Once again, Stay calm, if you panic you WILL lose marks.

Pay close attention to each question,

if they give you a value it most likely means you must use it. Pay close attention to the wording
of each question, if you misinterpret a singular word it may lead to a completely different
answer.

throughout these notes i will list formulas and explain how to apply them

S.I Units

Mass -> kg
Time -> Seconds
Distance -> Meters
Force -> Newtons
Pressure -> Pascals
Electric current -> Amperes
Thermodynamic Temperature -> Kelvin (Note 1 kelvin = -273 °C) (*1.380649×10***−23 joules
per kelvin is the boltzmann constant)

Energy -> Joules

Electric charge -> Coulomb
Potential Difference -> Volts OR JC
Frequency -> Hertz

speed of light in a vacuum -> 3x108

Hubbles constant -> **2.2 × 10******–18
Speed of sound -> 330m/s
Speed of sound in solids -> 5000m/s
Speed of sounds in Liquids -> 1500m/s

Audible human hearing range -> 20hz -> 20,000hz

Acceleration due to gravity -> 9.8ms2 (UNLESS MENTIONED OTHERWISE)

atmospheric pressure -> 10^5 Pa

1 l.y -> 9.5 × 1015m

FORMULAS
IF THEY HAVE THE SAME UNIT, THEY CAN (most likely) BE INTERCHANGED WITH
EACHOTHER, FOR EXAMPLE WEIGHT WITH FORCE. I WILL TRY MY BEST TO LIST ALL
FORMULAS THAT CAN BE INTERCHANGED WITH EACHOTHER

FOR EXAMPLE IF A FORMULA REQUIRES ENERGY (like power) ANY OF THE FORMULAS
WHICH HAVE THEIR UNIT AS 'Joules' CAN BE PUT INTO THAT EQUATION, THIS WORKS
FOR ALMOST ALL OTHER FORMULAES.

GENERAL
Average speed(ms) -> Distance/Time

Average velocity(ms) -> Displacement/Time -> s/t

Acceleration(ms2) -> (final velocity - initial velocity)/time -> (v-u)/t

Period of a pendulum -> Total Time/Total number of oscillations

Weight (N) -> Mass(kg) * Gravity(ms2) -> mg

-> WEIGHT can be interchanged for FORCE aswell.
-> for example, find the pressure applied on the object. Lets say the object is 10000g, you find
the weight by doing (10000/1000) = 10kg and multiply that with 9.8 which would = 10*9.8 = 98
newtons. Pressure = Force/Area which in this case we can take area as 10 m^3 we would get
the equation as 98/10 which would be 9.8 Pa.

FORCE (N)-> Mass(kg)*Acceleration(ms2) -> ma

Density(kgm3) -> Mass(kg)/Volume(m3) -> m/v

Hooke's law (N) -> Constant*Extension -> kx

-> INTERCHANGABLE WITH FORCE -> FORCE = kx
-> ONLY APPLICABLE TO THE LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY

Pressure(Pa) -> Force(N)/Area(m3) -> F/A

Fluid Pressure(Pa) -> Density(kgm)*Gravity(ms^2)*Height(m)

-> SOMETIMES they will mention air pressure above the liquid, ADD THAT to your final answer,
for example -> air pressure above a glass of water is 200 Pa, Find the pressure of the water at a
depth of 15 cm.

REMEMBER: DENSITY OF WATER IS 1000KG/M^3

So, convert cm to meters -> 15/100 = 0.15

hydrostatic pressure formula = Pressure at the surface of the liquid + Density*Gravity* Height

so -> 200 + (1000*9.8*0.15)

which is 200+1470
therefore the answer is 1670 Pa

Work(J) -> Force(N)*Distance Moved(m) -> F*d

Power -> Work/Time

NOTE - POWER AND WORK ARE ALSO IN ELECTROPHYSICS, IF THEY ASK FOR THE
DEFINITION OF WORK USE THE GENERAL PHYSICS ONE UNLESS STATED
OTHERWISE, DO NOT TRY DEFINING USING THE FORMULAE, REMEMBER THESE.
ONLY TRY THAT IF YOU COMPLETELY FORGOT.

WORK -> Energy transferred when a given force moves an object of given mass
POWER -> Rate of which energy is transferred
**Kinetic Energy(J) -> 1/2 Mass(kg) * Velocity2(ms) -> 1/2*mv******2

Gravitational Potential Energy(J) -> Mass(kg)*Gravity(ms OR Nkg) *Height(m)

Efficiency% -> UsefulPowerOut/UsefulPowerIn -> Out/In

Efficiency% -> Energy Out/Energy in

Moment(Nm) -> Force(N) * Perpendicular Distance (m) -> Fd

-> Usually they do not give you the Force, You will need to find it using one of the other
formulas which give you 'Newtons' as your answer. For example you may need to find
the weight if they were to provide you with the mass. So take the weight of it, for example
10kg*9.8 = 98N
Force would be 98 and if they gave you the distance as 10 it would be 98*10 so 980N
would be your answer

Sum of clockwise momentum -> f1d1=f2d2

Momentum(kgms) -> Mass(kg) * Velocity (ms) -> p = mv

Force -> Change in Momentum(kgms) /Time (s) -> delta p / s

Impulse (kgms or Ns) -> change in momentum (kgms) -> mv-mu

Centripetal force -> (Mass(kg) * Velocity^2(ms))/Radius(m) -> (mv2)/r

---------------

THERMAL PHYSICS

Boyle's Law for changes of gas pressure at constant temperature:

P1V1 = P2V2
or
PV = constant

FOR EXAMPLE,

pressure of one container of 50cm^3 is 200 Pa, pressure of another container is x with a volume
of 25^2

50*200 = 25x
10000 = 25x
x= 10000/25 = 400Pa

Energy(J) = mass(kg) * specific heat capacity(Jkj^2°C) * Temperature change(C°) ->

mcDeltaT

NOTE, THIS FORMULA CAN BE REARRANGED

C = E/mDeltaT

Thermal Capacity(J°C) -> Mass(kg) * Specific Heat Capacity(Jkg°C) -> mc

Energy Transferred(J) -> Mass(kg) * Specific Latent Heat (Jkg) -> ml

Thermal Expansion(m) -> linear expansivity(°C) * original length(m) * Temperature rise

(°C)
Linear expansivity is the fraction in which the object expands per unit temperature change
Electricity

Current(A) -> Charge(C)/Time(s) -> Q/t

Voltage -> Current*Resistance -> IR

Power(W) -> Current*Voltage -> IV

Power(W)->Current^2*Resistance->I^2R

Power(W) -> Voltage^2/Resistance -> V^2/R

Work -> VIt or Pt or Q*V

Energy transferred -> Current*Voltage*Time-> IVt

Resistance in series -> Rs = r1+r2+r3 ....

Parallel -> 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Transformers -> Voltage secondary coil/Voltage in primary coil = Turns on

secondary/Turns on primary -> v2/v1 = t2/t1
Turns can be replaced with current

Potential difference between 2 points(V) -> work done/charge taken ->W/Q

Resistance in relation to area -> R1/R2 = A1/A2

In relation to length -> R1/R2 = L1/L2
OR
Resistivity* (length/area of cross section)

Heat generated -> I2Rt ( Current squared * Resistance * Time) or VIt or (V2/R)*t
**1 KWh -> 3.6 * 10****6**Joules
Q=I*T

Waves

Wave speed(ms)-> Frequency(Hz) * Wavelength(m) -> flambda

Frequency -> 1/period(s) -> F = 1/t

Radius of curvature -> 2*Focal length -> 2f

Snell's law -> Refractive index 1*Sin I = Refractive index2 * Sin r -> n1*sini=n2sinr

Refractive index -> Sini/Sinr or c/v (speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in material)
or 1/sinc

Radioactive alpha decay: 238 Th -> 234 U + 4 He -> a X -> A-4 Y + 4Helium
92 90. 2. z. Z-2 2
Radioactive beta decay: 209 Pb -> 209 Bi + 0. e +energy -> A X -> A Y +0. e

82 83 -1 Z Z+1 -1
Radioactive gamma decay: AZX -> AZY + Gamma radiation

Energy (J) = mass defect (kg) × speed of light^2(ms-1) E = mc2

Space Physics

Orbital period -> (Circumference of the orbit)/time -> (2*pi*r)/t

Hubbles constant -> recession velocity of galaxy/distance to the galaxy -> v/d
Age of universe -> 1/HUbbles constant -> 1/h0
**h0 -> 2.2 × 10******–18

THEORY WRITING/DEFINING PARTS

Equilibrium
No resultant force
No resultant moment
Motion
A question regarding something being in a freefall is likely to come, write the following
"The (object) Starts accelerating due to gravitational force, as the (object) continues
falling the air resistance increases as the speed/velocity increases. As air resistance
increases, the (object)'s acceleration decreases. The (Object) reaches terminal velocity
once the air resistance and gravitational force equalise and moves at a constant speed."

Effect of moving with a force that impacts you.

For example, effect on your hands after you move them backwards as you catch a ball
-> Longer time of impact which will reduce to force

Movement regarding pressure,

Lets say the question asks you why sliding across the ice with your whole body is better
than walking, say "Pressure will decrease as the surface area is larger. This causes
particles to have smaller velocity and collide less frequently and with less force, this will
lead to their being a lower probability of the ice cracking ."

Particles
When they mention that the temperature is decreased for a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume
Say-> "Particles have less kinetic energy causing them to collide less frequently and with
lower force therefore reducing pressure."
When the temperature is increased -> "Particles have more kinetic energy causing them
to collide more frequently and with harder force therefore increasing pressure."

When they mention that the volume is decreased for a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature
Say-> Due to the voluming decreasing, particles collide more frequently therefore
increasing pressure
When volume is increased
Say-> Due to the volume increasing, particles collide less frequently therefore causing a
reduction in pressure"

Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the temperature at which particles have the lowest energy. It is the
lowest possible temperature

Hooke's Law -> The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied up
to the limit of proportionality

Magnetic field
A magnetic field is a region inwhich a magnetic pole experiences a force.
Direction of a magnetic field -> Direction of force on the north pole

Temperature variation between regions on earth

Ray from the sun strikes at different angles throughout the year.

Lifecycle of a star
Stellar Nebula->Protostar->Star
Now they break down into 2 subpoints
Stars lower than 20ish solar masses during their main sequence phase(or stars around
the same mass as our sun) -> Red giant -> Planetary Nebula -> White dwarf
Stars above 20ish solar masses during their main sequence phase -> Red supergiant ->
supernova -> Neutron star OR Blackhole
NOTE -> DURING PROTOSTAR FORMATION -> GASES WITHIN A PLANETARY NEBULA
COME CLOSER TOGETHER DUE TO GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF ATTRACTION, DUE TO
THIS THE DENSITY OF THE PROTOSTAR INCREASES ASWELL AS THE TEMPERATURE
DUE TO THE AMOUNT OF COLLISIONS BETWEEN PARTICLES INCREASES
NOTE -> DURING MAIN SEQUENCE PHASE OF AROUND 0.5 SOLAR MASSES (STABLE
PHASE) -> STARS WILL START CONVERTING HYDROGEN INTO DEUTERIUM->TRITIUM
THEN HELIUM, IT BECOMES A HELIUM WHITE DWARF. AROUND 0.5 TO 8 SOLAR
MASSES IS WHEN IT FUSES HELIUM INTO CARBON THEN INTO OXYGEN, IT BECOMES
A CARBON OXYGEN WHITE DWARF.
ABOVE 8 IS WHEN IT FUSES OXYGEN INTO NEON THEN INTO SILICON THEN INTO
IRON BEFORE UNDERGOING AN IRON CORE COLLAPSE, THE SUPERNOVA STAGE IS
WHERE WE GET OUT HEAVY ELEMENTS SUCH AS GOLD AND URANIUM. AFTER THE
RED GIANT PHASE THE OUTER LAYER OF THE STAR EXPANDS AND KIND OF FIZZLES
OUT AS THE FORCE OF GRAVITY IS TOO WEAK TO HOLD IT TOGETHER LEAVING A
WHITE DWARF. AFTER THE RED SUPERGIANT PHASE THE STAR UNDERGOES A IRON-
CORE COLLAPSE SINCE IRON CANNOT FUSE INTO ANOTHER HEAVIER ELEMENT THE
OUTWARD FORCE OF NUCLEAR FUSION IS NO LONGER PRESENT THEREFORE
CAUSING THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF THE SUPERGIANT TO "win" AND
COLLAPSE THE STAR CAUSING A SUPERNOVA AND LEAVING BEHIND EITHER A
WHITE DWARF OR BLACK HOLE.

Friction
If they ask you why the stopping distance of an object increases between 2 tests or days
say->
"Less friction between (object) base and floor. Explanation -> Less friction means less
work done against the car"
Impulse->Change in momentum or Force*Time for which a force acts

Thermal

Conduction-> Transfer of heat from DIRECT contant between particles. The fast moving
particles collide with slower ones causing a transfer in kinetic energy between particles
increasing the temperature of the colder object.
How solid conduct heat delocalised electrons move through metal OR electrons collide
with distant particles. Lattice vibrations transfer energy to neighbouring particles.

Convection->Transfer of heat in FLUIDS (AIR COUNTS AS A FLUID!) -> Heated fluids

expand expand making them less dense and causing them to rise while colder fluids sink
to the bottom, this creates convection currents.

Radiation-> Transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves (DOES NOT REQUIRE A MEDIUM)

-> Dark Matte objects absorb radiation better than light shiny ones and also radiate better
than light shiny ones.
DO NOT GET THIS CONFUSED- WHEN THEY ASK YOU WHAT COLOUR YOU SHOULD
USE TO INCREASE RATE OF COOLING, SAY BLACK. FOR WHEN THEY ASK YOU TO
DECREASE RATE OF COOLING, PUT WHITE.
BLACK EMITS RADIATION AT THE SAME RATE AS IT ABSORBS. WHITE REFLECT
MORE THAN THEY EMIT.

Difference between boiling and evaporation, Evaporation is a surface phenomenon while

boiling occurs throughout the liquid. Boiling as a fixed temperature while evaporation
doesnt.

Why sweat cools you down -> heat from your skin gets ABSORBED by your sweat via
conduction.
The sweat evaporates and the heat energy gets dispersed into the colder surroundings.
Therefore reducing your body temperature. Main cooling effect comes from latent heat of
vaporization.

Nuclear fission -> The process in which large atomic nuclei split into 2 smaller atomic
nuclei.
A high energy particle (neutron) collides with a heavy nucleus, the heavy nucleus
becomes unstable and splits into 2 smaller nuclei. Extra neutrons are also released
causing a fission chain reaction. A huge amount of energy is released, HOWEVER
Nuclear fusion releases more energy.
example 235U + neutron → 92Kr+141Ba+3 neutrons+energy

Nuclear fusion-> REQUIRES EXTREMELY HIGH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE TO

OVERCOME THE ELECTROSTATIC REPULSION OF ATOMIC NUCLEI, NUCLEIS FUSE TO
MAKE HEAVIER NUCLEUSES, USING THE EQUATION E=MC^2 WE CAN DEDUCE THAT
THE MASS IS CONVERTED INTO ENERGY. example -> Hydrogen + hydrogen =
Deuterium
Nuclide notation is just AXZ form where A is the Mass number and Z is the proton
number, X is the element.

Split rings and brushes effect on the action of a motor

-> CARBON Brushes ensure current is maintained
-> Coils rotate continuously
-> Allows current to change direction without wires getting tangled
-> Reverses current at right angles to the magnetic field
Slip rings
-> Provide a continuous electrical connection for AC) between the power source and the
rotating coil.
->Allow alternating current (AC) to flow uninterrupted, meaning the direction of the current does
not reverse inside the coil.
Effect on a motor->
-> Allows alternate directions per half cycle
-> Ensure smooth and continuous rotation
Coil at vertical
-> Turning effect decreases as it approaches its vertical
-> Turning effect hits zero as it hits its vertical
-> past vertical turning effect reverses
Thermistor
As heat increases -> Resistance decreases
As Heat decreases -> Resistance increases
DO NOT MISTAKE THIS FOR HEAT IN WIRES
IN A WIRE IF HEAT INCREASES -> RESISTANCE INCREASES DUE TO HIGHER
INTERFERENCE TO ELECTRONS WHILE THEY FLOW.
HEAT DECREASES -> RESISTANCE DECREASES

Compression: Region where particles are closer together than normal

Rarefaction: Region where particles are further apart than normal

ALL EM WAVES DO NOT NEED A MEDIUM
ALL MECHANICAL WAVES REQUIRE MEDIUMS

CONVEX ONLY

AT INFINITY -> REAL INVERTED AND DIMINISHED IMAGE FORMED AT FOCUS

OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
BEYOND 2F -> INVERTED REAL AND DIMINISHED IMAGE FORMED INBETWEEN F AND
2F OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
AT 2F -> INVERTED REAL AND SAME SIZE IMAGE FORMED AT 2F OPPOSITE SIDE OF
LENSE
BETWEEN 2F AND F -> INVERTED REAL AND MAGNIFIED, IMAGE FORMED BEYOND 2F
OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
AT F -> UPRIGHT VIRTUAL AND MAGNIFIED, PARALLEL RAYS FORMED, RAYS DO NOT
INTERSECT AND AT THE SAME SIDE OF THE LENSE IMAGE AT INFINITY
BETWEEN F AND OPTICAL CENTRE -> UPRIGHT VIRTUAL AND MAGNIFIED IMAGE
FORMED BEHIND OBJECT ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE LENSE.

Myopia -> short sightedness -> image formed infront of retina -> rectify by using a
concave lens
Hypermetropia -> Far sightedness -> image formed behind retina -> rectify via convex
lens.

Gas-> Low attractive force, random BROWNIAN motion, takes up more space.
Particles move in straight lines until they collide
Molecules in non monoatomic gases can rotate freely
Molecules may vibrate

Liquid -> Less attractive force compared to solid but more compared to gas, Constant
random motion but loosely bound together by intermolecular forces.
Translational Motion: Particles move freely past one another, allowing liquids to flow and
take the shape of their container.
Vibrational Motion: Particles oscillate around temporary equilibrium positions due to
thermal energy.

Solid-> Most attractive forces between molecules BUT highest repulsion force aswell,
Fixed structure, Limited movement due to strong intermolecular forces.
Vibrational motion: Particles oscillate on fixed positions within the solids structure
Atoms do not move freely but may shift under stress
Compressibility->Gas->Liquid->Solid
Conservation of energy
-> energy cannot be created or destroyed
-> energy can be transferred/transformed between energy stores
Gamma radiation -> energy only
Beta radiation -> one electron -> (6)Carbon(14) -> (7)Nitrogen(14) + electron
Alpha radiation -> helium atom -> (94)Uranium(238) -> (90)Thorium(234) + (2)Helium(4)

Ruthersford gold foil experiment

-> Most alpha particles passed straight through → Atoms are mostly empty space.
-> Some alpha particles were deflected at small angles → Presence of a positive charge
in the atom.
-> A few bounced straight back → There must be a small, dense, and positively charged
nucleus at the center.
The nucleus is extremely small compared to the size of the atom-> Since only a few alpha
particles were deflected, the nucleus must be very tiny in relation to the entire atom.

Electrons orbit the nucleus at a relatively large distance.-> Rutherford’s model suggested
that electrons move around the nucleus.

When smoke particles are observed through a microscope:

->Description of motion

->Smoke particles show random/unpredictable movement known as BROWNIAN motion

->Smoke particles show sudden changes of directions.

->Smoke particles appear/ disappear from view

Explanation of motion

->Air molecules collide with smoke particles

->Air molecules faster

->Air molecules move randomly

->Air molecules smaller

Heating expands, Cooling contracts

**WATER EXPANDS ON COOLING AND HEATING.(**not in syllabus)but its because of its
hydrogen bonding once it cools it forms a open hexagonal structure which causes its
intermolecular spacing to expand

Bimetallic strips
2 different metals are joined together, when it is heated, one metal expands more than
the other.
the one that expands more is on the top causing the outer bend to be larger than the
inner bend. Usually used for fire alarms and thermostats.

Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed in them. This is because the inner
surface of the glass expands rapidly, before the thermal energy has passed through to
the outer surface. The force of expansion cracks the glass.(thank you vasumitra)

Increase rate of evaporation

-> Increasing surface area

-> Increase temperature
-> Blowing air across surface

principal axis → the line passing through the centre of a lens perpendicular
to its surface

principal focus → the point on the principal axis where rays of light parallel
to the principal axis converge after passing through a converging lens

focal length → the distance from the centre of the lens to its principal
focus

Dispersion of white light through a glass prism

SPLITS INTO 7
FROM TOP TO BOTTOM IT GOES
RED - RAJESH'S
ORANGE -> OBESE
YELLOW -> YOUNG
GREEN -> GIRAFFE
BLUE -> BLEW UP
INDIGO -> INSHAS
VIOLET -> VIOLEN

(this was made at like 2 am, had to keep it family friendly use something else if its too hard lol)

WHEN THEY ASK YOU TO DRAW THE RAYS, MAKE SURE NONE OF THE RAYS GO
ABOVE THE UNDEVIATED RAY.
In a prism, frequency remain constant, wavelength decrease, speed decrease, so
dispersion occurs.

Transverse waves -> Vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation.

EM, water and Secondary Seismic waves are transverse

Longitudinal waves -> Vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation

Sound waves and Primary Seismic waves

EM FROM LOWEST FREQUENCY/HIGHEST WAVELENGTH TO HIGHEST

FREQUENCY/LOWEST WAVELENGTH

RADIOWAVES - Rajesh's
MICROWAVES - Mutated
INFRARED -> Invention
VISIBLE LIGHT -> Violently
ULTRAVIOLET -> Unravelled
A
X-RAY -> Xenon
GAMMA -> Glow

(once again, very tired)

Radio Waves->radio and television transmissions

Microwaves: Microwave ovens, Mobile phones

Infrared: Short ranged Comms(TV Remote) Thermal imaging, Intruder alarms

Visible light: Photography, illumination

Ultraviolet: detecting fake bank notes sterilising water

X-rays: medical scanning, security scanners

Gamma rays: sterilising food and medical equipment, detection of cancer and

its treatment

Dangers:
Microwaves: internal heating of body cells

Infrared: skin burns

Ultraviolet: damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin cancer and eye

conditions

X-rays and Gamma rays: mutation or damage to cells in the body

Difference between digital and analogue signals

Digital
->Discrete signals
->Represented by square waves
->Computers
->Discontinuous values
->Converts into binary
Analogue
->Continuous signals
->Represented by sine waves
->Human voice
->Records as they are

Induced magnetism -> Process where unmagnetised objects get temporarily magnetised
in a magnetic field

Why a galvanometer deflects for a brief period then returns to 0 in a transformer with an
iron core (DC)
-> Current in the primary coil generates a magnetic field around it. This magnetic field
magnetises the iron core, which induces a changing magnetic flux in the secondary coil.
Since electromagnetic induction only occurs due to a changing magnetic field, the
galvanometer deflects momentarily. However, once the magnetic field stabilises there is
no further change in flux, causing the galvanometer to return to zero.

Acceleration-> Increase in the velocity of an object per unit time.

Why dust particles are suspended in the air and do not settle in a gas syringe:
->lighter and faster air molecules collide with the dust particles. dust particles are hit
continuously which will cause movement in random directions known as BROWNIAN
motion.

Denser -> Rarer medium -> away from normal

Rarer->Denser medium -> Towards normal

Properties that change at the boundary of refraction

-> Wave speed
-> Direction
-> wave length

Refraction-> Change in wave speed and wavelength of a wave after passing through
another medium

Why a door gets closed using an electromagnet:

When the switch is closed, it completes the circuit allowing current to pass through the
solenoid. The solenoid induces magnets and attracts the bolt which extends the spring
and opens the door.

Why a student adds a oil drop under a thermometer

-> Good conductor of heat
What happens when the sun runs out of hydrogen
-> Sun will start expanding into a red giant. After that it will shed out its outer layer and
form a planetary nebula with a white dwarf in the centre.

Why gravitational field strength is bigger on one planet

-> more mass
What is a moon
-> natural sattelite orbiting a celestial body

Graphical interpretation is completely dependent on the graph, mainly use common

sense
Speed Time -> Horizontal line -> Constant speed, no acceleration
Speed time -> straight line -> Constant acceleration increasing speed.
Distance time -> Horizontal line -> No speed
Distance time -> Straight line -> Constant speed no acceleration

In terms of energies of molecules, why only a few particles escape from the waters
surface(evaporation)
-> Energy of a few water molecules have very high energy. Only the most energetic
molecules can escape leaving low energetics behind.
Why is the energy needed
In order to overcome the attractive forces between molecules in the liquid and separate
them by a greater distance.

Why cotton wool/thread is used on a pivot

->Hang masses from their centre of mass

Why speed of light is not taking into account when calculating distance of an audible
thunder clap.

Speed of light is extremely high, to the point where it becomes negligible in the time
given.

When drawing electric field lines

-> from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE
HOWEVER ELECTRON FLOW IS FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES ARE FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.

REGION WITH THE STRONGEST MAGNETIC FIELD -> NEAR THE POLES
WITH THE WEAKEST -> THE INTERMEDIATE POINT BETWEEN BOTH POLES

Greater turning effect -> Stronger magnets

Redshift
-> Increase in the wavelength of light from distant galaxies increase due to the expansion
of the universe which causes galaxies to move further away from earth.

How to plot magnetic fields

-> Place bar magnet on a piece of paper
-> Sprinkle Iron fillings over the paper
-> Tap the paper to alow the fillings to move
-> Use a plotting compass to determine direction
-> Draw field lines
OR
-> Place bar magnet on a piece of paper
-> Place plotting compass on one of the poles
-> if it points towards the pole that pole is the south pole
-> draw a dot on the end of the needle and move compass onto the dot so that is tail is
on it
-> repeat process until you reach the other pole
-> repeat for however many field lines you want

Closer field lines -> stronger magnetic field

Strength of electromagnet
-> Increase turns
-> Increase Current
-> Soft iron core

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Charging of solids by friction involves only a transfer of negative charge (electrons).

Positive charges (protons) do not move.

In electrical conductors mobile electrons can move through the solids and carry the
current. In electrical non conductors electrons can not move and cannot carry the
current.

Charge is measured in coulombs.

Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.

The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive
charge at that point.

DC AND AC
AC
-> ALTERNATING
-> ELECTRONS DO NOT FLOW, THEY MOVE BACK AND FORTH
-> CAN BE TRANSFERRED OVER LONG DISTANCES WITH LOW ENERGY LOSS
-> ROTATING MAGNETS CAUSE CHANGE IN THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRON FLOW
-> FREQUENCY BETWEEN 50HZ - 60HZ
DC
-> DIRECT CURRENT
-> ELECTRONS FLOW FROM POINT A TO B
-> STEADY MAGNETISM ALLOWS ELECTRONS TO FLOW
-> NO FREQUENCY
-> FLOWS IN A SINGLE DIRECTION
-> CANNOT BE SENT OVER LONG DISTANCES WITHOUT LOSING SIGNIFICANT
ENERGY
^all electrical circuit symbols

SERIES
-> CURRENT IS SAME THROUGHOUT
-> VOLTAGE SPLITS BETWEEN COMPONENTS (V=IR) IN FAVOUR OF MOST
RESISTANCE
-> CALCULATE EMF BY ADDING UP VOLTMETER READING OF EACH SOURCE
-> IF ONE COMPONENT FAILS, ALL OTHER COMPONENTS WILL FAIL ASWELL
PARALLEL
-> CURRENT SPLITS IN FAVOUR OF LEAST RESISTANCE (I=V/R)
-> VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT
-> COMBINED RESISTANCE IS LESS THAN EITHER RESISTORS
-> IF ONE COMPONENT IN A PARALLEL FAILS, OTHERS CAN STILL WORK

SOURCES OF RADIATION
-> FOOD
-> COSMIC RAYS
-> RADON IN AIR

ORDER OF IONISING STRENGTH (STRONGEST TO WEAKEST)

-> ALPHA (LOSES ENERGY QUICKLY)
-> BETA
-> GAMMA (INTERACTS LESS WITH MATTER)
ORDER OF PENETRATION POWER (STRONGEST TO WEAKEST)
-> GAMMA (THICK LEAD REQUIRED TO BLOCK)
-> BETA (FEW MM OF ALUMINIUM REQUIRED TO BLOCK)
-> ALPHA (STOPPED BY PAPER OR A FEW CM OF AIR)
-> IN THE PRESENCE OF A ELECTRIC FIELD BETA RADIATION DEFLECTS TOWARDS
THE POSITIVE SIDE
-> ALPHA DEFLECTS TO THE NEGATIVE SIDE
-> GAMMA DOES NOT DEFLECT

PRESENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD

BETA DEFLECTS UPWARDS
ALPHA DOWNWARDS
GAMMA DOES NOT DEFLECT
ALPHA DEFLECTS LESS THAN BETA
ALPHA HAS GREATER MASS AND IS POSITIVELY CHARGED
BETA AND LESS MASS AND IS NEGATIVELY CHARGED

RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND LEAD TO ALL 3 TYPES OF RADIATION

ONLY ALPHA AND BETA DECAY CHANGE THE NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM
GAMMA ONLY RELEASES ENERGY

SMOKE DETECTORS:
Alpha radiation ionises the air creating positive ions. These positive ions cause a small
current flow between 2 electrodes in the smoke detector. Once smoke comes in, it
absorbs the alpha radiation causing a reduction in current, this reduction of current is
detected and the alarm is triggered.
THICKNESS DETECTION:
Beta particles are directed through a material. A radiation detector detects the radiation
on the other end. If the material is too thick, the radiation levels will be low and an
automatic control system adjusts it. Beta is used instead of alpha as alpha would be
absorbed entirely.

Cancer Treatment
Source of gamma rays are directed to the tumour in order to kill it. The source moves
around the patient in order to always be aimed at the tumour. This reduces the dosage of
healthy tissues.

Ionising radiation can cause, death of cells, mutation and cancer.

Earth orbit -> 365 days

Moon orbit -> 1 month

Moon is tidally locked -> always has the same side facing us

The hemisphere tilted towards the sun will experience summer while the one tilted away
will experience winter. Autumn and spring occur during transitional periods

The moon shines because it reflects the suns rays.

New moon->Waxing crescent->First quarter->Waxing gibbous->Full moon->Waning
gibbous->Last Quarter->Waning crescent-> New moon

New Moon -> The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun. The side facing Earth is in
shadow, making it invisible to us.

Full Moon -> The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. The side facing Earth is fully
illuminated by sunlight, making the entire Moon visible.

Orbits are elliptical

Redshift is evidence of expansion -> supports big bang theory

Cosmic microwave background radiation was produced shortly after the bigbang, and
expanded into the microwave part of the electromagnet spectrum as the universe
expanded

When current passes through a galvanometer, it shows the direction of conventional

current
(positive to negative)

For Total Internal Reflection to take place light must travel from denser medium to rarer
medium.

Chemical energy is stored in batteries which is then converted to electrical energy.

Electrical shock is the greatest hazard from uninsulated wires.

Fuse and switches are both connected to the live wire.

Speed of wave does not change during diffraction.

(towards the end i did take some notes from vasumitra since i was getting a bit tired.)

Upvote70Downvote68Go to comments
Once again, Stay calm, if you panic you WILL lose marks. Pay close attention to each question,
if they give you a value it most likely means you must use it. Pay close attention to the wording
of each question, if you misinterpret a singular word it may lead to a completely different
answer.

throughout these notes i will list formulas and explain how to apply them

S.I Units

Mass -> kg
Time -> Seconds
Distance -> Meters
Force -> Newtons
Pressure -> Pascals
Electric current -> Amperes
Thermodynamic Temperature -> Kelvin (Note 1 kelvin = -273 °C) (*1.380649×10***−23 joules
per kelvin is the boltzmann constant)

Energy -> Joules

Electric charge -> Coulomb
Potential Difference -> Volts OR JC
Frequency -> Hertz

speed of light in a vacuum -> 3x108

Hubbles constant -> **2.2 × 10******–18
Speed of sound -> 330m/s
Speed of sound in solids -> 5000m/s
Speed of sounds in Liquids -> 1500m/s

Audible human hearing range -> 20hz -> 20,000hz

Acceleration due to gravity -> 9.8ms2 (UNLESS MENTIONED OTHERWISE)

atmospheric pressure -> 10^5 Pa

1 l.y -> 9.5 × 1015m

FORMULAS
IF THEY HAVE THE SAME UNIT, THEY CAN (most likely) BE INTERCHANGED WITH
EACHOTHER, FOR EXAMPLE WEIGHT WITH FORCE. I WILL TRY MY BEST TO LIST ALL
FORMULAS THAT CAN BE INTERCHANGED WITH EACHOTHER
FOR EXAMPLE IF A FORMULA REQUIRES ENERGY (like power) ANY OF THE FORMULAS
WHICH HAVE THEIR UNIT AS 'Joules' CAN BE PUT INTO THAT EQUATION, THIS WORKS
FOR ALMOST ALL OTHER FORMULAES.

GENERAL

Average speed(ms) -> Distance/Time

Average velocity(ms) -> Displacement/Time -> s/t

Acceleration(ms2) -> (final velocity - initial velocity)/time -> (v-u)/t

Period of a pendulum -> Total Time/Total number of oscillations

Weight (N) -> Mass(kg) * Gravity(ms2) -> mg

-> WEIGHT can be interchanged for FORCE aswell.
-> for example, find the pressure applied on the object. Lets say the object is 10000g, you find
the weight by doing (10000/1000) = 10kg and multiply that with 9.8 which would = 10*9.8 = 98
newtons. Pressure = Force/Area which in this case we can take area as 10 m^3 we would get
the equation as 98/10 which would be 9.8 Pa.

FORCE (N)-> Mass(kg)*Acceleration(ms2) -> ma

Density(kgm3) -> Mass(kg)/Volume(m3) -> m/v

Hooke's law (N) -> Constant*Extension -> kx

-> INTERCHANGABLE WITH FORCE -> FORCE = kx
-> ONLY APPLICABLE TO THE LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY

Pressure(Pa) -> Force(N)/Area(m3) -> F/A

Fluid Pressure(Pa) -> Density(kgm)*Gravity(ms^2)*Height(m)

-> SOMETIMES they will mention air pressure above the liquid, ADD THAT to your final answer,
for example -> air pressure above a glass of water is 200 Pa, Find the pressure of the water at a
depth of 15 cm.

REMEMBER: DENSITY OF WATER IS 1000KG/M^3

So, convert cm to meters -> 15/100 = 0.15

hydrostatic pressure formula = Pressure at the surface of the liquid + Density*Gravity* Height

so -> 200 + (1000*9.8*0.15)

which is 200+1470
therefore the answer is 1670 Pa

Work(J) -> Force(N)*Distance Moved(m) -> F*d

Power -> Work/Time

NOTE - POWER AND WORK ARE ALSO IN ELECTROPHYSICS, IF THEY ASK FOR THE
DEFINITION OF WORK USE THE GENERAL PHYSICS ONE UNLESS STATED
OTHERWISE, DO NOT TRY DEFINING USING THE FORMULAE, REMEMBER THESE.
ONLY TRY THAT IF YOU COMPLETELY FORGOT.

WORK -> Energy transferred when a given force moves an object of given mass
POWER -> Rate of which energy is transferred

**Kinetic Energy(J) -> 1/2 Mass(kg) * Velocity2(ms) -> 1/2*mv******2

Gravitational Potential Energy(J) -> Mass(kg)*Gravity(ms OR Nkg) *Height(m)

Efficiency% -> UsefulPowerOut/UsefulPowerIn -> Out/In

Efficiency% -> Energy Out/Energy in

Moment(Nm) -> Force(N) * Perpendicular Distance (m) -> Fd

-> Usually they do not give you the Force, You will need to find it using one of the other
formulas which give you 'Newtons' as your answer. For example you may need to find
the weight if they were to provide you with the mass. So take the weight of it, for example
10kg*9.8 = 98N
Force would be 98 and if they gave you the distance as 10 it would be 98*10 so 980N
would be your answer

Sum of clockwise momentum -> f1d1=f2d2

Momentum(kgms) -> Mass(kg) * Velocity (ms) -> p = mv

Force -> Change in Momentum(kgms) /Time (s) -> delta p / s

Impulse (kgms or Ns) -> change in momentum (kgms) -> mv-mu

Centripetal force -> (Mass(kg) * Velocity^2(ms))/Radius(m) -> (mv2)/r

---------------

THERMAL PHYSICS

Boyle's Law for changes of gas pressure at constant temperature:

P1V1 = P2V2
or
PV = constant

FOR EXAMPLE,

pressure of one container of 50cm^3 is 200 Pa, pressure of another container is x with a volume
of 25^2

50*200 = 25x
10000 = 25x
x= 10000/25 = 400Pa

Energy(J) = mass(kg) * specific heat capacity(Jkj^2°C) * Temperature change(C°) ->

mcDeltaT
NOTE, THIS FORMULA CAN BE REARRANGED

C = E/mDeltaT

Thermal Capacity(J°C) -> Mass(kg) * Specific Heat Capacity(Jkg°C) -> mc

Energy Transferred(J) -> Mass(kg) * Specific Latent Heat (Jkg) -> ml

Thermal Expansion(m) -> linear expansivity(°C) * original length(m) * Temperature rise

(°C)
Linear expansivity is the fraction in which the object expands per unit temperature change
Electricity

Current(A) -> Charge(C)/Time(s) -> Q/t

Voltage -> Current*Resistance -> IR

Power(W) -> Current*Voltage -> IV

Power(W)->Current^2*Resistance->I^2R

Power(W) -> Voltage^2/Resistance -> V^2/R

Work -> VIt or Pt or Q*V

Energy transferred -> Current*Voltage*Time-> IVt

Resistance in series -> Rs = r1+r2+r3 ....

Parallel -> 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Transformers -> Voltage secondary coil/Voltage in primary coil = Turns on

secondary/Turns on primary -> v2/v1 = t2/t1
Turns can be replaced with current

Potential difference between 2 points(V) -> work done/charge taken ->W/Q

Resistance in relation to area -> R1/R2 = A1/A2

In relation to length -> R1/R2 = L1/L2
OR
Resistivity* (length/area of cross section)

Heat generated -> I2Rt ( Current squared * Resistance * Time) or VIt or (V2/R)*t
**1 KWh -> 3.6 * 10****6**Joules
Q=I*T

Waves

Wave speed(ms)-> Frequency(Hz) * Wavelength(m) -> flambda

Frequency -> 1/period(s) -> F = 1/t

Radius of curvature -> 2*Focal length -> 2f

Snell's law -> Refractive index 1*Sin I = Refractive index2 * Sin r -> n1*sini=n2sinr
Refractive index -> Sini/Sinr or c/v (speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in material)
or 1/sinc

Radioactive alpha decay: 238 Th -> 234 U + 4 He -> a X -> A-4 Y + 4Helium
92 90. 2. z. Z-2 2

Radioactive beta decay: 209 Pb -> 209 Bi + 0. e +energy -> A X -> A Y +0. e

82 83 -1 Z Z+1 -1
Radioactive gamma decay: AZX -> AZY + Gamma radiation

Energy (J) = mass defect (kg) × speed of light^2(ms-1) E = mc2

Space Physics

Orbital period -> (Circumference of the orbit)/time -> (2*pi*r)/t

Hubbles constant -> recession velocity of galaxy/distance to the galaxy -> v/d
Age of universe -> 1/HUbbles constant -> 1/h0
**h0 -> 2.2 × 10******–18

THEORY WRITING/DEFINING PARTS

Equilibrium
No resultant force
No resultant moment
Motion
A question regarding something being in a freefall is likely to come, write the following
"The (object) Starts accelerating due to gravitational force, as the (object) continues
falling the air resistance increases as the speed/velocity increases. As air resistance
increases, the (object)'s acceleration decreases. The (Object) reaches terminal velocity
once the air resistance and gravitational force equalise and moves at a constant speed."

Effect of moving with a force that impacts you.

For example, effect on your hands after you move them backwards as you catch a ball
-> Longer time of impact which will reduce to force

Movement regarding pressure,

Lets say the question asks you why sliding across the ice with your whole body is better
than walking, say "Pressure will decrease as the surface area is larger. This causes
particles to have smaller velocity and collide less frequently and with less force, this will
lead to their being a lower probability of the ice cracking ."

Particles
When they mention that the temperature is decreased for a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume
Say-> "Particles have less kinetic energy causing them to collide less frequently and with
lower force therefore reducing pressure."
When the temperature is increased -> "Particles have more kinetic energy causing them
to collide more frequently and with harder force therefore increasing pressure."

When they mention that the volume is decreased for a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature
Say-> Due to the voluming decreasing, particles collide more frequently therefore
increasing pressure
When volume is increased
Say-> Due to the volume increasing, particles collide less frequently therefore causing a
reduction in pressure"

Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the temperature at which particles have the lowest energy. It is the
lowest possible temperature

Hooke's Law -> The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied up
to the limit of proportionality

Magnetic field
A magnetic field is a region inwhich a magnetic pole experiences a force.
Direction of a magnetic field -> Direction of force on the north pole

Temperature variation between regions on earth

Ray from the sun strikes at different angles throughout the year.

Lifecycle of a star
Stellar Nebula->Protostar->Star
Now they break down into 2 subpoints
Stars lower than 20ish solar masses during their main sequence phase(or stars around
the same mass as our sun) -> Red giant -> Planetary Nebula -> White dwarf
Stars above 20ish solar masses during their main sequence phase -> Red supergiant ->
supernova -> Neutron star OR Blackhole
NOTE -> DURING PROTOSTAR FORMATION -> GASES WITHIN A PLANETARY NEBULA
COME CLOSER TOGETHER DUE TO GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF ATTRACTION, DUE TO
THIS THE DENSITY OF THE PROTOSTAR INCREASES ASWELL AS THE TEMPERATURE
DUE TO THE AMOUNT OF COLLISIONS BETWEEN PARTICLES INCREASES
NOTE -> DURING MAIN SEQUENCE PHASE OF AROUND 0.5 SOLAR MASSES (STABLE
PHASE) -> STARS WILL START CONVERTING HYDROGEN INTO DEUTERIUM->TRITIUM
THEN HELIUM, IT BECOMES A HELIUM WHITE DWARF. AROUND 0.5 TO 8 SOLAR
MASSES IS WHEN IT FUSES HELIUM INTO CARBON THEN INTO OXYGEN, IT BECOMES
A CARBON OXYGEN WHITE DWARF.
ABOVE 8 IS WHEN IT FUSES OXYGEN INTO NEON THEN INTO SILICON THEN INTO
IRON BEFORE UNDERGOING AN IRON CORE COLLAPSE, THE SUPERNOVA STAGE IS
WHERE WE GET OUT HEAVY ELEMENTS SUCH AS GOLD AND URANIUM. AFTER THE
RED GIANT PHASE THE OUTER LAYER OF THE STAR EXPANDS AND KIND OF FIZZLES
OUT AS THE FORCE OF GRAVITY IS TOO WEAK TO HOLD IT TOGETHER LEAVING A
WHITE DWARF. AFTER THE RED SUPERGIANT PHASE THE STAR UNDERGOES A IRON-
CORE COLLAPSE SINCE IRON CANNOT FUSE INTO ANOTHER HEAVIER ELEMENT THE
OUTWARD FORCE OF NUCLEAR FUSION IS NO LONGER PRESENT THEREFORE
CAUSING THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF THE SUPERGIANT TO "win" AND
COLLAPSE THE STAR CAUSING A SUPERNOVA AND LEAVING BEHIND EITHER A
WHITE DWARF OR BLACK HOLE.

Friction
If they ask you why the stopping distance of an object increases between 2 tests or days
say->
"Less friction between (object) base and floor. Explanation -> Less friction means less
work done against the car"

Impulse->Change in momentum or Force*Time for which a force acts

Thermal

Conduction-> Transfer of heat from DIRECT contant between particles. The fast moving
particles collide with slower ones causing a transfer in kinetic energy between particles
increasing the temperature of the colder object.
How solid conduct heat delocalised electrons move through metal OR electrons collide
with distant particles. Lattice vibrations transfer energy to neighbouring particles.

Convection->Transfer of heat in FLUIDS (AIR COUNTS AS A FLUID!) -> Heated fluids

expand expand making them less dense and causing them to rise while colder fluids sink
to the bottom, this creates convection currents.

Radiation-> Transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves (DOES NOT REQUIRE A MEDIUM)

-> Dark Matte objects absorb radiation better than light shiny ones and also radiate better
than light shiny ones.
DO NOT GET THIS CONFUSED- WHEN THEY ASK YOU WHAT COLOUR YOU SHOULD
USE TO INCREASE RATE OF COOLING, SAY BLACK. FOR WHEN THEY ASK YOU TO
DECREASE RATE OF COOLING, PUT WHITE.
BLACK EMITS RADIATION AT THE SAME RATE AS IT ABSORBS. WHITE REFLECT
MORE THAN THEY EMIT.

Difference between boiling and evaporation, Evaporation is a surface phenomenon while

boiling occurs throughout the liquid. Boiling as a fixed temperature while evaporation
doesnt.

Why sweat cools you down -> heat from your skin gets ABSORBED by your sweat via
conduction.
The sweat evaporates and the heat energy gets dispersed into the colder surroundings.
Therefore reducing your body temperature. Main cooling effect comes from latent heat of
vaporization.

Nuclear fission -> The process in which large atomic nuclei split into 2 smaller atomic
nuclei.
A high energy particle (neutron) collides with a heavy nucleus, the heavy nucleus
becomes unstable and splits into 2 smaller nuclei. Extra neutrons are also released
causing a fission chain reaction. A huge amount of energy is released, HOWEVER
Nuclear fusion releases more energy.
example 235U + neutron → 92Kr+141Ba+3 neutrons+energy
Nuclear fusion-> REQUIRES EXTREMELY HIGH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE TO
OVERCOME THE ELECTROSTATIC REPULSION OF ATOMIC NUCLEI, NUCLEIS FUSE TO
MAKE HEAVIER NUCLEUSES, USING THE EQUATION E=MC^2 WE CAN DEDUCE THAT
THE MASS IS CONVERTED INTO ENERGY. example -> Hydrogen + hydrogen =
Deuterium
Nuclide notation is just AXZ form where A is the Mass number and Z is the proton
number, X is the element.

Split rings and brushes effect on the action of a motor

-> CARBON Brushes ensure current is maintained
-> Coils rotate continuously
-> Allows current to change direction without wires getting tangled
-> Reverses current at right angles to the magnetic field
Slip rings
-> Provide a continuous electrical connection for AC) between the power source and the
rotating coil.
->Allow alternating current (AC) to flow uninterrupted, meaning the direction of the current does
not reverse inside the coil.
Effect on a motor->
-> Allows alternate directions per half cycle
-> Ensure smooth and continuous rotation
Coil at vertical
-> Turning effect decreases as it approaches its vertical
-> Turning effect hits zero as it hits its vertical
-> past vertical turning effect reverses
Thermistor
As heat increases -> Resistance decreases
As Heat decreases -> Resistance increases
DO NOT MISTAKE THIS FOR HEAT IN WIRES
IN A WIRE IF HEAT INCREASES -> RESISTANCE INCREASES DUE TO HIGHER
INTERFERENCE TO ELECTRONS WHILE THEY FLOW.
HEAT DECREASES -> RESISTANCE DECREASES

Compression: Region where particles are closer together than normal

Rarefaction: Region where particles are further apart than normal

ALL EM WAVES DO NOT NEED A MEDIUM
ALL MECHANICAL WAVES REQUIRE MEDIUMS

CONVEX ONLY

AT INFINITY -> REAL INVERTED AND DIMINISHED IMAGE FORMED AT FOCUS

OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
BEYOND 2F -> INVERTED REAL AND DIMINISHED IMAGE FORMED INBETWEEN F AND
2F OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
AT 2F -> INVERTED REAL AND SAME SIZE IMAGE FORMED AT 2F OPPOSITE SIDE OF
LENSE
BETWEEN 2F AND F -> INVERTED REAL AND MAGNIFIED, IMAGE FORMED BEYOND 2F
OPPOSITE SIDE OF LENSE
AT F -> UPRIGHT VIRTUAL AND MAGNIFIED, PARALLEL RAYS FORMED, RAYS DO NOT
INTERSECT AND AT THE SAME SIDE OF THE LENSE IMAGE AT INFINITY
BETWEEN F AND OPTICAL CENTRE -> UPRIGHT VIRTUAL AND MAGNIFIED IMAGE
FORMED BEHIND OBJECT ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE LENSE.

Myopia -> short sightedness -> image formed infront of retina -> rectify by using a
concave lens
Hypermetropia -> Far sightedness -> image formed behind retina -> rectify via convex
lens.

Gas-> Low attractive force, random BROWNIAN motion, takes up more space.
Particles move in straight lines until they collide
Molecules in non monoatomic gases can rotate freely
Molecules may vibrate

Liquid -> Less attractive force compared to solid but more compared to gas, Constant
random motion but loosely bound together by intermolecular forces.
Translational Motion: Particles move freely past one another, allowing liquids to flow and
take the shape of their container.
Vibrational Motion: Particles oscillate around temporary equilibrium positions due to
thermal energy.

Solid-> Most attractive forces between molecules BUT highest repulsion force aswell,
Fixed structure, Limited movement due to strong intermolecular forces.
Vibrational motion: Particles oscillate on fixed positions within the solids structure
Atoms do not move freely but may shift under stress
Compressibility->Gas->Liquid->Solid
Conservation of energy
-> energy cannot be created or destroyed
-> energy can be transferred/transformed between energy stores
Gamma radiation -> energy only
Beta radiation -> one electron -> (6)Carbon(14) -> (7)Nitrogen(14) + electron
Alpha radiation -> helium atom -> (94)Uranium(238) -> (90)Thorium(234) + (2)Helium(4)

Ruthersford gold foil experiment

-> Most alpha particles passed straight through → Atoms are mostly empty space.
-> Some alpha particles were deflected at small angles → Presence of a positive charge
in the atom.
-> A few bounced straight back → There must be a small, dense, and positively charged
nucleus at the center.
The nucleus is extremely small compared to the size of the atom-> Since only a few alpha
particles were deflected, the nucleus must be very tiny in relation to the entire atom.

Electrons orbit the nucleus at a relatively large distance.-> Rutherford’s model suggested
that electrons move around the nucleus.

When smoke particles are observed through a microscope:

->Description of motion

->Smoke particles show random/unpredictable movement known as BROWNIAN motion

->Smoke particles show sudden changes of directions.

->Smoke particles appear/ disappear from view

Explanation of motion

->Air molecules collide with smoke particles

->Air molecules faster

->Air molecules move randomly

->Air molecules smaller

Heating expands, Cooling contracts

**WATER EXPANDS ON COOLING AND HEATING.(**not in syllabus)but its because of its
hydrogen bonding once it cools it forms a open hexagonal structure which causes its
intermolecular spacing to expand

Bimetallic strips
2 different metals are joined together, when it is heated, one metal expands more than
the other.
the one that expands more is on the top causing the outer bend to be larger than the
inner bend. Usually used for fire alarms and thermostats.

Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed in them. This is because the inner
surface of the glass expands rapidly, before the thermal energy has passed through to
the outer surface. The force of expansion cracks the glass.(thank you vasumitra)

Increase rate of evaporation

-> Increasing surface area

-> Increase temperature
-> Blowing air across surface

principal axis → the line passing through the centre of a lens perpendicular
to its surface

principal focus → the point on the principal axis where rays of light parallel
to the principal axis converge after passing through a converging lens

focal length → the distance from the centre of the lens to its principal
focus

Dispersion of white light through a glass prism

SPLITS INTO 7
FROM TOP TO BOTTOM IT GOES
RED - RAJESH'S
ORANGE -> OBESE
YELLOW -> YOUNG
GREEN -> GIRAFFE
BLUE -> BLEW UP
INDIGO -> INSHAS
VIOLET -> VIOLEN

(this was made at like 2 am, had to keep it family friendly use something else if its too hard lol)

WHEN THEY ASK YOU TO DRAW THE RAYS, MAKE SURE NONE OF THE RAYS GO
ABOVE THE UNDEVIATED RAY.

In a prism, frequency remain constant, wavelength decrease, speed decrease, so

dispersion occurs.

Transverse waves -> Vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation.

EM, water and Secondary Seismic waves are transverse

Longitudinal waves -> Vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation

Sound waves and Primary Seismic waves

EM FROM LOWEST FREQUENCY/HIGHEST WAVELENGTH TO HIGHEST

FREQUENCY/LOWEST WAVELENGTH

RADIOWAVES - Rajesh's
MICROWAVES - Mutated
INFRARED -> Invention
VISIBLE LIGHT -> Violently
ULTRAVIOLET -> Unravelled
A
X-RAY -> Xenon
GAMMA -> Glow

(once again, very tired)

Radio Waves->radio and television transmissions

Microwaves: Microwave ovens, Mobile phones

Infrared: Short ranged Comms(TV Remote) Thermal imaging, Intruder alarms

Visible light: Photography, illumination

Ultraviolet: detecting fake bank notes sterilising water

X-rays: medical scanning, security scanners

Gamma rays: sterilising food and medical equipment, detection of cancer and

its treatment

Dangers:
Microwaves: internal heating of body cells

Infrared: skin burns

Ultraviolet: damage to surface cells and eyes, leading to skin cancer and eye

conditions

X-rays and Gamma rays: mutation or damage to cells in the body

Difference between digital and analogue signals

Digital
->Discrete signals
->Represented by square waves
->Computers
->Discontinuous values
->Converts into binary
Analogue
->Continuous signals
->Represented by sine waves
->Human voice
->Records as they are

Induced magnetism -> Process where unmagnetised objects get temporarily magnetised
in a magnetic field

Why a galvanometer deflects for a brief period then returns to 0 in a transformer with an
iron core (DC)
-> Current in the primary coil generates a magnetic field around it. This magnetic field
magnetises the iron core, which induces a changing magnetic flux in the secondary coil.
Since electromagnetic induction only occurs due to a changing magnetic field, the
galvanometer deflects momentarily. However, once the magnetic field stabilises there is
no further change in flux, causing the galvanometer to return to zero.

Acceleration-> Increase in the velocity of an object per unit time.

Why dust particles are suspended in the air and do not settle in a gas syringe:
->lighter and faster air molecules collide with the dust particles. dust particles are hit
continuously which will cause movement in random directions known as BROWNIAN
motion.

Denser -> Rarer medium -> away from normal

Rarer->Denser medium -> Towards normal

Properties that change at the boundary of refraction

-> Wave speed
-> Direction
-> wave length

Refraction-> Change in wave speed and wavelength of a wave after passing through
another medium

Why a door gets closed using an electromagnet:

When the switch is closed, it completes the circuit allowing current to pass through the
solenoid. The solenoid induces magnets and attracts the bolt which extends the spring
and opens the door.

Why a student adds a oil drop under a thermometer

-> Good conductor of heat

What happens when the sun runs out of hydrogen

-> Sun will start expanding into a red giant. After that it will shed out its outer layer and
form a planetary nebula with a white dwarf in the centre.

Why gravitational field strength is bigger on one planet

-> more mass
What is a moon
-> natural sattelite orbiting a celestial body

Graphical interpretation is completely dependent on the graph, mainly use common

sense
Speed Time -> Horizontal line -> Constant speed, no acceleration
Speed time -> straight line -> Constant acceleration increasing speed.
Distance time -> Horizontal line -> No speed
Distance time -> Straight line -> Constant speed no acceleration

In terms of energies of molecules, why only a few particles escape from the waters
surface(evaporation)
-> Energy of a few water molecules have very high energy. Only the most energetic
molecules can escape leaving low energetics behind.
Why is the energy needed
In order to overcome the attractive forces between molecules in the liquid and separate
them by a greater distance.

Why cotton wool/thread is used on a pivot

->Hang masses from their centre of mass

Why speed of light is not taking into account when calculating distance of an audible
thunder clap.

Speed of light is extremely high, to the point where it becomes negligible in the time
given.

When drawing electric field lines

-> from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE
HOWEVER ELECTRON FLOW IS FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES ARE FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.

REGION WITH THE STRONGEST MAGNETIC FIELD -> NEAR THE POLES
WITH THE WEAKEST -> THE INTERMEDIATE POINT BETWEEN BOTH POLES

Greater turning effect -> Stronger magnets

Redshift
-> Increase in the wavelength of light from distant galaxies increase due to the expansion
of the universe which causes galaxies to move further away from earth.

How to plot magnetic fields

-> Place bar magnet on a piece of paper
-> Sprinkle Iron fillings over the paper
-> Tap the paper to alow the fillings to move
-> Use a plotting compass to determine direction
-> Draw field lines
OR
-> Place bar magnet on a piece of paper
-> Place plotting compass on one of the poles
-> if it points towards the pole that pole is the south pole
-> draw a dot on the end of the needle and move compass onto the dot so that is tail is
on it
-> repeat process until you reach the other pole
-> repeat for however many field lines you want

Closer field lines -> stronger magnetic field

Strength of electromagnet
-> Increase turns
-> Increase Current
-> Soft iron core

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Charging of solids by friction involves only a transfer of negative charge (electrons).

Positive charges (protons) do not move.

In electrical conductors mobile electrons can move through the solids and carry the
current. In electrical non conductors electrons can not move and cannot carry the
current.

Charge is measured in coulombs.

Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.

The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive
charge at that point.

DC AND AC
AC
-> ALTERNATING
-> ELECTRONS DO NOT FLOW, THEY MOVE BACK AND FORTH
-> CAN BE TRANSFERRED OVER LONG DISTANCES WITH LOW ENERGY LOSS
-> ROTATING MAGNETS CAUSE CHANGE IN THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRON FLOW
-> FREQUENCY BETWEEN 50HZ - 60HZ
DC
-> DIRECT CURRENT
-> ELECTRONS FLOW FROM POINT A TO B
-> STEADY MAGNETISM ALLOWS ELECTRONS TO FLOW
-> NO FREQUENCY
-> FLOWS IN A SINGLE DIRECTION
-> CANNOT BE SENT OVER LONG DISTANCES WITHOUT LOSING SIGNIFICANT
ENERGY

^all electrical circuit symbols

SERIES
-> CURRENT IS SAME THROUGHOUT
-> VOLTAGE SPLITS BETWEEN COMPONENTS (V=IR) IN FAVOUR OF MOST
RESISTANCE
-> CALCULATE EMF BY ADDING UP VOLTMETER READING OF EACH SOURCE
-> IF ONE COMPONENT FAILS, ALL OTHER COMPONENTS WILL FAIL ASWELL
PARALLEL
-> CURRENT SPLITS IN FAVOUR OF LEAST RESISTANCE (I=V/R)
-> VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT
-> COMBINED RESISTANCE IS LESS THAN EITHER RESISTORS
-> IF ONE COMPONENT IN A PARALLEL FAILS, OTHERS CAN STILL WORK

SOURCES OF RADIATION
-> FOOD
-> COSMIC RAYS
-> RADON IN AIR

ORDER OF IONISING STRENGTH (STRONGEST TO WEAKEST)

-> ALPHA (LOSES ENERGY QUICKLY)
-> BETA
-> GAMMA (INTERACTS LESS WITH MATTER)
ORDER OF PENETRATION POWER (STRONGEST TO WEAKEST)
-> GAMMA (THICK LEAD REQUIRED TO BLOCK)
-> BETA (FEW MM OF ALUMINIUM REQUIRED TO BLOCK)
-> ALPHA (STOPPED BY PAPER OR A FEW CM OF AIR)
-> IN THE PRESENCE OF A ELECTRIC FIELD BETA RADIATION DEFLECTS TOWARDS
THE POSITIVE SIDE
-> ALPHA DEFLECTS TO THE NEGATIVE SIDE
-> GAMMA DOES NOT DEFLECT

PRESENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD

BETA DEFLECTS UPWARDS
ALPHA DOWNWARDS
GAMMA DOES NOT DEFLECT
ALPHA DEFLECTS LESS THAN BETA
ALPHA HAS GREATER MASS AND IS POSITIVELY CHARGED
BETA AND LESS MASS AND IS NEGATIVELY CHARGED

RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND LEAD TO ALL 3 TYPES OF RADIATION

ONLY ALPHA AND BETA DECAY CHANGE THE NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM
GAMMA ONLY RELEASES ENERGY
SMOKE DETECTORS:
Alpha radiation ionises the air creating positive ions. These positive ions cause a small
current flow between 2 electrodes in the smoke detector. Once smoke comes in, it
absorbs the alpha radiation causing a reduction in current, this reduction of current is
detected and the alarm is triggered.

THICKNESS DETECTION:
Beta particles are directed through a material. A radiation detector detects the radiation
on the other end. If the material is too thick, the radiation levels will be low and an
automatic control system adjusts it. Beta is used instead of alpha as alpha would be
absorbed entirely.

Cancer Treatment
Source of gamma rays are directed to the tumour in order to kill it. The source moves
around the patient in order to always be aimed at the tumour. This reduces the dosage of
healthy tissues.

Ionising radiation can cause, death of cells, mutation and cancer.

Earth orbit -> 365 days

Moon orbit -> 1 month

Moon is tidally locked -> always has the same side facing us

The hemisphere tilted towards the sun will experience summer while the one tilted away
will experience winter. Autumn and spring occur during transitional periods

The moon shines because it reflects the suns rays.

New moon->Waxing crescent->First quarter->Waxing gibbous->Full moon->Waning
gibbous->Last Quarter->Waning crescent-> New moon

New Moon -> The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun. The side facing Earth is in
shadow, making it invisible to us.

Full Moon -> The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun. The side facing Earth is fully
illuminated by sunlight, making the entire Moon visible.

Orbits are elliptical

Redshift is evidence of expansion -> supports big bang theory

Cosmic microwave background radiation was produced shortly after the bigbang, and
expanded into the microwave part of the electromagnet spectrum as the universe
expanded

When current passes through a galvanometer, it shows the direction of conventional

current
(positive to negative)

For Total Internal Reflection to take place light must travel from denser medium to rarer
medium.
Chemical energy is stored in batteries which is then converted to electrical energy.

Electrical shock is the greatest hazard from uninsulated wires.

Fuse and switches are both connected to the live wire.

Speed of wave does not change during diffraction.

(towards the end i did take some notes from vasumitra since i was getting a bit tired.)

0625/atp notes part 2 electric boogaloo

🤲 Giving tips/advice

this ones going to be a bit messy because im tired and the caffeine is wearing off

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

ELECTROPHYSICS

DO NOT TOUCH LIVE WIRES

DOUBLE INSULATION

COMPLETE YOUR CIRCUIT BY EITHER GROUNDING IT OR LOOPING BACK TO SOURCE

DO NOT LEAVE CIRCUIT ON FOR TOO LONG.

USE INSULATING GLOVES WHEN HANDLING ELECTRICITY

THERMAL PHYSICS

DO NOT TOUCH HOT OBJECTS WITH BARE HANDS, USE GLOVES

DO NOT BREAK THERMOMETER AND SPILL THE MERCURY WITHIN (ONLY APPLICABLE
TO MERCURY THERMOMETERS)

WAVE PHYSICS

DO NOT BE EXPOSED TO RADIATION FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME

GO BEHIND A LEAD BARRIER TO PREVENT RADIATION POISIONING

RISKS OF INDIVIDUAL EM SPECTRUM WAVES

(IN ORDER FROM LEAST FREQUENCY TO MOST)

(EM WAVE) ->(HAZARD) ->(PRECAUTION)

RADIOWAVES -> NONE -> NONE

MICROWAVES -> HEATING OF TISSUES, RISK OF CANCER -> MICROWAVE MONITOR,
CLOSE ALL SOURCES OF MICROWAVE RADIATION(CLOSING YOUR MICROWAVE
DOOR)

INFRARED -> RISK OF SKIN BURNING, CELL DAMAGE -> AVOID EXPOSURE TO SUN,
WEAR REFLECTIVE CLOTHING

VISIBLE LIGHT -> EYE DAMAGE -> SUN GLASSES

ULTRAVIOLET -> CAN KILL CELLS -> AVOID LONG EXPOSURE, SKIN CREAM

X-RAY -> CELL MUTATION, INTERNAL HEATING OF BODY TISSUE, CELL DAMAGE, RISK
OF CANCER -> MONITOR EXPOSURE, LEAD SHIELDING

GAMMA RAYS -> CELL DEATH, CELL MUTATION, CELL DAMAGE -> LEAD SHIELDING
AVOID EXPOSURE

IMPROVING ACCURACY

(im tired copied from znotes)

To produce more accurate or reliable results:

● Repeat the experiment to calculate the average reading.

● To avoid parallax error, look perpendicular to the ruler.
● If measurement accuracy was asked, check for zero error.
● To draw an image created from the lens:
○ Inverted from the original object.
○ Sides are multiplied by the magnification.
● Centre of mass experiment (with the lamina):
○ You view the string directly in front of the card.
● Minimizing the heating effect of a current:
○ Do not add any electrical components
○ Decrease voltage
○ Decrease the resistance of a resistor
● To increase the accuracy of ray diagrams:
○ View bases of pins since pins may not be vertical
○ Keep pins further apart and use more pins
○ Avoid parallax; explain action and reason
○ Repeats and average
● Improvements made to experiments about heating/cooling effects and insulation
○ Same initial temperature.
○ The same volume of water.
○ Same shape and type of beaker.
○ It's the same room temperature.
○ Stirring the water in the beakers.
○ Record max. temperature
● Heat loss could be reduced by:
○ Insulation of beaker.
○ Cover the beaker with a lid.
● How to check if a rule is vertical:
○ Use of set square or protractor
 ○ Plumb line
○ Spirit Level
● Precautions taken in experiments about the formation of images by a lens
○ Use a darkened area
○ Object and lens are the same height on the bench
○ Take more readings
○ Avoid parallax errors in measurement and look perpendicular to the ruler.
○ Object/lens/screen perpendicular to the bench
● Variables in experiments about springs and stretching effect:
○ Number of coils
○ Length of spring
○ Diameter\thickness of spring or wire
○ Selection of loads
● Improvement made to calculating circumference by string method
○ Avoid parallax error
○ Repeats and average
○ Thinner string
○ Parallel winding of springs
● Precautions for circuit readings of I and V so that they are accurate:
○ For I specifically:
■ Limit current so that temp. doesn't increase
■ Use a tapping meter
○ For I and V: Switch off between readings.
● Fair test for pendulum experiments:
○ Length of pendulum
○ Shape of bob
○ No. of swings
○ Amplitude
● Precautions and procedures in electrical experiments:
○ Check for a zero error
○ Tap the meter to avoid sticking
○ Initially, choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the
range for the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full-scale
○ Always check polarities before closing the switch (completing the circuit)
○ Always check that connections are clean.
○ Switch off the current when not making a measurement.
○ When measuring resistance, use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and
changing the resistance you are measuring.

INACCURACIES
ANGLE I!= ANGLE R

THICKNESS OF PINS
THICKNESS OF MIRROR
PROTRACTOR IS ONLY ACCURATE TO 1º

INACCURACY OF RAYBOX

THICKNESS OF RAYS

INACCURACY OF PINS
PINS NOT STRAIGHT OR TOO CLOSE

OSCILLATIONS

TAKE MULTIPLE OSCILLATION READINGS AND DIVIDE BY TIME

Upvote8Downvote4Go to comments
0625/atp notes part 2 electric boogaloo

🤲 Giving tips/advice

this ones going to be a bit messy because im tired and the caffeine is wearing off

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

ELECTROPHYSICS

DO NOT TOUCH LIVE WIRES

DOUBLE INSULATION

COMPLETE YOUR CIRCUIT BY EITHER GROUNDING IT OR LOOPING BACK TO SOURCE

DO NOT LEAVE CIRCUIT ON FOR TOO LONG.

USE INSULATING GLOVES WHEN HANDLING ELECTRICITY

THERMAL PHYSICS

DO NOT TOUCH HOT OBJECTS WITH BARE HANDS, USE GLOVES

DO NOT BREAK THERMOMETER AND SPILL THE MERCURY WITHIN (ONLY APPLICABLE
TO MERCURY THERMOMETERS)

WAVE PHYSICS

DO NOT BE EXPOSED TO RADIATION FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME

GO BEHIND A LEAD BARRIER TO PREVENT RADIATION POISIONING

RISKS OF INDIVIDUAL EM SPECTRUM WAVES

(IN ORDER FROM LEAST FREQUENCY TO MOST)

(EM WAVE) ->(HAZARD) ->(PRECAUTION)

RADIOWAVES -> NONE -> NONE

MICROWAVES -> HEATING OF TISSUES, RISK OF CANCER -> MICROWAVE MONITOR,

CLOSE ALL SOURCES OF MICROWAVE RADIATION(CLOSING YOUR MICROWAVE
DOOR)
INFRARED -> RISK OF SKIN BURNING, CELL DAMAGE -> AVOID EXPOSURE TO SUN,
WEAR REFLECTIVE CLOTHING

VISIBLE LIGHT -> EYE DAMAGE -> SUN GLASSES

ULTRAVIOLET -> CAN KILL CELLS -> AVOID LONG EXPOSURE, SKIN CREAM

X-RAY -> CELL MUTATION, INTERNAL HEATING OF BODY TISSUE, CELL DAMAGE, RISK
OF CANCER -> MONITOR EXPOSURE, LEAD SHIELDING

GAMMA RAYS -> CELL DEATH, CELL MUTATION, CELL DAMAGE -> LEAD SHIELDING
AVOID EXPOSURE

IMPROVING ACCURACY

(im tired copied from znotes)

To produce more accurate or reliable results:

● Repeat the experiment to calculate the average reading.

● To avoid parallax error, look perpendicular to the ruler.
● If measurement accuracy was asked, check for zero error.
● To draw an image created from the lens:
○ Inverted from the original object.
○ Sides are multiplied by the magnification.
● Centre of mass experiment (with the lamina):
○ You view the string directly in front of the card.
● Minimizing the heating effect of a current:
○ Do not add any electrical components
○ Decrease voltage
○ Decrease the resistance of a resistor
● To increase the accuracy of ray diagrams:
○ View bases of pins since pins may not be vertical
○ Keep pins further apart and use more pins
○ Avoid parallax; explain action and reason
○ Repeats and average
● Improvements made to experiments about heating/cooling effects and insulation
○ Same initial temperature.
○ The same volume of water.
○ Same shape and type of beaker.
○ It's the same room temperature.
○ Stirring the water in the beakers.
○ Record max. temperature
● Heat loss could be reduced by:
○ Insulation of beaker.
○ Cover the beaker with a lid.
● How to check if a rule is vertical:
○ Use of set square or protractor
○ Plumb line
○ Spirit Level
● Precautions taken in experiments about the formation of images by a lens
○ Use a darkened area
 ○ Object and lens are the same height on the bench
○ Take more readings
○ Avoid parallax errors in measurement and look perpendicular to the ruler.
○ Object/lens/screen perpendicular to the bench
● Variables in experiments about springs and stretching effect:
○ Number of coils
○ Length of spring
○ Diameter\thickness of spring or wire
○ Selection of loads
● Improvement made to calculating circumference by string method
○ Avoid parallax error
○ Repeats and average
○ Thinner string
○ Parallel winding of springs
● Precautions for circuit readings of I and V so that they are accurate:
○ For I specifically:
■ Limit current so that temp. doesn't increase
■ Use a tapping meter
○ For I and V: Switch off between readings.
● Fair test for pendulum experiments:
○ Length of pendulum
○ Shape of bob
○ No. of swings
○ Amplitude
● Precautions and procedures in electrical experiments:
○ Check for a zero error
○ Tap the meter to avoid sticking
○ Initially, choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the
range for the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full-scale
○ Always check polarities before closing the switch (completing the circuit)
○ Always check that connections are clean.
○ Switch off the current when not making a measurement.
○ When measuring resistance, use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and
changing the resistance you are measuring.

INACCURACIES
ANGLE I!= ANGLE R

THICKNESS OF PINS
THICKNESS OF MIRROR
PROTRACTOR IS ONLY ACCURATE TO 1º

INACCURACY OF RAYBOX

THICKNESS OF RAYS

INACCURACY OF PINS

PINS NOT STRAIGHT OR TOO CLOSE

OSCILLATIONS
TAKE MULTIPLE OSCILLATION READINGS AND DIVIDE BY TIME