ≤ M .

7
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Figure 4.7: The bounded-below function (in the left) and The bounded-above function (in the
right)

Figure 4.8: bounded function

Definition 4.8
Let f : D −→ R and g : D −→ R tow functions. We can write:

• f ≤ g iff: ∀x ∈ D; f (x) ≤ g(x)

• f < g iff: ∀x ∈ D; f (x) < g(x)

• f = g iff: ∀x ∈ D; f (x) = g(x)

Rappel:-
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function. Recall that f (Df ) is the set of all values of f denoted by:

f (Df ) = {f (x)/x ∈ Df }

Let’s put:

 sup (f (x)) = sup(f (Df ))


x∈Df


 inf (f (x)) = inf(f (Df ))
x∈Df

8
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Definition 4.9
• The smallest upper bound of f on Df is called sup (f (x)) and is denoted by :
x∈Df

sup f = sup (f (x))

x∈Df x∈Df

• The greatest lower bound of f on Df is called inf (f (x)) and is denoted by :

x∈Df

inf f = inf (f (x))

x∈Df x∈Df

Proposition 4.1
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function, then we have the following equivalences:

• f is bounded from above on Df . ⇔ sup f ∈ R and we write : sup f < +∞.

x∈Df x∈Df

• f is bounded from below on Df . ⇔ inf f ∈ R and we write : inf f > −∞.

x∈Df x∈Df

• f is bounded on Df . ⇔ sup f, inf f ∈ R and we write : sup f < +∞ and

x∈Df x∈Df x∈Df
inf f > −∞.
x∈Df

∀x ∈ Df ; f (x) ≤ M
• M = sup (f (x)) ⇔
x∈Df ∀ε > 0, ∃x0 ∈ Df ; M − ε < f (x0 )

∀x ∈ Df ; m ≤ f (x)
• m = inf (f (x)) ⇔ 
x∈Df ∀ε > 0, ∃x0 ∈ Df ; f (x0 ) < m + ε

4.1.6 La composition de deux fonctions

Definition 4.10
Consider f : Df −→ R and g : Dg −→ R be two functions such that:f (Df ) ⊂ Dg . Then
the composition of f and g, denoted by g ◦ f is defined as the function:

∀x ∈ Df ; (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

The below figure shows the representation of composite functions:

f g
Df / Dg /R
O

 g◦f
/

9
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.5
Let f and g be two functions defined by:

f : R −→ R g : [−1, +∞[ −→ R
√
x 7−→ x2 + 1 x 7−→ x + 1

We have f (R) = [1, +∞[ =⇒ f (Df ) ⊂ Dg

So g ◦ f defined as follows:
√
∀x ∈ R; (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = x2 + 2

4.2 Limits of Functions

4.2.1 Limite finie en un point x0
Definition 4.11
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function, x0 and l two numbers (with x0 ∈ Df or x0 ∈
/ Df ).
We say that f (x) tends to l when x tends to x0 iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − l| < ε

and we write :x→x

lim f (x) = l
0

Remark 4.3

1. Inequality |x − x0 | < δ ⇐⇒ x ∈]x0 − δ, x0 + δ[.

2. Inequality |f (x) − l| < ε ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈]l − ε, l + ε[.

3. We can replace inequality ”<” by ”≤” in the definition.

Graphical interpretation:
For any interval of type J =]l − ε, l + ε[ with ε > 0, we can find an interval of type I =
]x0 − δ, x0 + δ[, such that the graphical representation of f restricted to I is included in J.

Figure 4.9:

10
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.6

Show that lim (4x + 1) = 9.

x→2
Let ε > 0, we have:
ε
|(4x + 1) − 9| ≤ ε ⇔ |4x − 8| ≤ ε ⇔ 4|x − 2| ≤ ε ⇔ |x − 2| ≤
4
ε
Let’s put δ = we obtain:
4
ε
∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0(δ = ), ∀x ∈ R; |x − 2| ≤ δ =⇒ |(4x + 1) − 9| ≤ ε
4
=⇒ lim (4x + 1) = 9
x→2

Proposition 4.2
If a function f has a limit at x0 , then this limit is unique.

Proof 1
By contradiction, suppose that, f has two distinct limits l1 and l2 . (l1 ̸= l2 ) en x0 .
1
By setting: ε = |l1 − l2 | > 0 because l1 ̸= l2 .
3
We have:
 lim f (x) = l1


x→x0



et
 lim f (x) = l2


x→x0

∃δ1 (ε) > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ1 =⇒ |f (x) − l1 | ≤ ε




=⇒ et

∃δ2 (ε) > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ2 =⇒ |f (x) − l2 | ≤ ε



By choosing: δ = min(δ1 , δ2 ) we get:

∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − l1 | ≤ ε

∀x




and
∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − l2 | ≤ ε



=⇒ ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − l1 | + |f (x) − l2 | ≤ 2ε (4.1)

According to the triangle inequality we have:

|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − f (x) + f (x) − l2 | ≤ |f (x) − l1 | + |f (x) − l2 | (4.2)

2 2
(3.1) and (3.2) =⇒ |l1 − l2 | ≤ 2ε =⇒ |l1 − l2 | ≤ |l1 − l2 | =⇒ 1 ≤
3 3
So we end up with a contradiction, this means that f admits a unique limit at
point x0 .

11
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.2.2 Left and Right-Hand Limits

Definition 4.12
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function, x0 and l be two real numbers. (with x0 ∈ Df or
/ Df ).
x0 ∈

• We say that l is the right limit of the function f at a point x0 iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x0 − δ ≤ x < x0 =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε

and we write: lim f (x) = l or lim− f (x) = l

< x→x0
x−→x0

• We say that l is the left limit of the function f at a point x0 iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x0 < x ≤ x0 + δ =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε

and we write: lim f (x) = l or lim+ f (x) = l

> x→x0
x−→x0

Example 4.7

• prove that: lim+ x cos( x1 ) = 0

x→0
We have:
1 1
|x cos( )| ≤ |x||cos( )| ≤ |x|
x x
1
(as |cos( )| ≤ 1)
x
1
=⇒ |x cos( )| ≤ |x| (4.3)
x
Let ε > 0, with δ = ε. If we have: 0 < x ≤ δ ⇔ 0 < x ≤ ε =⇒ |x| ≤ ε

(3.3) =⇒ |x cos( x1 )| ≤ ε.

So, ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 (δ = ε), ∀x ∈ R∗ ; 0 < x ≤ δ =⇒ |x cos( x1 )| ≤ ε

=⇒ lim+ x cos( x1 ) = 0
x→0

• Show that lim− x cos( x1 ) = 0 (Using the same technique as above)

x→0

12
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Figure 4.10: Graph of the function x cos( x1 )

Theorem 4.1
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function, x0 , l ∈ R (with x0 ∈ Df or x0 ∈
/ Df ). The following
propositions are equivalent

1. lim f (x) = l
x→x0

2. lim f (x) = lim f (x) = l

< >
x−→x0 x−→x0

Result:
If we have: lim f (x) ̸= lim f (x) then x→x
lim f (x) doesn’t exist.
< > 0
x−→x0 x−→x0

Example 4.8

|x|
Let’s consider the function f (x) = . We have:
x
 x

 lim− f (x) = lim− − = −1
xx
x→0 x→0
 lim f (x) = lim
 =1
x→0+ x→0+ x

=⇒ lim− f (x) ̸= lim+ f (x) then lim f (x) doesn’t exist.

x→0 x→0 x→0

13
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.2.3 Infinite limit of a function at x0 .

Definition 4.13
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function and x0 ∈ R (with x0 ∈ Df or x0 ∈
/ Df )

• It is said that f tends to +∞ when x tends to x0 iff:

∀A > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ f (x) ≥ A

and we write lim f (x) = +∞

x→x0

• It is said that f tends to −∞ when x tends to x0 iff:

∀A > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ f (x) ≤ −A

and we write x→x

lim f (x) = −∞
0

Example 4.9
1
Show that lim 2 = +∞
x→0 x
Let A > 0 we have:

1 1 1 1 1 1
" #

2
≥ A ⇔ x2 ≤ ⇔ x 2 − ≤ 0 ⇔ x ∈ − √ , √ ⇔ |x| ≤ √
x A A A A A
1 1
Putting δ = √ then ∀x ∈ Df ; |x| ≤ δ =⇒ 2 ≥ A
A x
1 1 1
=⇒ ∀A > 0, ∃δ > 0 (δ = √ ), ∀x ∈ Df ; |x| ≤ δ =⇒ 2 ≥ A therfore lim = +∞
A x x→0 x2

1
Figure 4.11: The graph of a function
x2

14
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.2.4 Finite limit of a function at −∞ and +∞

Definition 4.14
• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type ] − ∞, a] (i.e ] − ∞, a] ⊂ Df )
We say that f tends to l (l ∈ R) when x tends to −∞ iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≤ −B =⇒ |f (x) − l|≤ ε

and we write lim f (x) = l

x→−∞

• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type [a, +∞[ (i.e. [a, +∞[⊂ Df ).
We say that f tends to l (l ∈ R) when x tends to +∞ iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≥ B =⇒ |f (x) − l|≤ ε

and we write lim f (x) = l

x→+∞

Example 4.10
x
prove that lim = 1 Let ε > 0, we have:
x→+∞ x+1
x 1 1
−1 ≤ε⇔ ≤ ε ⇔ |x + 1|≥
x+1 x+1 ε
1 1
 
x+1 ≥ x ≥ −1

 

 
ε ε

 

 
⇔ or ⇔ or
 1  1
x + 1
 
≤− x ≤ −1 −

 

ε ε
1 x
We set B = − 1, if x ≥ B =⇒ −1 ≤ε
ε x+1
1 x
So, ∀ε > 0, ∃B > 0 (B = − 1), ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≥ B =⇒ −1 ≤ε
ε x+1
x
=⇒ lim = 1.
x→+∞ x + 1

x
Figure 4.12: The graph of a function
x+1

15
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.2.5 Infinite limit of a function at +∞ and −∞

Definition 4.15
• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type [a, +∞[ (i.e. [a, +∞[⊂ Df ). We
say that f tends to +∞ when x tends to +∞ if:

∀A > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≥ B =⇒ f (x) ≥ A

and we write: lim f (x) = +∞

x→+∞

• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type ] − ∞, a] (i.e. ] − ∞, a] ⊂ Df )

. We say that f tends to +∞ when x tends to −∞ if:

∀A > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≤ −B =⇒ f (x) ≥ A

and we write: lim f (x) = +∞

x→−∞

• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type [a, +∞[ (i.e. [a, +∞[⊂ Df )
Ẇe say that f tends to −∞ when x tends to +∞ if:

∀A > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≥ B =⇒ f (x) ≤ −A

and we write: lim f (x) = −∞

x→+∞

• Let f be a function defined on an interval of type ] − ∞, a] (i.e. ] − ∞, a] ⊂ Df )

Ẇe say that f tends to −∞ when x tends to −∞ if:

∀A > 0, ∃B > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x ≤ −B =⇒ f (x) ≤ −A

and we write: lim f (x) = −∞

x→−∞

Notation: Let R denote the set defined by:

R = R ∪ {+∞, −∞}

R is called the extended real line.

4.2.6 Relationship between limits and sequences

Theorem 4.2
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function, x0 ∈ R (with x0 ∈ Df or x0 ∈
/ Df ) and l ∈ R. The
following properties are equivalent:

1. x→x
lim f (x) = l
0

2. For any sequence (xn )n∈N in Df such that: ∀n ∈ N; xn ̸= x0 and lim xn = x0 ,

n→+∞
then we have lim f (xn ) = l
n→+∞

16
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proof 2
• First, we prove implication (1 =⇒ 2).
Let ε > 0,
∃δε > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δε =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε (4.4)
(As lim f (x) = l)
x→x0

δε > 0 =⇒ ∃n0 (δε ) ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |xn − x0 | ≤ δε (4.5)

(Because lim xn = x0 )
n→+∞

(3.4) et (3.5) =⇒ |f (xn ) − l| ≤ ε

=⇒ ∀ε > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N, ∀n ∈ N; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |f (xn ) − l| ≤ ε
=⇒ lim f (xn ) = l
n→+∞

• Next, we prove the implication (2 =⇒ 1) by contradiction proof,

we assume that for any sequence (xn )n∈N ⊂ Df that converges to x0 we have f (xn )
converges to l and lim f (x) ̸= l.
x→x0

lim f (x) ̸= l ⇔ ∃ε > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x∗ ∈ Df ; |x∗ − x| ≤ δ ∧ |f (x∗ ) − l| ≥ ε

x→x0
(4.6)

1
We set: δ = /n ∈ N∗
n
1
(3.6) =⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∃xn ∈ Df ; (|xn − x0 | ≤ ) ∧ (|f (xn ) − l| > ε)
n

So we have found a sequence (xn )n∈N∗ ⊂ Df that converges to x0 .

1
(since ∀n ∈ N∗ ; |xn − x0 | ) et f (xn ) doesn’t converge to l (as
≤
n
∀n ∈ N∗ ; |f (xn ) − l| > ε), which contradicts our hypothesis.

Remark 4.4 If there are two sequences (xn )n∈N , (yn )n∈N of Df such that:

lim x = x0

n→+∞ n



and ∧ lim f (xn ) ̸= lim f (yn )
 n→+∞ n→+∞
lim yn = x0



n→+∞

Then lim f (x) doesn’t exist.

x→x0

17
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.11

f : R∗ −→ R
Let
x 7−→ sin( x1 )
1 1
We have lim sin( x1 ) doesn’t exist because: If we set xn = et yn =
x→0 nπ π
2
+ 2nπ
The sequences (xn )n∈N∗ , (yn )n∈N∗ in R∗ and lim xn = lim yn = 0
n→+∞ n→+∞
lim f (xn ) = lim sin(nπ) = 0


n→+∞ n→+∞


On the other hand, we have:  et
lim f (yn ) = lim sin( π2 + 2nπ) = 1
 

n→+∞ n→+∞

=⇒ lim f (xn ) ̸= lim f (yn )

n→+∞ n→+∞

=⇒ x→x
lim f (x) doesn’t exist.
0

4.2.7 Limits operations

Proposition 4.3: (The limit of sum of two or more functions)

Let f, g be two functions and x0 ∈ R. Then we have:

lim f (x)
x→x0
lim g(x)
x→x0
lim (f (x) + g(x))
x→x0
l1 ∈ R l2 ∈ R l1 + l2
l1 ∈ R ±∞ ±∞
+∞ +∞ +∞
−∞ −∞ −∞
+∞ −∞ Indeterminate form
−∞ +∞ Indeterminate form

Proposition 4.4: (The limit of product of two or more functions)

Let f, g be two functions and x0 ∈ R. Then we have:

lim g(x)
x→x0
l2 > 0 l2 < 0 0 +∞ −∞
lim f (x)
x→x0

l1 > 0 lim f x)g(x) = l1 l2 l1 l2 0 +∞ −∞

x→x0

l1 < 0 l1 l2 l1 l2 0 −∞ +∞

0 0 0 0 Indeterminate form Indeterminate form

+∞ +∞ −∞ Indeterminate form +∞ −∞

−∞ −∞ +∞ Indeterminate form −∞ +∞

18
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proposition 4.5: (The limit of quotient of two functions)

Let f, g be two functions defined on D with g(x) ̸= 0 on D and x0 ∈ R. Then we have:

lim g(x)
x→x0
l2 > 0 l2 < 0 0+ 0− +∞ −∞
lim f (x)
x→x0
f (x) l1 l1
l1 > 0 lim = +∞ −∞ 0 0
x→x0 g(x) l2 l2
l1 l1
l1 < 0 −∞ +∞ 0 0
l2 l2
0+ 0 0 Indeterminate form Indeterminate form 0 0

−
0 0 0 Indeterminate form Indeterminate form 0 0

+∞ +∞ −∞ +∞ −∞ IF IF

−∞ −∞ +∞ −∞ +∞ IF IF

Remark 4.5 According to the previous propositions, the indeterminate forms are:
∞ 0
+∞ − ∞, , . Also we can deduce the other forms which are: 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
∞ 0

4.2.8 Limit of Composite Functions

Proposition 4.6

Let f : Df −→ R, g : Dg −→ R and x0 , y0 , l ∈ R.
lim f (x) = y0


x→x

 0

If we have: et then lim (f ◦ g)(x) = l

 x→x0
 lim g(x) = l


x→y0

Example 4.12

f : R∗+ −→ R g : R∗+ −→ R
Let ex − 1 and
x 7−→ x 7−→ ln(x)
x

−1
 x
e
 


 lim f (x) = lim =1
x→0
 x→0 x
We have: et


 lim g(x) = lim ln(x) = 0


x→1 x→1
e −1
 x 
Then lim (g ◦ f )(x) = lim ln =0
x→0 x→0 x

19
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.2.9 Finding Limits: Properties of Limits

Proposition 4.7

1. If we have: x→x
lim f (x) = l then there exists α > 0 such that the function f is
0
bounded on ]x0 − α, x0 + α[.

2. If we have: f (x) ≤ g(x) in the neighbourhood of x0 and x→x

lim f (x) = l1 , x→x
lim g(x) =
0 0
l2 then l1 ≤ l2 .

3. The Squeeze Theorem: Let f, g, h be three functions with the following property
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) in the neighbourhood of x0 .

If we have: x→x
lim f (x) = x→x
lim h(x) = l then x→x
lim g(x) = l
0 0 0

4. Let f, g two functions which verify f (x) ≤ g(x) in the neighbourhood of x0


 lim
 f (x) = +∞ then lim g(x) = +∞
If we have: x→x0 x→x0
 lim g(x) = −∞ then lim f (x) = −∞
x→x0 x→x0

5. Let f be a bounded function in the neighborhood of x0 and g a function verifying

lim g(x) = 0 then x→x
x→x
lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
0 0

20
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Definition 4.16: (important definition)

Let f : Df −→ R be a real function. We say that f is defined in the neighborhood of x0

iff: there exists an interval of the following type I =]x0 − ε, x0 + ε[ such that: I ⊂ Df .
(I is an interval with center x0 and radius ε).

4.3 Continuous Functions

4.3.1 Continuity at a point x0

Definition 4.17
Let f be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0 . We say that f is continuous at
the point x0 iff:
lim f (x) = f (x0 )
x→x0

i.e ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε

Example 4.13
Let f be a function defined by:

x sin( 1 ), si x ̸= 0
f (x) = x2
0 si x = 0

Show that f is continuous at x0 = 0.

1. Df = R =⇒ f is defined in the neighbourhood of x0 = 0.

2. We’ll show that lim f (x) = 0.

x→0
We have:
1
∀x ∈ R∗ ; |x sin( 2 |≤ |x|
x
If we choose δ = ε (with ε > 0), we find:
1
∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 (δ = ε), ∀x ∈ R; |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x sin(
|≤ε
x2
=⇒ lim f (x) = 0 =⇒ f is continuous at x0
x→0

21
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.3.2 Left and right continuity at a point x0

Definition 4.18
• Let f be a function defined on an interval of kind [x0 , x0 + h[ with h > 0
(i.e.;[x0 , x0 + h[⊂ Df ). A function f is right continuous at a point x0 iff:

lim f (x) = f (x0 )

>
x−→x0

⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x0 ≤ x < x0 + δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε

• Let f be a function defined on an interval of kind [x0 − h, x0 [ with h > 0

(i.e.;[x0 − h, x0 [⊂ Df ). A function f is left continuous at a point x0 iff:

lim f (x) = f (x0 )

<
x−→x0

⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; x0 − δ < x ≤ x0 =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε

Example 4.14
Let f be a function defined by:

 sin(x) ,

si x ̸= 0

f (x) = |x|
1 si x = 0



1. We’ll study the right continuity of f at x0 = 0

• We have Df = R =⇒ f is defined in the right of x0 = 0

sin(x) sin(x)
• lim = lim = 1 = f (1)
x−→0 |x| x
> >
x−→0

So f is right continuous at x0 .

2. The continuity of f at the left of x0 = 0.

• We have Df = R =⇒ f is defined in the left of x0 = 0.

sin(x) sin(x)
• lim = lim − = −1 ̸= f (1)
x−→0 |x| x
< <
x−→0

So f is not left continuous at x0 .

22
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Figure 4.13: Graph of the function f

Theorem 4.3
Let f be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0 . The following two propositions
are equivalent:

1. f is left and right continuous at x0 .

2. f is continuous at x0 .

Remark 4.6 Our example (3.13) shows that f is right continuous at x0 = 0 and is not left
continuous at x0 = 0. which implies that f is not continuous at x0 = 0.

4.3.3 Continuous extension to a point

Definition 4.19
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function and x0 ∈ R Such that: x0 ∈
/ Df . If x→x
lim f (x) = l ∈
0
R.exists, but f (x0 ) is not defined, we define a new function:

f˜ : Df ∪ {x0 } −→ R 
f (x) if x ̸= x0
x 7−→ f˜(x) =
l if x = x0

which is continuous at x0 . It is called the continuous extension of f to x0 .

23
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.15
Let
f : R∗ −→ R
sin(x)
x 7−→
x
Can we extend the function f to be continuous at x0 = 0.

sin(x)
We have: lim f (x) = lim = 1 =⇒ f has a finite limit at x0 = 0
x→0 x→0 x
So f is extendable by continuity at x0 = 0 and the extension by continuity of f at x0 = 0
is defined by:
f˜ : R −→ R
 sin(x) if x ̸= 0


˜
x 7−→ f (x) =  x
1 if x = 0

4.3.4 Operations on continuous functions at x0

Theorem 4.4
Let f, g be two continuous functions at a point x0 ∈ R and λ ∈ R. Then:

1. The function |f | is continuous at x0 .

2. The functions λf , f + g and f g are continuous at x0 .

f
3. If g(x0 ) ̸= 0 then is continuous at x0 .
g

Proposition 4.8

Let f : Df −→ R and g : Dg −→ R be two functions such that: f (Df ) ⊂ Dg .

If we have:

is defined in a neighborhood of x0 and continuous at x0


f




et
is defined in a neighborhood of y0 = f (x0 ) and continuous at y0


g

Then (g ◦ f )(x) is continuous at x0 .

4.3.5 The sequential continuity theorem

Theorem 4.5
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function. The following two statements are equivalent:

1. f is continuous at x0 .

2. for each sequence (xn )n∈N ⊂ Df such that xn → x0 , then f (xn ) → f (x0 ).

24
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proof 3
The proof of this theorem follows from theorem (3.2)

Proposition 4.9
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function and x0 ∈ Df .
If f is continuous at x0 and f (x0 ) ̸= 0 then there exists a neighborhood (V) of x0 such
that:
∀x ∈ V; f (x) ̸= 0

Proof 4
We have f is continuous at x0 so,

1. f is defined in a neighborhood of x0

⇔ ∃η > 0 such that: I =]x0 − η, x0 + η[⊂ Df (4.7)

2. lim f (x) = f (x0 )

x→x0

⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε (4.8)

If we put: ε = 21 |f (x0 )| then:

1
∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df ; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ |f (x0 )|
2
1
(3.7) =⇒ ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ I; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ |f (x0 )|
2
1
=⇒ ∀x ∈ I∩]x0 − η, x0 + η[; |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ |f (x0 )| (4.9)
2
Let’s put : V = I∩]x0 − δ, x0 + δ[, then V is a neighborhood of x0 .
On the other hand, according to the triangular inequality, we have:
1
|f (x0 )| − |f (x)| ≤ ||f (x0 )| − |f (x)|| ≤ |f (x0 ) − f (x)| ≤ |f (x0 )|
2
1
(3.9) =⇒ ∀x ∈ V; |f (x0 )| − |f (x)| ≤ |f (x0 )|
2
1
=⇒ ∀x ∈ V; |f (x)| ≥ |f (x0 )| ≠ 0
2
So there is a neighbourhood V of x0 such that: ∀x ∈ V; f (x) ̸= 0.

25
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

4.3.6 Continuity over an interval

Definition 4.20
1. f is said to be continuous on an open interval of type ]a, b[ iff: it is continuous at
any point on the interval ]a, b[.

2. f is said to be continuous on an interval of type [a, b] iff: it is continuous on ]a, b[

and continuous to the right of a and to the left of b.

3. f is said to be continuous on an interval of type ]a, b] iff: it is continuous on ]a, b[

and continuous to the left of b.

4. f is said to be continuous on an interval of type [a, b[ iff: it is continuous on ]a, b[

and continuous to the right of a.

4.3.7 Uniform continuity

Definition 4.21
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function. We say that f is uniformly continuous on Df iff:

∀ε > 0, ∃δ(ε) > 0, ∀x, y ∈ Df ; |x − y| ≤ δ(ε) =⇒ |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ ε

Remark 4.7 Note that uniform continuity is a property of the function over the set Df , while
continuity can be defined at a point x0 ∈ Df . The number δ depends only on ε in the case of
uniform continuity, but in the case of continuity at a point x0 , δ depends on ε and x0 .

26
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.16
√
Show that the function f (x) = x is uniformly continuous on R+ .
Solution:
Step 01:
In this step, we’ll show that:
√ √ √
 x+y

 ≤ x+ y

∀x, y ∈ R+ ; and

 √
| x − √y| ≤ |x − y|
 q

1. Let x, y ∈ R+ we have: √ √
0≤2 x y
√ √ √ √ 2
=⇒ x + y ≤ x + 2 x y + y ⇔ x + y ≤ x+ x
√ √ √ √ √
=⇒ x + y ≤ | x + y| = x + y
√ √ √
So ∀x, y ∈ R+ ; x + y ≤ x + y.

2. Let x, y ∈ R+ we have:

(x − y) ≤ |x − y| =⇒ y + (x − y) ≤ y + |x − y|
√ q √ q
=⇒ x ≤ y + |x − y| ≤ y + |x − y|
√ √ q
=⇒ x − y ≤ |x − y| (4.10)
on the other hand, we have:

(y − x) ≤ |y − x| =⇒ x + (y − x) ≤ x + |x − y|
√ q √ q
=⇒ y≤x + |x − y| ≤ x + |x − y|
q √ √
=⇒ − |x − y| ≤ x − y (4.11)
√ √ q
(3.10) et (3.11) =⇒ ∀x, y ∈ R+ ; | x − y| ≤ |x − y|

Step 02: √
In this step we will show the uniform continuity of the function f (x) = x
Let ε > 0 and x, y ∈ R+ we have:
√ √ q
| x − y| ≤ |x − y|

Let’s put δ = ε2 then:

q √ √
|x − y| ≤ δ =⇒ |x − y| ≤ ε =⇒ | x − y| ≤ ε
√ √
=⇒ ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 (δ = ε2 ), ∀x, y ∈ R+ ; |x − y| ≤ δ =⇒ | x − y| ≤ ε
√
therefore, f (x) = x is uniformly continuous on R+ .

27
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Example 4.17

Show that the function f (x) = x2 is not uniformly continuous on R.

Solution:
f (x) = x2 is not uniformly continuous on R

⇔ ∃ε > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x, y ∈ R; |x − y| ≤ δ ∧ |x2 − y 2 | > ε

Let’s put: ε = 1
Let δ > 0, we will confirm the existence of x, y ∈ R such that:|x − y| ≤ δ ∧ |x2 − y 2 | > ε
1 1 1
Let’s take : y = x + δ =⇒ x − y = δ =⇒ |x − y| = δ ≤ δ
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
|x − y | > 1 ⇔ |x − x − xδ − δ | > 1 ⇔ | δ + xδ| > 1
2 2 2 2
4 4
1 3 1 3 1 1 5
If we choose x = + δ, then y = + δ + δ = + δ
δ 4 δ 4 2 δ 4

1
|x − y|
 = δ≤δ
2


=⇒ ∧


|x − y 2 | = |1 + δ 2 | > 1
2




1 3 1 5 |x − y| ≤δ


=⇒ ∃ε > 0 (ε = 1), ∀δ > 0, ∃x, y ∈ R (x = + δ, y = + δ);  ∧
δ 4 δ 4
|x2 − y 2 | > 1



=⇒ f (x) = x2 is not uniformly continuous on R.

Proposition 4.10
Let f : Df −→ R be a real function function, then we have the following implication:

f is uniformly continuous on Df =⇒ f is continuous on Df

Remark 4.8 The converse is false: a function can be continuous on Df without being uniformly
continuous on Df . From example (3.16) we have: f (x) = x2 is continuous on R but not
uniformly continuous on R.

4.3.8 Theorems about continuous functions

Theorem 4.6: (Heine’s theoem)

Every continuous function on an interval of type [a, b] is uniformly continuous on this

interval.

28
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proof 5
In this theorem, we’ll show the following implication:
f is continuous on [a, b] =⇒ f is uniformly continuous on [a, b]. By contradiction, we
assume that f is continuous on [a, b] and not uniformly continuous on [a, b].
f is not uniformly continuous on [a, b] ⇔

∃ε0 , ∀δ > 0, ∃x, y ∈ [a, b]; (|x − y| ≤ δ) ∧ (|f (x) − f (y)| > ε0 )
1
Let’s put: δ = tq: n ∈ N∗
n
1
=⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∃xn , yn ∈ [a, b]; |xn − yn | ≤ ∧ |f (xn ) − f (yn )|> ε0 (4.12)
n
So we have constructed two sequences (xn )n∈N∗ and (yn )n∈N∗ which are included in [a, b].
(xn )n∈N∗ ⊂ [a, b] =⇒ (xn )n∈N∗ is a bounded sequence.
According to bolzano weierstrass’s theorem, there exists a sub-sequence (xϕ(n) )n∈N∗ such
that: lim xϕ(n) = l with l ∈ [a, b].
n→+∞
1
On the one hand we have: |xϕ(n) − yϕ(n) | ≤ =⇒ lim (xϕ(n) − yϕ(n) ) = 0
ϕ(n) n→+∞

lim (xϕ(n) − yϕ(n) ) = 0



n→+∞


So and =⇒ lim yϕ (n) = l
 n→+∞
lim xϕ (n) = l



n→+∞
ε0
f is continuous at l =⇒ ∃η > 0, ∀x, y ∈ [a, b]; |x − y| ≤ η =⇒ |f (x) − f (l)| ≤ .
3
The sequences (xϕ (n))n∈N∗ and (yϕ (n))n∈N∗ converges to l
 ε0
∃n0
 ∈ N∗ , ∀n ∈ N∗ ; n ≥ n0 =⇒ |xϕ(n) − l| ≤ η =⇒ |f (xϕ(n) ) − f (l)| ≤
3



=⇒ and
 ε0
∈ N∗ , ∀n ∈ N∗ ; n ≥ n1 =⇒ |yϕ(n) − l| ≤ η =⇒ |f (yϕ(n) ) − f (l)| ≤

∃n1


3
If we put: n∗ = max(n0 , n1 ) we get:
2ε0
∃n∗ ∈ N∗ , ∀n ∈ N∗ ; n ≥ n∗ =⇒ |f (xϕ(n) ) − f (l)| + |f (yϕ(n) ) − f (l)| ≤
3
According to the triangular inequality we have:
2ε0
|f (xϕ(n) ) − f (yϕ(n) )| ≤ |f (xϕ(n) ) − f (l)| + |f (yϕ(n) ) − f (l)| ≤
2
.
2ε0
=⇒ ∀n ≥ n∗ we have: |f (xϕ(n) ) − f (yϕ(n) )| ≤ (4.13)
2
2ε0
(3.12) and (3.13) =⇒ ∀n ≥ n∗ ; ε0 < |f (xϕ(n) ) − f (yϕ(n) )| ≤
2
2ε0
=⇒ ε0 < is a contradiction
2

so the multiplication (f is continuous on [a, b] =⇒ f is uniformly continuous on [a, b])

is true.

29
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Theorem 4.7: (Weirstrass’s theorem)

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b], then:

is bounded on [a, b]



f
and


∃x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] tq:f (x1 ) = min (f (x)) and f (x2 ) = max (f (x))



x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]

(i.e. f is bounded and reaches its bounds on [a, b].)

Figure 4.14: A continuous function on [a, b]

30
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proof 6
1. Let’s assume that f is not bounded on [a, b] ⇔

∀n ∈ N∗ , ∃xn ∈ [a, b] tq: |f (xn )| > n (4.14)

So we constructed a sequence (xn )n∈N∗ ⊂ [a, b] =⇒ (xn )n∈N∗ is bounded.

According to B.W’s theorem there exists a sub-sequence (xϕ(n) )n∈N∗ of (xn )n∈N∗
such that:
lim xϕ(n) = l avec l ∈ [a, b]
n→+∞

l ∈ [a, b] =⇒ f is continuous at l =⇒ lim f (xϕ(n) ) = f (l) ∈ R

n→+∞
(3.14) =⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ ; |f (xϕ(n) | > ϕ(n) =⇒ lim f (xϕ(n) ) = +∞ is a contradiction
n→+∞
=⇒ f is bounded.


m = inf (f (x)) = inf(f ([a, b]))
x∈[a,b]




2. We put and
= sup (f (x)) = sup(f ([a, b]))

M




x∈[a,b]
From the definition of sup and inf we have:

∈ [a, b]; f (x∗ ) < m + ε


∗
∃x


∀ε > 0,  and
∃y ∈ [a, b]; M − ε < f (y ∗ )
 ∗


1
Let’s put: ε = / n ∈ N∗ , we get:
n
1

∃xn ∈ [a, b]; f (xn ) < m +



n



∀n ∈ N∗ ; and
1


∈ [a, b]; M < f (yn ) +

∃y


n
n
So we constructed two sequences (xn )n∈N∗ and (yn )n∈N∗ which are included in
[a, b] =⇒ (xn )n∈N∗ and (yn )n∈N∗ are bounded. According to B.W’s theorem we
have:
∃(xϕ(n) )n∈N∗ such that: lim xϕ(n) = α/ α ∈ [a, b]


n→+∞

 

and
∃(yσ(n) )n∈N∗ such tnat: lim yσ(n) = β/ β ∈ [a, b]


n→+∞

is continuous at α =⇒ lim f (xϕ(n) ) = f (α)


 f
n→+∞



α, β ∈ [a, b] =⇒ and

is continuous at β =⇒ lim f (yσ(n) ) = f (β)

f

n→+∞

1

f (xϕ(n) ) − < m ≤ f (xϕ(n) )



n



=⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ ; and Passing to the limits we
1


f (y
σ(n) ) ≤ M < f (yσ(n) ) +



n
obtain: m = f (α) = inf (f (x)) = min (f (x)) with α ∈ [a, b].
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]
and M = f (β) = sup (f (x)) = max (f (x)) with β ∈ [a, b].
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]
31
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Theorem 4.8: (Bolzano-Cauchy)

Let f be a continuous function on the interval [a, b] tq: f (a).f (b) ≤ 0, then there exists
at least c ∈ [a, b] verifying f (c) = 0.

Proof 7
Assume that f (a) < 0 et f (b) > 0. Let’s put: F = {x ∈ [a, b]/f (x) ≤ 0}.
Since (F ⊂ [a, b]), the set F is bounded above.
According to the completeness axiom for the real numbers, we have: ∃c ∈ R; sup(F ) = c
with a ≤ c ≤ b (since b ∈ Upper(F ) and a ∈ F ).

1. c = sup(F ) =⇒ ∀ε > 0, ∃x∗ ∈ F ; c − ε < x∗ ≤ c

1
Let’s take ε =
n
1
=⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∃xn ∈ F ; c − < xn ≤ c (4.15)
n
So we constructed a sequence (xn )n∈N∗ ⊂ F
According to (3.15) lim xn = c (Squeeze theorem).
n→+∞
f is continuous at c =⇒ lim f (xn ) = f (c).
n→+∞
On the other hand, we have: (xn )n∈N∗ ⊂ F =⇒ ∀n ∈ N∗ ; f (xn ) ≤ 0 =⇒ f (c) ≤ 0
b−c
2. Let’s consider the sequence yn = c + /n ∈ N∗ .
n
b−c
We have: yn+1 − yn = − ≤ 0 =⇒ (yn )n∈N∗ is decreasing, then:
n(n + 1)

∀n ∈ N∗ ; c < yn ≤ y1 = b

=⇒ (yn )n∈N∗ is a sequence in [a, b] which converges to c.

f is continuous at c =⇒ lim f (yn ) = f (c).
n→+∞
On the other hand, we have: ∀n ∈ N∗ ; c < yn =⇒ f (yn ) > 0 =⇒ f (c) > 0.

Finally, from (1) and (2) we get: ∃c ∈ [a, b]; f (c) = 0

Example 4.18
Let
f : [0, 2π] −→ R
x 7−→ sin(x) + (x − 1) cos(x)

1. The function f (x) is continuous on [0, 2π] (since f is a sum of two continuous
functions on [0, 2π])

2. f (0) = −1 and f (2π = 2π − 1 > 0 =⇒ f (0)f (2π) < 0

According to B.C’s theorem, there exists at least one real c ∈ [0, 2π] such that: f (c) = 0

32
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Figure 4.15: The graph of f (x) = sin(x) + (x − 1) cos(x) on the interval [0, 2π].

Theorem 4.9: (The Intermediate Value Theorem)

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] we have:

1. If f (a) < f (b) then ∀γ ∈ [f (a), f (b)], ∃c ∈ [a, b] such that:f (c) = γ

2. If f (b) < f (a) then ∀γ ∈ [f (b), f (a)], ∃c ∈ [a, b] such that:f (c) = γ

Proposition 4.11

Let f : I −→ R be a continuous function on interval I (where I is an arbitrary interval).

Then f (I) is an interval.

Proof 8
Let y1 , y2 ∈ f (I) such that: y1 < y2 =⇒ ∃x1 , x2 ∈ I such that: y1 = f (x1 ) ∧ y2 = f (x2 ).
Let’s put: a = min(x1 , x2 ) and b = max(x1 , x2 ). We have: a, b ∈ I.
Let y ∈ [y1 , y2 ] =⇒ ∃c ∈ [a, b]; f (c) = y ( I.V.Th).
We have: [a, b] ⊂ I (as I is an interval) =⇒ y = f (c) ∈ f (I).
∀y1 , y2 ∈ f (I), ∀y ∈ R; y ∈ [y1 , y2 ] =⇒ y ∈ f (I) =⇒ f (I) is an interval.

Remark 4.9 If f is a continuous function on [a, b] then, f ([a, b]) = [m, M ]

with m = min (f (x)) and M = max (f (x))
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]

4.3.9 Monotonic functions and continuity

Theorem 4.10
Let f : I −→ R be a function (I is an interval). If f is strictly monotone on the interval
I, then f is injective on I.

33
Chapter 04 Limits and continuous functions

Proof 9
Let’s show that f is injective. consider x1 , x2 ∈ I; x1 ̸= x2

1. Si x1 < x2 et f is strictly increasing =⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) =⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).

2. Si x1 < x2 et f is strictly decreasing

=⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) =⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 )

The same technique is used for x1 > x2 .

So ∀x1 , x2 ∈ I; x1 ̸= x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) =⇒ f is injective.

Theorem 4.11
Let f : I −→ R be a function defined and monotone on interval I. Then the following
two statements are equivalent

1. f is continuous on I.

2. f (I) is an interval.

Theorem 4.12: (bijection theorem)

Let f : I −→ R be a function.
If f is strictly monotone and continuous on I, then

1. f is a bijection from I into J = f (I).

2. The inverse function f −1 : J = f (I) −→ I is strictly monotonic and continuous on

J (and varies in the same direction as f ).

34
 2023/2024 Tutorial=4 Department: Common Core in Mathematics
Analysis 1 Limits and Continuous Functions and Computer Science Batna 2-University.

Exercise 1
Find the domain of definition of the following functions:
1

1. f1 (x) = √ √
1/(1 − x) si x ≥ 0
4. f4 (x) =
x+ 1−x 1 si.x < 0

si x ≥ 0
1/(3 − x)
2. f2 (x) = ln(ln x) 5. f5 (x) =
x4 − x si.x < −2

1 1/x(2 − x) si x ≥ 3
3. f3 (x) = 6. f6 (x) =
E(x) − 2 1 si.x < 0

Exercise 2
Solve the following equations in R
√ √
1. ln (x − 1)+ln (2x − 1) = 0 2. 23x − 3x+2 = 3x+1 − 23x+2 3. ( x)x = x x

Exercise 3
Prove that:

1. lim 3x + 1 = 4 2. lim x2 + x − 2 = +∞ 1
x→1 x→+∞ 3. lim− = −∞
x→0 x

Exercise 4
Determine the following limits when x converges to 0.
√ √ √
1 + x − 1 + x2 |x|


2x2 + 5x + 9 − 3 1+x−1
1. 2. 3. x + 1 + 4. √
x 2 x x 3
1+x−1

Exercise 5
Determine the following limits when x tends to +∞
√ √
2x2 + 3x − 1 2. x − x 2−x x 2 ln(x) − ln(3x2 − 2)
1. 3. p √ 4.
2
3x + 1 x+ x 1
x sin( )
x

Exercise 6
Let be the numerical function defined by:

si x ∈] − ∞, 2]

 0,

b
f (x) = a − , si x ∈]2, 4]
 x
si x ∈]4, +∞[

1,

Determine the real parameters a and b so that the function f is continuous on R. Then draw the
graph of f .
Exercise 7
Which of the following given functions fi : R∗ → R can be extended to become a continuous function
at 0.
 
1 1
 x sin( ), si x > 0
  x cos( ),
 si x > 0
1. f1 (x) = x 3. f 2 (x) = x
sin(x) 1 − cos(x)

 , si x < 0 
 , si x < 0
x x2

 1 − cos(x) , si x > 0

2. f2 (x) = x2
1
 x sin( ),
 si x < 0
x

Exercise 8
Let f : [0, 2] → R be a continuous function such that: f (0) = f (2). Show that there exists at least
one element α of [0, 1] for which we have: f (α) = f (α + 1).

Exercise 9
Let f, g : [0, 1] → R be two continuous functions satisfying :

 f (0) = g(1) = 0
and
f (1) = g(0) = 1


Show that for every α ≥ 0, we can associate an element xα ∈ [0, 1]: f (xα ) = αg(xα ) .

Exercise 10
1 1
Show that the function f : [0, ] → [0, ] defined by :
4 4
1
f (x) =
x2 + 4
1
is -contraction.
32

Recall
A function f is said to be contracting on an interval I, if there exists a real 0 < k < 1 such that: for all
real x and y of the interval I we have :

|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ k|x − y|