Remote Sensing Handbook,

Volume III (Six Volume Set)

Volume III of the Six Volume Remote Sensing Handbook, Second Edition, is focused on agriculture;
food security; vegetation; phenology; rangelands; soils; and global biomass modeling, mapping,
and monitoring using multi-sensor remote sensing. It discusses the application of remote sensing
in agriculture systems analysis, phenology, cropland mapping and modeling, terrestrial vegetation
studies, physically based models, food and water security, precision farming, crop residues, global
view of rangelands, and soils. This thoroughly revised and updated volume draws on the expertise
of a diverse array of leading international authorities in remote sensing and provides an essential
resource for researchers at all levels interested in using remote sensing. It integrates discussions
of remote sensing principles, data, methods, development, applications, and scientific and social
context.

FEATURES
• Provides the most up-to-date comprehensive coverage of remote sensing science in
agriculture, vegetation, and soil studies.
• Discusses and analyzes data from old and new generations of satellites and sensors spread
across 60 years.
• Provides comprehensive assessment of modeling, mapping, and monitoring agricultural
crops, vegetation, and soils from a wide array of sensors, methods, and techniques.
• Includes numerous case studies on advances and applications at local, regional, and global
scales.
• Introduces advanced methods in remote sensing such as machine learning, cloud
computing, and AI.
• Highlights scientific achievements over the last decade and provides guidance for future
developments.

This volume is an excellent resource for the entire remote sensing and GIS community. Academics,
researchers, undergraduate and graduate students, as well as practitioners, decision makers, and
policymakers, will benefit from the expertise of the professionals featured in this book, and their
extensive knowledge of new and emerging trends.
Remote Sensing Handbook,
Volume III (Six Volume Set)
Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands,
Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils
Second Edition

Edited by Prasad S. Thenkabail, PhD

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Designed cover image: © Prasad S. Thenkabail
Second edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2025 selection and editorial matter, Prasad S. Thenkabail; individual chapters, the contributors
First edition published by CRC Press 2016
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Thenkabail, Prasad Srinivasa, 1958– editor.
Title: Remote sensing handbook / edited by Prasad S. Thenkabail ; foreword by Compton J. Tucker.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2025. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Contents: v. 1. Remotely sensed data characterization, classification, and accuracies—v. 2. Image processing, change
detection, GIS and spatial data analysis—v. 3. Agriculture, food security, rangelands, vegetation, phenology, and
soils—v. 4. Forests, biodiversity, ecology, LULC, and carbon—v. 5. Water, hydrology, floods, snow and ice, wetlands,
and water productivity—v. 6. Droughts, disasters, pollution, and urban mapping.
Identifiers: LCCN 2024029377 (print) | LCCN 2024029378 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032890951 (hbk ; v. 1) |
ISBN 9781032890968 (pbk ; v. 1) | ISBN 9781032890975 (hbk ; v. 2) | ISBN 9781032890982 (pbk ; v. 2) |
ISBN 9781032891019 (hbk ; v. 3) | ISBN 9781032891026 (pbk ; v. 3) | ISBN 9781032891033 (hbk ; v. 4) |
ISBN 9781032891040 (pbk ; v. 4) | ISBN 9781032891453 (hbk ; v. 5) | ISBN 9781032891477 (pbk ; v. 5) |
ISBN 9781032891484 (hbk ; v. 6) | ISBN 9781032891507 (pbk ; v. 6)
Subjects: LCSH: Remote sensing—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC G70.4 .R4573 2025 (print) | LCC G70.4 (ebook) | DDC 621.36/780285—dc23/eng/20240722
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024029377
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024029378
ISBN: 978-1-032-89101-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-89102-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-54116-5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003541165
Typeset in Times
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
Foreword by Compton J. Tucker����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
Preface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv
About the Editor������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxxiii
List of Contributors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxxvii
Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xliii

PART I Vegetation and Biomass

Chapter 1 Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space����������������������������������������������������������� 3

Alfredo Huete, Guillermo Ponce-Campos, Yongguang Zhang,
Natalia Restrepo-Coupe, and Xuanlong Ma
1.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
1.1.1 Key Productivity Definitions����������������������������������������������������������������4
1.1.2 Seasonal Biosphere Productivity���������������������������������������������������������� 6
1.1.3 Constraints on Productivity������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
1.2 Measures of Productivity�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
1.2.1 Field Methods���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
1.2.2 Eddy Covariance Flux Towers������������������������������������������������������������� 7
1.2.3 Earth Observation Data������������������������������������������������������������������������ 7
1.3 EO Productivity Studies������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 8
1.3.1 EO Measures of GPP�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
1.3.2 VI Relationships with Flux Tower GPP��������������������������������������������� 12
1.3.3 Temperature-Greenness (T-G) Model������������������������������������������������ 14
1.3.4 Greenness and Radiation (G-R) LUE Models������������������������������������ 15
1.3.5 Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF)
as Proxy for GPP�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1.4 EO Light Use Efficiency Productivity Models������������������������������������������������ 17
1.4.1 BIOME-BGC Model�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
1.4.2 Vegetation Photosynthesis Model (VPM)������������������������������������������ 19
1.5 EO Measures of Net Primary Productivity (NPP)������������������������������������������20
1.5.1 Annual Integrated VI Estimates of Productivity�������������������������������20
1.5.2 EO NPP Model Products�������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
1.5.3 Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI)�������������������������������������������� 23
1.5.4 Net Ecosystem Productivity and Net Biome Productivity����������������� 23
1.6 Discussion and Future�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26

Chapter 2 Remote Sensing of Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence������������������������������������ 33

Juan Quiros-Vargas, Bastian Siegmann, Juliane Bendig, Laura Verena
Junker-Frohn, Christoph Jedmowski, David Herrera, and Uwe Rascher
2.1 Introduction: What Is Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF)?���������� 33
2.2 SIF Assessments at Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Scale�������������������������� 36
2.3 SIF Assessments at Airborne Scale����������������������������������������������������������������� 37

v
viContents

2.4 SIF Assessments at Satellite Scale������������������������������������������������������������������ 39

2.5 The SIF-Scaling Issue: Importance of Downscaling�������������������������������������� 42
2.6 Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 43
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44

Chapter 3 Canopy Biophysical Variables Retrieval from the Inversion

of Reflectance Models������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 49
Frédéric Baret
3.1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
3.2 The Several Definitions of LAI and FAPAR��������������������������������������������������� 50
3.2.1 Leaf Area Index: LAI, GLAI, PAI, GAI, Effective and
Apparent Values��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
3.2.2 FAPAR: Illumination Conditions and
Green/Non-Green Elements��������������������������������������������������������������� 51
3.3 Radiative Transfer Model Inversion Methods������������������������������������������������� 52
3.3.1 Radiometric Data-Driven Approach: Minimizing the Distance
between Observed and Simulated Reflectance���������������������������������� 53
3.3.2 Canopy Biophysical Variables Driven Approach:
Machine Learning������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 54
3.3.3 Pros and Cons Associated with the
Retrieval Approaches������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
3.4 Theoretical Performances of Biophysical
Variables Estimation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
3.5 Mitigating the Underdetermined and Ill-Posed Nature
of the Inverse Problem������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
3.5.1 Underdetermination and Ill-Posedness of the
Inverse Problem���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
3.5.2 Reducing Model Uncertainties����������������������������������������������������������� 61
3.5.3 Using Prior Information��������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
3.5.4 Using Additional Constraints�������������������������������������������������������������64
3.6 Combination of Methods and Sensors to Improve the Retrievals������������������� 65
3.6.1 Hybrid Methods and Ensemble Products������������������������������������������� 65
3.6.2 Combining Sensors to Build Long, Dense,
and Consistent Time Series����������������������������������������������������������������66
3.7 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70

PART II Agricultural Croplands

Chapter 4 Agricultural Crop Biophysical and Biochemical Quantity Retrievals Using

Remote Sensing with Multi-Sensor Synergy, Machine Learning,
and Radiative Transfer Models���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
Lea Hallik, Egidijus Šarauskis, Ruchita Ingle, Indrė Bručienė, Vilma
Naujokienė, and Kristina Lekavičienė
4.1 Advancing Earth Observation Science for Sustainable Agriculture��������������� 83
4.2 Harnessing the Power of Remote Sensing for Digital Twins��������������������������84
Contents vii

4.3 Radiative Transfer Models (RTMs) ................................................................. 85

4.3.1 Common RTMs Used for Agricultural Crops.................................... 85
4.3.2 Emulators ........................................................................................... 85
4.4 Towards Consistent and Scalable Biophysical Parameter Retrieval:
A Multi-Sensor Approach Leveraging Cloud Computing
Environments................................................................................................... 86
4.5 Uncertainty Budgets ........................................................................................ 87
4.6 Synergy between Remote Sensing and Crop Growth Models:
Digital Twins for Agriculture .......................................................................... 88
4.6.1 Bridging Remote Sensing and Crop Growth Models......................... 88
4.6.2 Scaling Up and Down Crop Growth Models ..................................... 89
4.7 Sensor Synergies for Biophysical Trait Retrievals:
Bridging the Gap between Remote Sensing and
Plant Phenotyping............................................................................................90
4.8 Ground Validation of Land Surface Products .................................................90
4.9 Commonly Estimated Crop Biophysical Traits ............................................... 91
4.9.1 Leaf Area Index (LAI) ....................................................................... 91
4.9.2 Chlorophylls ....................................................................................... 93
4.9.3 Nitrogen .............................................................................................. 93
4.9.4 Canopy Temperature for Water Stress Management.......................... 95
4.10 Conclusions......................................................................................................96
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................96
References ..................................................................................................................96

Chapter 5 Agriculture ............................................................................................................... 104

Clement Atzberger and Markus Immitzer
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 104
5.1.1 What’s Unique about Agricultural Activities? ................................. 104
5.1.2 Pathways for Increased Efficiency
and Sustainability ............................................................................. 108
5.2 The Monitoring of Crop Status and Development ........................................ 111
5.2.1 Complementarity of Different Spatial Resolutions .......................... 111
5.2.2 Features Derived from EO Sensor Data ........................................... 114
5.3 Remote Sensing for Assessing Yield and Biomass ....................................... 114
5.3.1 Comparative Crop Monitoring and
Anomaly Detection .......................................................................... 116
5.3.2 Crop Yield Predictions Using Regression Analysis ......................... 117
5.3.3 Use of Monteith’s Light Use Efficiency Equation ............................ 121
5.3.4 Remote Sensing Data Assimilation into
Dynamic Crop Growth Models ........................................................ 123
5.4 Crop Acreage Estimation .............................................................................. 127
5.4.1 Crop Mapping Using Decametric Satellite Data.............................. 128
5.4.2 Crop Mapping Using Hecto- to Kilometric
Resolution Satellite Time Series ...................................................... 131
5.4.3 Accuracy Considerations .................................................................. 134
5.5 Crop Development and Phenology ................................................................ 135
5.5.1 Phenology and Land Surface Phenology.......................................... 136
5.5.2 LSP Mapping and Monitoring ......................................................... 137
5.5.3 Time Series Modeling ...................................................................... 137
viiiContents

5.5.4 Use of Thresholds����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139

5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations�������������������������������������������������������������� 139
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140

Chapter 6 Agricultural Systems Studies Using Remote Sensing���������������������������������������������� 161

Agnès Bégué, Damien Arvor, Camille Lelong, Elodie Vintrou, and
Margareth Simões
6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
6.2 Roles of Remote Sensing in the Assessment of Agricultural Systems���������� 162
6.2.1 Diversity of the Agricultural Systems in the World������������������������� 162
6.2.2 A Conceptual Framework Based on Land Mapping Issues������������� 164
6.2.3 Processing Approaches�������������������������������������������������������������������� 165
6.3 Examples of Agricultural System Studies Using Remote Sensing��������������� 168
6.3.1 Presentation of the Case Studies������������������������������������������������������ 168
6.3.2 Remote Sensing Data and Methods������������������������������������������������� 171
6.3.3 Results���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
6.4 Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
6.4.1 Difficulties of Mapping the Cropping Systems
at Regional Scales���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
6.4.2 Emerging Remote Sensing Research����������������������������������������������� 178
6.4.3 Towards an Extended Landscape Agronomy Approach������������������ 179
6.5 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180

Chapter 7 Global Food Security Support Analysis Data (GFSAD) Using Remote Sensing in
Support of Food and Water Security in the 21st Century: Current Achievements
and Future Possibilities�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla, Prasad S. Thenkabail, Jun Xiong, Adam Oliphant,
Murali Krishna Gumma, Chandra Giri, Cristina Milesi, Mutlu Ozdogan,
Russell G. Congalton, James Tilton, Temuulen Tsagaan Sankey,
Richard Massey, Aparna Phalke, and Kamini Yadav
7.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
7.2 Global Distribution of Croplands and Other Land Use and Land Cover:
Baseline for the Year 2000���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
7.2.1 Existing Global Cropland Maps: Remote Sensing and
Non-Remote Sensing Approaches���������������������������������������������������� 191
7.3 Key Remote Sensing Derived Cropland Products:
Global Food Security������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
7.4 Definition of Remote Sensing-Based Cropland Mapping Products�������������� 193
7.5 Data: Remote Sensing and Other Data for Global Cropland Mapping��������� 196
7.5.1 Primary Satellite Sensor Data���������������������������������������������������������� 196
7.5.2 Secondary Data�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196
7.5.3 Field-Plot Data����������������������������������������������������������������������������������200
7.5.4 Very High-Resolution Imagery Data�����������������������������������������������200
7.5.5 Data Composition: Mega File Data Cube (MFDC) Concept�����������200
7.6 Cropland Mapping Methods��������������������������������������������������������������������������202
7.6.1 Remote Sensing-Based Cropland Classification
Mapping Methods for Global, Regional, and Local Scales�������������202
Contents ix

7.6.2 Spectral Matching Techniques (SMTs) Algorithms�������������������������202

7.7 Automated Cropland Classification Algorithm (ACCA)������������������������������� 203
7.8 Remote Sensing-Based Global Cropland Products: Four Selected Key
Cropland Maps, Their Strengths, and Limitations����������������������������������������206
7.8.1 Global Cropland Extent at Nominal 1-km Resolution���������������������209
7.9 Change Analysis�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 214
7.10 Uncertainties of Existing Cropland Products������������������������������������������������ 214
7.11 Way Forward������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 217
7.12 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 219
Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 220
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 221

Chapter 8 Remote Sensing for Precision Agriculture��������������������������������������������������������������� 229

Yuxin Miao, David J. Mulla, and Yanbo Huang
8.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
8.2 Precision Agriculture������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
8.3 Wavelengths and Band Ratios of Interest in Precision Agriculture�������������� 231
8.4 Remote Sensing Platforms���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
8.5 Management Zones��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 236
8.6 Irrigation Management���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 237
8.7 Crop Scouting������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 238
8.8 Nutrient Deficiencies������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 238
8.9 Insect Detection���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������240
8.10 Disease Detection������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 241
8.11 Weed Detection��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 243
8.12 Machine Vision for Weed Discrimination����������������������������������������������������244
8.13 Multi-Source Data Fusion and Machine Learning���������������������������������������� 245
8.14 Knowledge Gaps�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 245
8.15 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������246
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247

Chapter 9 Remote Sensing of Tillage Status���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 255

Baojuan Zheng, James B. Campbell, Guy Serbin, Craig S.T. Daughtry,
Heather McNairn, and Anna Pacheco
9.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 255
9.2 Field Assessment of Crop Residue Cover������������������������������������������������������ 257
9.3 Monitoring with Optical Remote Sensing����������������������������������������������������� 258
9.3.1 Spectral Properties of Soils, Green Vegetation, and Non-
Photosynthetic Vegetation���������������������������������������������������������������� 258
9.3.2 Spectral Indices for Assessing Crop Residue Cover������������������������260
9.3.3 Tillage Assessment Using Airborne and Satellite Imagery������������� 263
9.3.4 Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 267
9.4 Monitoring with Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)��������������������������������������� 268
9.4.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268
9.4.2 Critical Variables for Tillage Assessment���������������������������������������� 268
9.4.3 Methods�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
9.4.4 Linking Radar Products to Tillage Information������������������������������ 276
9.4.5 Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 277
xContents

9.5 Review and Outlook�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 277

References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279

Chapter 10 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for Terrestrial Applications����������������������������������� 285

Prasad S. Thenkabail, Itiya Aneece, Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla, Richa
Upadhyay, Asfa Siddiqui, Justin George Kalambukattu, Suresh Kumar,
Murali Krishna Gumma, and Venkateswarlu Dheeravath
10.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 285
10.2 Hyperspectral Sensors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 286
10.2.1 Spectroradiometers��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 287
10.2.2 Airborne Hyperspectral Remote Sensing���������������������������������������� 288
10.2.3 Spaceborne Hyperspectral Data������������������������������������������������������� 289
10.2.4 Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UASs)������������������������������������������������� 292
10.2.5 Multispectral versus Hyperspectral������������������������������������������������� 292
10.2.6 Hyperspectral Data: 3D Data Cube Visualization and
Spectral Data Characterization�������������������������������������������������������� 295
10.2.7 Hyperspectral Data Normalization�������������������������������������������������� 296
10.3 Spectral Libraries������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 298
10.3.1 Spectral Libraries of Agricultural Crops�����������������������������������������302
10.4 Data Mining and Data Redundancy of Hyperspectral Data������������������������� 303
10.5 Hughes Phenomenon and the Need for Data Mining������������������������������������ 303
10.6 Methods of Hyperspectral Data Analysis�����������������������������������������������������304
10.7 Optimal Hyperspectral Narrowbands (OHNBs)�������������������������������������������306
10.8 Hyperspectral Vegetation Indices (HVIs)����������������������������������������������������� 310
10.8.1 Two Band Hyperspectral Vegetation Indices (TBHVIs)������������������ 310
10.9 Hyperspectral Vegetation Indices (HVIs) and Their Categories������������������ 313
10.10 Full Spectral Analysis (FSA)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 315
10.10.1 Spectral Matching Techniques (SMTs)�������������������������������������������� 315
10.11 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)���������������������������������������������������������� 319
10.12 Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) of Hyperspectral Data���������������������������� 319
10.13 Machine Learning Algorithms (MLAs) for Hyperspectral
Data Analysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 320
10.13.1 Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms (MLAs)����������������������� 321
10.13.2 Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms (MLAs)������������������� 326
10.13.3 Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Cloud Computing�������������� 326
10.14 Case Studies�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 330
10.14.1 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for Mineral Mapping��������������������� 330
10.14.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for Urban
Material Characterization���������������������������������������������������������������� 336
10.14.3 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for Soil Property Mapping������������� 338
10.15 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������344

PART III Rangelands

Chapter 11 A Global View of Remote Sensing of Rangelands: Evolution, Applications,

Future Pathways������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 361
Contents xi

Matthew Reeves, Robert Washington-Allen, Jay Angerer, E. Raymond

Hunt Jr., Wasantha Kulawardhana, Lalit Kumar, Tatiana Loboda, Thomas
Loveland, Graciela Metternicht, R. Douglas Ramsey, Joanne V. Hall,
Trenton Benedict, Pedro Millikan, Angus Retallack, Arjan J.H. Meddens,
William K. Smith, and Wen Zhang
11.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 362
11.2 History and Evolution of Global Remote Sensing����������������������������������������� 363
11.2.1 Beginning of Landsat MSS Era, 1970s�������������������������������������������� 363
11.2.2 Multiple Sensor Era, 1980s��������������������������������������������������������������364
11.2.3 Advanced Multisensor Era, 1990s��������������������������������������������������� 366
11.2.4 New Millennium Era, 2000s������������������������������������������������������������ 366
11.3 State of the Art���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 368
11.3.1 Rangeland Degradation�������������������������������������������������������������������� 369
11.3.2 Fire in Global Rangeland Ecosystems��������������������������������������������� 377
11.3.3 Food Security: Role of Remote Sensing in
Forage Assessment��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 380
11.3.4 Rangeland Vegetation Response to Global Change: The Role
of Remote Sensing���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 383
11.3.5 Remote Sensing of Global Land Cover�������������������������������������������� 392
11.4 Future Pathways of Global Sensing in Rangeland Environments�����������������400
11.5 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������406
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������406

Chapter 12 Remote Sensing of Rangeland Biodiversity������������������������������������������������������������� 419

E. Raymond Hunt Jr., Cuizhen Wang, D. Terrance Booth, Samuel E. Cox,
Lalit Kumar, and Matthew Reeves
12.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 419
12.2 Biodiversity and Rangeland Management����������������������������������������������������� 420
12.2.1 Ecological Sites and State-and-Transition Models��������������������������� 421
12.2.2 Biodiversity Metrics for Managing Australian Rangelands������������� 423
12.2.3 Assessing Rangeland Health by Remote Sensing���������������������������� 424
12.2.4 Remote Sensing for Animal Biodiversity���������������������������������������� 425
12.3 Medium Resolution Remote Sensing������������������������������������������������������������ 426
12.3.1 Spectral Unmixing��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 427
12.3.2 Habitat Heterogeneity and Structure������������������������������������������������ 428
12.3.3 Assessment of Medium Resolution�������������������������������������������������� 429
12.4 High Spectral Resolution������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 429
12.4.1 Spectral Separability of Plant Species��������������������������������������������� 430
12.4.2 Plant Chemical Composition������������������������������������������������������������ 431
12.4.3 Detection of Invasive Plant Species������������������������������������������������� 432
12.4.4 Assessment of High Spectral Resolution����������������������������������������� 434
12.5 High Temporal Resolution����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 434
12.5.1 Phenology Metrics���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 435
12.5.2 Grass Functional Types�������������������������������������������������������������������� 436
12.5.3 Invasive Plant Species���������������������������������������������������������������������� 438
12.5.4 Assessment of High Temporal Resolution��������������������������������������� 438
12.6 High Spatial Resolution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 439
12.6.1 Ground Imaging�������������������������������������������������������������������������������440
12.6.2 Aerial Imaging���������������������������������������������������������������������������������440
xiiContents

12.6.3 Visual Analysis�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441

12.6.4 Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS)������������������������������������������������444
12.6.5 Assessment of High Spatial Resolution������������������������������������������� 445
12.7 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 445
12.8 Disclaimer�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������446
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 447

PART IV Phenology and Food Security

Chapter 13 Characterization, Mapping, and Monitoring of Rangelands: Methods and

Approaches���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������465
Lalit Kumar, Priyakant Sinha, Jesslyn F. Brown, R. Douglas Ramsey,
Matthew Rigge, Carson A. Stam, Alexander J. Hernandez, E. Raymond
Hunt Jr., and Matthew Reeves
13.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������465
13.2 Rangeland Monitoring Methods Using Vegetation Indices��������������������������466
13.2.1 Rangeland Phenology�����������������������������������������������������������������������466
13.2.2 Vegetation Indices in Rangeland Monitoring���������������������������������� 467
13.2.3 Case Study: Rangeland Phenology and Productivity
in the Northern Mixed-Grass Prairie, North America��������������������� 472
13.2.4 Rangeland Fuel Load Assessment���������������������������������������������������� 477
13.2.5 Case Study: Using Remote Sensing to Aid
Rangeland Fuel Analysis������������������������������������������������������������������ 479
13.3 Rangeland Vegetation Characterization�������������������������������������������������������� 482
13.3.1 Rangeland Biodiversity and Gap Analysis��������������������������������������� 482
13.3.2 Case Study: Vegetation Continuous Fields
with Regression Trees���������������������������������������������������������������������� 482
13.4 Rangeland Change Detection Analysis��������������������������������������������������������� 490
13.4.1 Rangeland Indicators������������������������������������������������������������������������ 490
13.4.2 Pattern Metrics to Measure Landscape Attributes��������������������������� 490
13.4.3 Change Detection Methods�������������������������������������������������������������� 494
13.4.4 Case Study: Spectral-Spatial Characteristics
of Selected Ecological Sites�������������������������������������������������������������500
13.5 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 507
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 508

PART V Soils

Chapter 14 Global Land Surface Phenology and Implications for Food Security��������������������� 521
Molly E. Brown, Kirsten de Beurs, and Kathryn Grace
14.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 521
14.2 Characterizing Land Surface Phenology (LSP)�������������������������������������������� 522
14.3 Agriculture and Phenology Metrics�������������������������������������������������������������� 526
14.4 Food Security and Phenology������������������������������������������������������������������������ 527
14.5 Approaches to Measuring Food Insecurity��������������������������������������������������� 528
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14.6 The Use of LSP in Food Security Assessment in Niger�������������������������������� 528

14.7 Using LSP to Contextualize the Relationship between
Maize Price and Health in Kenya������������������������������������������������������������������ 529
14.8 Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 530
14.9 Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 531
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 532

Chapter 15 Spectral Sensing from Ground to Space in Soil Science: State of the Art,
Applications, Potential, and Perspectives����������������������������������������������������������������� 535
José A.M. Demattê, Cristine L.S. Morgan, Sabine Chabrillat, Rodnei Rizzo,
Marston H.D. Franceschini, Fabrício da S. Terra, Gustavo M. Vasques,
Johanna Wetterlind, Henrique Bellinaso, Letícia G. Vogel
15.1 Preface����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 536
15.2 Soils��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 537
15.2.1 Definition and Classification������������������������������������������������������������ 537
15.2.2 How Does Soil Form?���������������������������������������������������������������������� 537
15.3 Why Is Soil Important?��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 538
15.4 The Role of Spectral Sensing in Soil Science�����������������������������������������������540
15.4.1 Concepts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������540
15.4.2 How Does Spectral Sensing Contribute to Soil Science?
Why Is It a New Perspective of Science?�����������������������������������������540
15.4.3 History and Evolution����������������������������������������������������������������������� 542
15.5 The Theory behind Soil Spectral Sensing����������������������������������������������������� 542
15.5.1 Visible, Near-Infrared, Shortwave-Infrared,
and Mid-Infrared������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 542
15.5.2 Microwaves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������544
15.5.3 Thermal Infrared������������������������������������������������������������������������������544
15.5.4 Gamma-Ray������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 554
15.6 Strategies for Soil Evaluation by Spectral Sensing��������������������������������������� 555
15.6.1 Strategies for Soil Sampling������������������������������������������������������������� 557
15.6.2 Strategies for Soil Attribute Prediction and Mapping���������������������� 557
15.6.3 Strategies for Soil Classification������������������������������������������������������ 578
15.6.4 Strategies for Soil Class Mapping���������������������������������������������������� 580
15.6.5 Integrating Strategies����������������������������������������������������������������������� 581
15.6.6 Strategies to Infer Soils from Vegetation����������������������������������������� 582
15.6.7 Strategies for Soil Management and Precision Agriculture������������� 584
15.6.8 Strategies for Soil Conservation������������������������������������������������������� 585
15.6.9 Strategies for Soil Monitoring���������������������������������������������������������� 586
15.6.10 Strategies for Microwave (RADAR) and Gamma-Ray�������������������� 587
15.6.11 Strategies for in Situ Spectral Sensing��������������������������������������������� 591
15.6.12 Soil Spectral Libraries���������������������������������������������������������������������� 592
15.7 Soil Spectral Behavior at Different Acquisition Levels�������������������������������� 595
15.7.1 Spectral Behavior at the Ground Level�������������������������������������������� 595
15.7.2 Spectral Behavior at the Space Level:
From Aerial to Orbital Platforms����������������������������������������������������� 599
15.8 Space Spectral Sensing: Factors to Be Considered for Soil Studies�������������603
15.8.1 Data Used for Soil Characterization������������������������������������������������603
15.8.2 Temporal and Spatial Variation: Implications to
the Spectral Sensing of Soil in Croplands
and Natural Areas����������������������������������������������������������������������������604
xivContents

15.9 Comparison between Classical and Spectral Sensing

Techniques for Soil Analysis�������������������������������������������������������������������������609
15.10 Moisture Effects in Spectral Sensing������������������������������������������������������������ 610
15.11 The Basic and Integrated Strategy—How to Make a
Soil Map Integrating Spectral Sensing and Geotechnologies����������������������� 611
15.12 Potential of Spectral Sensing, Perspectives, and Final Considerations��������� 612
Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 619
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 619

Chapter 16 Remote Sensing of Soil in the Optical Domains������������������������������������������������������ 645

Eyal Ben-Dor and José Alexandre M. Demattê
16.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 645
16.2 Soil�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������646
16.2.1 The Soil System��������������������������������������������������������������������������������646
16.2.2 Soil Composition������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 647
16.3 Remote Sensing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������649
16.3.1 General���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������649
16.3.2 Historical Notes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 652
16.4 Remote Sensing of Soils�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 658
16.5 Soil Reflectance Spectroscopy���������������������������������������������������������������������� 659
16.5.1 Definition������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 659
16.5.2 Historical Notes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 659
16.5.3 Radiation Interactions with a Volume of Soil����������������������������������660
16.6 Radiation Source and Atmospheric Windows����������������������������������������������� 669
16.6.1 General��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 669
16.6.2 Factors Affecting Soil Reflectance in Remote Sensing������������������� 671
16.7 Quantitative Aspects of Soil Spectroscopy��������������������������������������������������� 674
16.7.1 Proximal Sensing����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 674
16.7.2 Application Notes����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 676
16.7.3 Constraints and Cautions in Using Proximal Remote
Sensing for Soils������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 677
16.8 Soil Reflectance and Remote Sensing����������������������������������������������������������� 678
16.8.1 General��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 678
16.8.2 Application of Soil Remote Sensing: Examples�������������������������������680
16.9 Summary and Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 710
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 711

PART VI Summary and Synthesis for Volume III

Chapter 17 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III: Agriculture,

Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils�������������������������������� 731
Prasad S. Thenkabail
17.1 Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space�������������������������������������������� 732
17.2 Remote Sensing of Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Florescence������������������������� 735
17.3 Vegetation Characterization Using Physically Based Models
Such as SAIL, PROSPECT��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 736
Contents xv

17.4 Agricultural Crop Biophysical and Biochemical Quantity Retrievals

from Remote Sensing, Machine Learning, and Radiative
Transfer Models��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 739
17.5 Remote Sensing of Agriculture��������������������������������������������������������������������� 740
17.6 Agricultural Systems Studies through Remote Sensing�������������������������������� 742
17.7 Global Cropland Area Database from Earth Observation Satellites������������� 744
17.8 Precision Farming and Remote Sensing�������������������������������������������������������� 745
17.9 Mapping Tillage versus Non-Tilled Lands and Establishing
Crop Residue Status of Agricultural Croplands Using Remote Sensing������� 749
17.10 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for Terrestrial Applications������������������������� 751
17.11 Rangelands: A Global View�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 754
17.12 Rangeland Biodiversity Studies��������������������������������������������������������������������� 755
17.13 Methods of Characterizing, Mapping, and Monitoring Rangelands������������� 757
17.14 Land Surface Phenology in Food Security Analysis������������������������������������� 757
17.15 Spectral Sensing of Soils������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 760
17.16 Soil Studies from Remote Sensing���������������������������������������������������������������� 762
Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 764
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 764

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 773
Foreword
Satellite remote sensing has progressed tremendously since the first Landsat was launched on June
23, 1972. Since the 1970s, satellite remote sensing and associated airborne and in situ measurements
have resulted in geophysical observations for understanding our planet through time. These obser-
vations have also led to improvements in numerical simulation models of the coupled atmosphere-
land-ocean systems at increasing accuracies and predictive capabilities. This was made possible by
data assimilation of satellite geophysical variables into simulation models, to update model vari-
ables with more current information. The same observations document the Earth’s climate and have
driven consensus that Homo sapiens are changing our climate through greenhouse gas emissions.
These accomplishments are the work of many scientists from a host of countries and a dedicated
cadre of engineers who build and operate the instruments and satellites that collect geophysical
observation data from satellites, all working toward the goal of improving our understanding of the
Earth. This edition of Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) is a compendium
of information for many research areas of the Earth system that have contributed to our substantial
progress since the 1970s. The remote sensing community is now using multiple sources of satellite
and in situ data to advance our studies of planet Earth. In the following paragraphs, I will illustrate
how valuable and pivotal satellite remote sensing has been in climate system study since the 1970s.
The chapters in Remote Sensing Handbook provide other specific studies on land, water, and other
applications using Earth observation data of the past 60+ years.
The Landsat system of Earth-observing satellites led the way in pioneering sustained observa-
tions of our planet. From 1972 to the present, at least one and frequently two Landsat satellites have
been in operation (Wulder et al. 2022; Irons et al. 2012). Starting with the launch of the first NOAA-
NASA Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites NOAA-6 in 1978, improved imaging of land, clouds,
and oceans and atmospheric soundings of temperature were accomplished. The NOAA system of
polar-orbiting meteorological satellites has continued uninterrupted since that time, providing vital
observations for numerical weather prediction. These same satellites are also responsible for the
remarkable records of sea surface temperature and land vegetation index from the Advanced Very
High-Resolution Radiometers (AVHRR) that now span more than 46 years as of 2024, although no
one anticipated valuable climate records from these instruments before the launch of NOAA-6 in
1978 (Cracknell 2001). AVHRR instruments are expected to remain in operation on the European
MetOps satellites into 2026 and possibly beyond.
The successes of data from the AVHRR led to the MODerate resolution Imaging Spectrometer
(MODIS) instruments on NASA’s Earth Observing System of satellite platforms that improved sub-
stantially upon the AVHRR. The first of the EOS platforms, Terra, was launched in 2000, and the
second of these platforms, Aqua, was launched in 2002. Both of these platforms are nearing their
operational end-of-life and many of the climate data records from MODIS will be continued with
the Visible Infrared Imaging Suite (VIIRS) instrument on the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)
meteorological satellites of NOAA. The first of these missions, the NPOES Preparation Project, was
launched in 2012 with the first VIIRS instrument that is operating currently along with similar instru-
ments on JPSS-1 (launched in 2017) and JPSS-2 (launched in 2022). However, unlike the morning/
afternoon overpasses of MODIS, the VIIRS instruments are all in an afternoon overpass orbit. One of
the strengths of the MODIS observations was morning and afternoon data from identical instruments.
Continuity of observations is crucial for advancing our understanding of the Earth’s climate
system. Many scientists feel the crucial climate observations provided by remote sensing satellites
are among the most important satellite measurements because they contribute to documenting the
current state of our climate and how it is evolving. These key satellite observations of our climate
are second in importance only to the polar orbiting and geostationary satellites needed for numeri-
cal weather prediction that provide natural disaster alerts.

xvii
xviiiForeword

The current state of the art for remote sensing is to combine different satellite observations in a
complementary fashion for what is being studied. Climate study is an example of using disparate
observations from multiple satellites coupled with in situ data to determine if climate change is
occurring and where it is occurring, and to identify the various component processes responsible.

1. Planet warming quantified by satellite radar altimetry. Remotely sensed climate obser-
vations provide the data to understand our planet and to identify what forces influence our
climate. The primary sea level climate observations come from radar altimetry that started
in late 1992 with TOPEX-Poseidon and has been continued by Jason-1, Jason-2, Jason-3,
and Sentinel-6 to provide an uninterrupted record of global sea level. Changes in global sea
level provide unequivocal evidence that our planet is warming, cooling, or staying at the
same temperature. Radar altimetry from 1992 to date has shown global sea level increases
of ~3.5 mm/y; hence our planet is warming (Figure 0.1). Sea level rise has two components,
ocean thermal expansion and ice melt from the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica, and
to a lesser extent for glacier concentrations in places like the Gulf of Alaska and Patagonia.
The combination of GRACE and GRACE Follow-On gravity measurements quantifies the
ice mass losses of Greenland and Antarctica to a high degree of accuracy. Combining the
gravity data with the flotilla of almost 4,000 Argo floats provides the temperature data with
the depth necessary to quantify ocean temperatures and isolate the thermal component of
sea level rise.
2. Our Sun is remarkedly stable in total solar irradiance. Observations of total solar irra-
diance have been made from satellites since 1979 and show total solar irradiance has var-
ied only ±1 part in 500 over the past 35 years, establishing that our Sun is not to blame for
global warming (Figure 0.2).
3. Determining ice sheet contributions to sea level rise. Since 2002 gravity observations
from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Satellite, or GRACE, mission and the

FIGURE 0.1 Seasonal sea level from five satellite radar altimeters from later 1992 to the present. Sea level
is the unequivocal indicator of the Earth’s climate—when sea level rises, the planet is warming; when sea
level falls, the planet is cooling. (Nerem et al. 2018, updated to 2023; https://sealevel.colorado.edu/data/
total-sea-level-change.)
Foreword xix

GRACE Follow-On mission have been measured. GRACE data quantify ice mass changes
from the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets that constitute 98% of the ice mass on land
(Luthcke et al. 2013). GRACE data are truly remarkable—their retrieval of variations
in the Earth’s gravity field is quantitatively and directly linked to mass variations. With
GRACE data we are able for the first time to determine the mass balance with time of the
Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets and concentrations of glaciers on land. GRACE data
show sea level rise is 60% explained by ice sheet mass loss (Figure 0.3). GRACE data have
many other uses, such as changes in groundwater storage. See www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/.
4. Forty percent sea level rise explained by thermal expansion in the planet’s oceans
measured by in situ ~ 3,700 Argo drifting floats. The other contributor to sea level rise
is the thermal expansion or “steric” component of our planet’s oceans. To document this
necessitates using diving and drifting floats or buoys in the Argo network to record tem-
perature with depth (Romerich et al. 2009 and Figure 0.4). Argo floats are deployed from
ships; they then submerge and descend slowly to 1,000 m depth, recording temperature,

FIGURE 0.2 The Sun is not to blame for global warming, based on total solar irradiance observations from
satellites. The few Watts/m2 solar irradiance variations covary with the sunspot cycle. The luminosity of the
Sun varies 0.2% over the course of the 11-year solar and sunspot cycle. The SORCE TSI dataset continues
these important observations with improved accuracy on the order of ±0.035. (Kopp et al., 2024, and from
https://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/data/tsi-data/.)

FIGURE 0.3 Sixty percent sea level rise is explained by mass balance of melting of ice measured by GRACE
and GRACE Follow-On satellites. Ice mass variations are from 2003 to 2023 for the Antarctica and the
Greenland ice sheets using gravity data (Croteau et al. 2021, updated to 2023). The Antarctic and Greenland
Ice Sheets constitute 98% of the Earth’s land ice.
xxForeword

FIGURE 0.4 Forty percent sea level rise explained by thermal expansion in the planet’s oceans measured in
situ by ~3,908 drifting floats that were in operation on April 21, 2024. These floats provide the data needed to
document thermal expansion of the oceans. (Roemmich & The Argo Float Team 2009, updated to 2024 and
www.argo.ucsd.edu/.)

pressure, and salinity as they descend. At 1,000 m depth, they drift for ten days, continu-
ing their measurements of temperature and salinity. After ten days, they slowly descend
to 3,000 m and then ascend to the surface, all the time recording their measurements. At
the surface, each float transmits all the data collected on the most recent excursion to a
geostationary satellite and then descends again to repeat this process.
  Argo temperature data show that 40% of sea level rise results from warming and ther-
mal expansion of our oceans. Combining radar altimeter data, GRACE and GRACE
Follow-On data, and Argo data provide confirmation of sea level rise and show what is
responsible for it and in what proportions. With total solar irradiance being near constant,
what is driving global warming can be determined. Analysis of surface in situ air tempera-
ture coupled with lower tropospheric air temperature and stratospheric temperature data
from remote sensing infrared and microwave sounders show the surface and near-surface
is warming while the stratosphere is cooling. This is an unequivocal confirmation that
greenhouse gases are warming the planet.
  Combining sea level radar altimetry, GRACE and GRACE Follow On gravity data to
quantify ice sheet mass loses, and Argo floats to measure ocean temperatures with depth
enables reconciliation of sea level increases with mass loss of ice sheets and ocean thermal
expansion. The ice and steric expansion explain 95% of sea level rise (Figure 0.5).
5. The global carbon cycles. Many scientists are actively working to study the Earth’s car-
bon cycle and there are several chapters in this Remote Sensing Handbook (Volumes I–VI)
on various components under study (Figure 0.6).

Carbon cycles through reservoirs on the Earth’s surface in plants and soils, exists in the atmo-
sphere as gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), and exists in ocean water in phytoplankton and in
marine sediments. CO2 is released to the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels, by land
cover changes on the Earth’s surface, by respiration of green plants, and by decomposition of carbon
in dead vegetation and in soils, including carbon in permafrost.
Land gross primary production has been a MODIS product that is extended into the VIIRS era
(Running et al. 2004; Román et al. 2024). MODIS data also provide burned area and CO2 emis-
sions from wildfire (Giglio et al. 2016). Oceanic gross primary production will be provided by the
Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, and ocean Ecosystem, or PACE, satellite that was launched in early 2024
Foreword xxi

FIGURE 0.5 Sea level rise with the gravity tide mass loss and the Argo thermal expansion quantities added
to the plot of global mean sea level. The GRACE and GRACE Follow On ice sheet gravity term and Argo
thermal expansion term together explain 95% of sea level rise. (Croteau et al. 2021, updated to 2023.)

FIGURE 0.6 Global carbon cycle measurements from a multitude of satellite sensors. A representation of
the global carbon cycle showing our best estimates of carbon fluxes and carbon reservoirs as of 2024. A series
of satellite observations are needed simultaneously to understand the carbon cycle and its role in the Earth’s
climate system (Ciais et al. 2014, updated to 2023). The major unknowns in the global carbon cycle are fluxes
between different reservoirs, oceanic gross primary production, carbon in soils, and the carbon in woody
vegetation.
xxiiForeword

(Gorman et al. 2019). This complements the GPP land portion of the carbon cycle and will enable
global gross primary production to be determined by MODIS-VIIRS and PACE.
Furthermore, Harmonized Landsat-8, Landsat-9, and Sentinel-2 30 m data (HLS) provide mul-
tispectral time series data at 30 m with a revisit frequency of three days at the equator (Crawford
et al. 2023; Masek et al. 2018). This will enable time series improvements in spatial detail to 30 m
from the 250 m scale of MODIS. The revisit time of Sentinel-2 with 10 m data is five days at the
equator, which is a major improvement from 30 m. Multispectral time series observations are the
basis for providing gross primary production estimates on land that are also used for food security
(Claverie et al. 2018).
Refinements in satellite multispectral spatial resolution to the 50 cm to 3–4 m scale provided by
commercial satellite data have enabled tree carbon to be determined from large areas of trees outside
of forests. NASA has started using commercial satellite data to complement MODIS, Landsat, and
other observations. One of the uses for Planet 3–4 m and Maxar <1 m data has been for mapping
trees outside of forests (Brandt et al. 2020, Reiner et al. 2023, Tucker et al. 2023). Tucker et al. (2023)
mapped ten billion trees at the 50-cm scale over 10 million km2 and converted them into carbon at
the tree level with allometry. The value of Planet and Maxar (formerly Digital Globe) data allows
carbon studies to be extended into areas with discrete trees and Huang et al. (2024) has successfully
mapped one tree species across the entire Sahelian and Sudanian Zones of Africa.
The height of trees is an important measurement to determine their carbon content. For areas
of contiguous tree crowns, GEDI and ICESat laser altimetry (Magruder et al. 2024) coupled with
Landsat and Sentinel-2 observations, enable improved estimates of carbon in these forests (Claverie
et al. 2018).
The key to closing several uncertainties in the carbon cycle is to quantify fluxes among the vari-
ous components. Passive CO2 retrieval methods from the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite
(GOSAT) (Noël et al. 2021) and the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) (Jacobs et al. 2024)
are inadequate to provide this. Passive methods are not possible at night, in all seasons, and require
specific Sun-target-sensor viewing perspectives and conditions. A recent development of the
Aerosol and Carbon dioxide Detection Lidar (ACDL) instrument (Dai et al. 2023) by our Chinese
colleagues offers a tenfold coverage improvement in CO2 retrievals over those provided by OCO-2,
and 20-fold coverage improvement over GOSAT. The reported uncertainty of ACDL is on the order
of ±0.6 ppm.
Understanding the carbon cycle requires a “full court press” of satellite and in situ observations,
because all of these observations must be made at the same time. Many of these measurements have
been made over the past 30 to 40 years but new measurements are needed to quantify carbon storage
in vegetation, to quantify CO2 fluxes, to quantify land respiration, and to improve numerical carbon
models. Similar work needs to be performed for the role of clouds and aerosols in climate and to
improve our understanding of the global hydrological cycle.
The remote sensing community has made tremendous progress over the last six decades as cap-
tured in various chapters of Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI). Handbook
chapters provide comprehensive understanding of land and water studies through detailed meth-
ods, approaches, algorithms, synthesis, and key references. Every type of remote sensing data
obtained from systems such as optical, radar, LiDAR, hyperspectral, and hyperspatial are presented
and discussed in different chapters. Chapters in this volume address remote sensing data charac-
teristics, within and between sensor calibrations, classification methods, and accuracies by tak-
ing data from over last five decades from a wide array of remote sensing sensors and platforms.
Volume I also brings in new remote sensing technologies such as radio occultation and reflectom-
etry from the global navigation satellite system, or GPS, satellites, crowdsourcing, drones, cloud
computing, artificial intelligence, machine learning, hyperspectral, radar, and remote sensing law.
The chapters in Remote Sensing Handbook are written by leading remote sensing scientists of
the world and ably edited by Dr. Prasad S. Thenkabail, senior scientist (ST) at U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) in Flagstaff, Arizona. The importance and the value of Remote Sensing Handbook
Foreword xxiii

is clearly demonstrated by the need for a second edition. The Remote Sensing Handbook (First
Edition, Volumes I–III) was published in 2014, and now after ten years, Remote Sensing Handbook
(Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) with 91 chapters and nearly 3,500 pages will be published. It is
certainly monumental work in remote sensing science, and for this I want to compliment Dr. Prasad
S. Thenkabail. Remote sensing is now important to many scientific disciplines beyond our commu-
nity, and I recommend Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, six volumes) to not only remote
sensers but also to the entire scientific community.
We can look forward in the coming decades to improving our quantitative understanding of the
global carbon cycle, understanding the interaction of clouds and aerosols in our radiation budget,
and understanding the global hydrological cycle.

by Compton J. Tucker
Satellite Remote Sensing Beyond 2025
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Earth Science Division
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771 USA

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Crawford, C.J., Roy, D.P., Arab, S., Barnes, C., Vermote, E., Hulley, G., et al. 2023. The 50-year Landsat collec-
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Dai, G., Wu, S., Sun, K., Long, W., Liu, J., and Chen, W. 2023. Aerosol and Carbon dioxide Detection Lidar
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Giglio, L., Schroeder, W., and Justice, C.O. 2016. The collection 6 MODIS active fire detection algorithm and
fire products. Remote Sensing of Environment 178:31–41. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2016.02.054.
Gorman, E.T., Kubalak, D.A., Patel, D., Dress, A., Mott, D.B., Meister, G., and Werdell, P.J. 2019. The NASA
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Irons, J.R., Dwyer, J.L., and Barsi, J.A. 2012. The next Landsat satellite: The Landsat Data Continuity Mission.
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Preface
The overarching goal of this six-volume, 91-chapter, about 3,500-page Remote Sensing Handbook
(Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) was to capture and provide the most comprehensive state of the art of
remote sensing science and technology development and advancement in the last 60+ years, by clearly
demonstrating the (1) scientific advances, (2) methodological advances, and (3) societal benefits
achieved during this period, as well as to provide a vision of what is to come in years ahead. The book
volumes are, to date and to my best knowledge, the most comprehensive documentation of the scien-
tific and methodological advances that have taken place in understanding remote sensing data, meth-
ods, and a wide array of applications. Written by 300+ leading global experts in the area, each chapter:
(1) focuses on specific topic (e.g., data, methods, and specific set of applications), (2) reviews existing
state-of-the-art knowledge, (3) highlights the advances made, and (4) provides guidance for areas
requiring future development. Chapters in the book cover a wide array of subject matter concerning
remote sensing applications. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) is planned as
reference material for a broad spectrum of remote sensing scientists to understand the fundamentals as
well as the latest advances, and a wide array of applications such for land and water resource practitio-
ners, natural and environmental practitioners, professors, students, and decision makers.
Special features of the six-volume Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition) include the
following:

1. Participation of an outstanding group of remote sensing experts, an unparalleled team of

writers for such a book project
2. Exhaustive coverage of a wide array of remote sensing science: data, methods, applications
3. Each chapter being led by a luminary and most chapters written by writing teams that
further enriched the chapters
4. Broadening the scope of the book to make it ideal for expert practitioners as well as students
5. Global team of writers, global geographic coverage of study areas, and wide array of satel-
lites and sensors
6. Plenty of color illustrations

Chapters in the book cover the following aspects of remote sensing:

State of the art on satellites, sensors, science, technology, and applications

Methods and techniques
Wide array of applications such as land and water applications, natural resources manage-
ment, and environmental issues
Scientific achievements and advancements over last 60+ years
Societal benefits
Knowledge gaps
Future possibilities in the 21st century

Great advances have taken place over the last 60+ years in the study of planet Earth from remote sens-
ing, especially using data gathered from the multitude of Earth Observation (EO) satellites launched by
various governments as well as private entities. A large part of the initial remote sensing technology was
developed and tested during the two world wars. In the 1950s, remote sensing slowly began its foray into
civilian applications. But, during the years of cold war remote sensing applications both in civilian and
military increased swiftly. But, it was also an age when remote sensing was the domain of very few top
experts, often having multiple skills in engineering, science, and computer technology. From the 1960s
onward, there have been many governmental agencies that have initiated civilian remote sensing. The

xxv
xxviPreface

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has been at the forefront
of many of these efforts. Others who have provided leadership in civilian remote sensing include, but are
not limited to, European Space Agency (ESA) of European Union; Indian Space Research Organization
(ISRO) of India; the Centre national d’études spatiales (CNES) of France; the Canadian Space Agency
(CSA), Canada; the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Japan; the German Aerospace Center
(DLR), Germany; the China National Space Administration (CNSA), China; the United Kingdom Space
Agency (UKSA), UK; and Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), Brazil. Many private enti-
ties such as the Planet Labs PBC have launched and operate satellites. These government and private
agencies and enterprises have launched, and continue to launch and operate, a wide array of satellites
and sensors that capture data of the planet Earth in various regions of electromagnetic spectrum and in
various spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions, routinely and repeatedly. However, the real thrust
for remote sensing advancement came during the last decade of the 20th century and the beginning of
the 21st century. These initiatives included the launch of series of new generation EO satellites to gather
data more frequently and routinely, release of pathfinder datasets, web-enabling the data for free by
many agencies (e.g., USGS release of the entire Landsat archives as well as real-time acquisitions of
the world for free by making them web accessible), and providing processed data ready to users (e.g.,
the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 or HLS data, surface reflectance products of MODIS). Other
efforts like the Google Earth made remote sensing more popular and brought in a new platform for easy
visualization and navigation of remote sensing data. Advances in computer hardware and software made
it possible to handle big data. Crowdsourcing, web access, cloud computing such as in Google Earth
Engine (GEE) platform, machine learning, deep learning, coding, artificial intelligence, mobile apps,
and mobile platforms (e.g., drones) added new dimension to how remote sensing data is used. Integration
with global positioning systems (GPS) and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), and inclusion of
digital secondary data (e.g., digital elevation, precipitation, temperature) in analysis has made remote
sensing much more powerful. Collectively, these initiatives provided new vision in making remote sens-
ing data more popular, more widely understood, and increasingly used for diverse applications, hitherto
considered difficult. Freely available archival data when combined with more recent acquisitions has
also enabled quantitative studies of change over space and time. Remote Sensing Handbook (Volumes
I–VI) is targeted to capture these vast advances in data, methods, and applications, so a remote
sensing student, scientist, or a professional practitioner will have the most comprehensive, all-
encompassing reference material in one place.
Modern-day remote sensing technology, science, and applications are growing exponentially.
This growth is as a result of combination of factors that include (1) advances and innovations in
data capture, access, processing, computing, and delivery (e.g., big data analytics, harmonized
and normalized data, inter-sensor relationships, web enabling of data, cloud computing such as in
Google Earth Engine (GEE), crowdsourcing, mobile apps, machine learning, deep learning, cod-
ing in Python and Java Script, and artificial intelligence); (2) an increasing number of satellites and
sensors gathering data of the planet, repeatedly and routinely, in various portions of the electromag-
netic spectrum as well as in array of spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions; (3) efforts at
integrating data from multiple satellites and sensors (e.g., Sentinels with Landsat); (4) advances in
data normalization, standardization, and harmonization (e.g., delivery of data in surface reflectance,
inter-sensor calibration); (5) methods and techniques for handling very large data volumes (e.g.,
global mosaics), (6) quantum leap in computer hardware and software capabilities (e.g., ability to
process several terabytes of data); (7) innovation in methods, approaches, and techniques leading
to sophisticated algorithms (e.g., spectral matching techniques, neural network perceptron); and (8)
development of new spectral indices to quantify and study specific land and water parameters (e.g.,
hyperspectral vegetation indices or HVIs). As a result of these all-round developments, remote sens-
ing science is today very mature and is widely used in virtually every discipline of Earth sciences
for quantifying, mapping, modeling, and monitoring our planet Earth. Such rapid advances are cap-
tured in a number of remote sensing and Earth science journals. However, students, scientists, and
practitioners of remote sensing science and applications have significant difficulty in gathering a
complete understanding of the various developments and advances that have taken place because of
Preface xxvii

their vastness spread across the last 60+ years. Thereby, the chapters in Remote Sensing Handbook
are designed to give a whole picture of scientific and technological advances of the last 60+ years.
Today, the science, art, and technology of remote sensing is truly ubiquitous and increasingly
part of everyone’s everyday life, often without the user even knowing it. Whether looking at your
own home or farm (e.g., Figure 0.7), helping you navigate when you drive, visualizing a phe-
nomenon occurring in a distant part of the world (e.g., Figure 0.7), monitoring events such as
droughts and floods, reporting weather, detecting and monitoring troop movements or nuclear
sites, studying deforestation, assessing biomass carbon, addressing disasters like earthquakes or
tsunamis, and a host of other applications (e.g., precision farming, crop productivity, water pro-
ductivity, deforestation, desertification, water resources management), remote sensing plays a key
role. Already, many new innovations are taking place. Companies such as the Planet Labs PBC
and Skybox are capturing very high spatial resolution imagery and even videos from space using a
large number of microsatellite (CubeSat) constellations. Planet Labs also will soon launch hyper-
spectral satellites called Tanager. There are others (e.g., Pixxel, India) who have launched and
continue to launch constellations of hyperspectral or other sensors. China is constantly putting a
wide array of satellites into orbit. Just as the smartphone and social media connected the world,
remote sensing is making the world our backyard (e.g., Figure 0.7). No place goes unobserved, and
no event gets reported without an image. True liberation for any technology and science comes
when it is widely used by common people who often have no idea on how it all comes together,
but understand the information provided intuitively. That is already happening (e.g., how we use
smartphones is significantly driven by satellite data-driven maps and GPS-driven locations). These
developments make it clear that not only do we need to understand the state of the art but also

FIGURE 0.7 Google Earth can be used to seamlessly navigate and precisely locate any place on Earth, often
with very high spatial resolution data (VHRI; sub-meter to 5 m) from satellites such as IKONOS, Quickbird,
and Geoeye (Note: this image is from one of the VHRI). Here, the editor in chief (EiC) of this Remote Sensing
Handbook (Volumes I–VI) (Thenkabail) located his village home and surroundings, which has land cover
such as secondary rainforests, lowland paddy farms, areca nut plantations, coconut plantations, minor roads,
walking routes, open grazing lands, and minor streams (typically, first and second order) (Note: land cover
based on ground knowledge of the EiC). The first primary school attended by the EiC is located precisely.
Precise coordinates (13 45 39.22 Northern latitude, 75 06 56.03 Eastern longitude) of Thenkabail’s village
house on the planet are located, and the date of image acquisition (March 1, 2014) is noted. Google Earth
Images are used for visualization as well as for numerous science applications such as accuracy assessment,
reconnaissance, determining land cover, establishing land use, and for various ground surveys.
xxviiiPreface

have a vision on where the future of remote sensing is headed. Thereby, in a nutshell, the goal of
Remote Sensing Handbook (Volumes I–VI) is to cover the developments and advancement of six
distinct eras (listed here) in terms of data characterization and processing as well as myriad land
and water applications:

Pre-civilian remote sensing era of pre-1950s: World War I and II when remote sensing was
a military tool.
Technology demonstration era of 1950s and 1960s: Sputnik-I and NOAA AVHRR era of
the 1950s and 1960s.
Landsat era of 1970s: when first truly operational land remote sensing satellite (Earth
Resources Technology Satellite or ERTS, later renamed Landsat) was launched and
operated.
Earth observation era of 1980s and 1990s: when a number of space agencies began launch-
ing and operating satellites (e.g., Landsat 4, 5 by USA, SPOT-1, 2 by France; IRS-1a, 1b
by India).
Earth observation and new millennium era of 2000s: when data dissemination to users
became as important as launching, operating, and capturing data (e.g., MODIS terra/
acqua, Landsat-8, Resourcesat).
Twenty-first century era starting 2010s: when new generation micro/Nano satellites or
CubeSats (e.g., Planet Labs PBC, Skybox), hyperspectral satellite sensors (e.g., Tanager-1,
DESIS, PRISMA, EnMAP, upcoming NASA SBG) add to increasing constellation of
multi-agency sensors (e.g., Sentinels, Landsat-8, 9, upcoming Landsat-Next).

Motivation to take up editing the six-volume Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition)
wasn’t easy. It is a daunting work and requires an extraordinary commitment over two to three
years. After repeated requests from Ms. Irma Shagla-Britton, manager and leader for Remote
Sensing and GIS books of Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, and considerable thought, I finally
agreed to take the challenge in 2022. Having earlier edited the three-volume Remote Sensing
Handbook, published in 2014, I was pleased that the books were of considerable demand for a
second edition. This was enough motivation. Further, I wanted to do something significant at this
stage of my career that will make a considerable contribution to the global remote sensing com-
munity. When I edited the first edition during the 2012–2014 period, I was still recovering post
colon cancer surgery and chemotherapy. But this second edition is a celebration of my complete
recovery from the dreaded disease. I have not only fully recovered but never felt so completely
full of health and vigor. This, naturally, gave me the sufficient energy and enthusiasm required
to back my motivation to edit this monumental six-volume Remote Sensing Handbook. At least
for me, this is the magnum opus that I feel proud to have accomplished and feel confident of the
immense value for students, scientists, and professional practitioners of remote sensing who are
interested in a standard reference on the subject. They will find these six volumes of Remote
Sensing Handbook: “Complete and comprehensive coverage of the state-of-the-art remote sens-
ing, capturing the advances that have taken place over last 60+ years, which will set the stage for
a vision for the future.”
Above all, I am indebted to some 300+ authors and co-authors of the chapters who have spent so
much of their creative energy to work on the chapters, deliver them on time, and patiently address all
edits and comments. These are amongst the very best remote sensing scientists from around the world.
Extremely busy people, making time for the book project and making outstanding contributions. I
went back to everyone who contributed to Remote Sensing Handbook (First Edition, three volumes)
published in 2014 and requested them to revise their chapters. Most of the lead authors of the chapters
agreed to revise, which was reassuring. However, some were not available, due to retirement or for
other reasons. In such cases, I adopted two strategies: (1) invite a few new chapter authors to make up
Preface xxix

for this gap, and (2) update the chapters myself in other cases. I am convinced this strategy worked
very well to ensure capturing the latest information and to maintain the integrity of every chapter.
What was also important was to ensure that the latest advances in remote sensing science were ade-
quately covered. The authors of the chapters amazed me by their commitment and attention to detail.
First, the quality of each of the chapters was of the highest standards. Second, with very few excep-
tions, chapters were delivered on time. Third, edited chapters were revised thoroughly and returned
on time. Fourth, all my requests on various formatting and quality enhancements were addressed. My
heartfelt gratitude to these great authors for their dedication to quality science. It has been my great
honor and privilege to work with these dedicated legends. Indeed, I call them my “heroes” in the true
sense. These are highly accomplished, renowned, pioneering scientists of the highest merit in remote
sensing science, and I am ever grateful to have their time, effort, enthusiasm, and outstanding intel-
lectual contributions. I am indebted to their kindness and generosity. In the end, we had 300+ authors
writing 91 chapters.
Overall, the Remote Sensing Handbook (Volumes I–VI) took about two years, from the time
book chapters and authors were identified to final publication of the book. The six volumes of
Remote Sensing Handbook were designed in such a way that a reader can have all six volumes as
standard reference or have individual volumes to study specific subject areas. The six volumes are:

Remote Sensing Handbook, Second Edition, Vol. I

Volume I: Sensors, Data Normalization, Harmonization, Cloud Computing, and Accuracies—
9781032890951
Remote Sensing Handbook, Second Edition, Vol. II
Volume II: Image Processing, Change Detection, GIS, and Spatial Data Analysis—
9781032890975
Remote Sensing Handbook, Second Edition, Vol. III
Volume III: Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils—
9781032891019
Remote Sensing Handbook, Second Edition, Vol. IV
Volume IV: Forests, Biodiversity, Ecology, LULC and Carbon—9781032891033
Remote Sensing Handbook; Second Edition, Vol. V
Volume V: Water, Hydrology, Floods, Snow and Ice, Wetlands, and Water Productivity—
9781032891453
Remote Sensing Handbook; Second Edition, Vol. VI
Volume VI: Droughts, Disasters, Pollution, and Urban Mapping—9781032891484

There are 18, 17, 17, 12, 13, and 14 chapters, respectively, in the six volumes.
A wide array of topics covered in the six volumes.
The topics covered in the chapters of Volume I include (1) satellites and sensors, (2) global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS), (3) remote sensing fundamentals, (4) data normalization, har-
monization, and standardization, (5) vegetation indices and their within and across sensor calibra-
tion, (6) crowdsourcing, (7) cloud computing, (8) Google Earth Engine supported remote sensing,
(9) accuracy assessments, and (10) remote sensing law.
The topics covered in the chapters of Volume II include (1) digital image processing funda-
mentals and advances; (2) digital image classifications for applications such as urban, land use,
and land cover; (3) hyperspectral image processing methods and approaches; (4) thermal infrared
image processing principles and practices; (5) image segmentation; (6) object-oriented image analy-
sis (OBIA), including geospatial data integration techniques in OBIA; (7) image segmentation in
xxxPreface

specific applications like land use and land cover; (8) LiDAR digital image processing; (9) change
detection; and (10) integrating geographic information systems (GIS) with remote sensing in geopro-
cessing workflows, democratization of GIS data and tools, fronters of GIScience, and GIS and remote
sensing policies.
The topics covered in the chapters of Volume III include (1) vegetation and biomass, (2) agri-
cultural croplands, (3) rangelands, (4) phenology and food security, and (5) soils.
The topics covered in the chapters of Volume IV include (1) forests, (2) biodiversity, (3) ecology,
(4) land use and land cover, and (5) carbon. Under each of the preceding broad topics, there are one
or more chapters.
The chapters of Volume V has focus on hydrology, water resources, ice, wetlands, and crop
water productivity. The chapters are broadly classified into (1) geomorphology, (2) hydrology and
water resources, (3) floods, (4) wetlands, (5) crop water use and crop water productivity, and (6)
snow and ice.
The chapters of Volume VI has focus on water resources, disasters, and urban remote sensing.
The chapters are broadly classified into (1) droughts and drylands, (2) disasters, (3) volcanoes, (4)
fires, and (5) nightlights.
There are many ways to use Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, six volumes). A lot of
thought went into organizing the volumes and chapters. So, you will see a “flow” from chapter to
chapter and volume to volume. As you read through the chapters, you will see how they are inter-
connected and how reading all of them provides you with greater in-depth understanding. You will
also realize, as someone deeply interested in one of the topics, that you will have greater interest
in one volume. Having all six volumes as reference material is ideal for any remote sensing expert,
practitioner, or student. However, you can also refer to individual volumes based on your interest.
We have also made great attempts to ensure chapters are self-contained. That way, you can focus
on a chapter and read it through, without having to be overly dependent on other chapters. Taking
this perspective, a small amount of material (~5 to 10%) may be repeated across chapters. This is
done deliberately. For example, when you are reading a chapter on LiDAR or Radar, you don’t want
to go all the way back to another chapter to understand characteristics of these data. Similarly, cer-
tain indices (e.g., vegetation condition index (VCI) or temperature condition index (TCI)) that are
defined in one chapter (e.g., on drought) may be repeated in another chapter (also on drought). Such
minor overlaps help the reader avoid going back to another chapter to understand a phenomenon
or an index or a characteristic of a sensor. However, if you want a lot of details of these sensors or
indices or phenomenon, then you will have to read the appropriate chapter where there is in-depth
coverage of the topic.
Each volume has a summary chapter (the last chapter of each volume). The summary chapter can
be read two ways: (1) either as last chapter to recapture the main points of each of the chapters, or
(2) as an initial overview to get the first feeling for what is in the volume, before diving into to read
each chapter in detail. I suggest the readers do it both ways: read it first before reading chapters in
detail to gather an idea on what to expect in each chapter and then read it at the end to recapture
what is being read in each of the chapters.
It has been a great honor as well as humbling experience to edit the Remote Sensing
Handbook (Volumes I–VI). I truly enjoyed the effort, albeit felt overwhelmed at times with
never-ending work. What an honor to work with luminaries in your field of expertise. I learned
a lot from them and am very grateful for their support, encouragement, and deep insights. Also,
it has been a pleasure working with the outstanding professionals of Taylor and Francis Inc./
CRC Press. There is no joy greater than being immersed in pursuit of excellence, knowledge
gain, and knowledge capture. At the same time, I am happy it is over. If there will be a third
edition in a decade or so from now, it will be taken up by someone else (individually or as a
team) and certainly not me!
Preface xxxi

I expect the book to be a standard reference of immense value to any student, scientist, profes-
sional, and practical practitioners of remote sensing. Any book that has the privilege of 300+ of the
best brains of truly outstanding and dedicated remote sensing scientists ought to be a magnum opus
deserving to be standard reference on the subject.

Dr. Prasad S. Thenkabail, PhD

Editor in Chief (EiC)
Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI)
Volume I: Sensors, Data Normalization, Harmonization, Cloud Computing, and Accuracies
Volume II: Image Processing, Change Detection, GIS, and Spatial Data Analysis
Volume III: Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils
Volume IV: Forests, Biodiversity, Ecology, LULC and Carbon
Volume V: Water, Hydrology, Floods, Snow and Ice, Wetlands, and Water Productivity
Volume VI: Droughts, Disasters, Pollution, and Urban Mapping
About the Editor
Dr. Prasad S. Thenkabail, PhD, is a senior scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), spe-
cializing in remote sensing science for agriculture, water, and food security. He is a world-recognized
expert in remote sensing science with multiple major contributions in the field sustained for 40+ years.
Dr. Thenkabail has conducted pioneering research in hyperspectral remote sensing of vegetation, global
croplands mapping for water and food security, and crop water productivity. His work on hyperspectral
remote sensing of agriculture and vegetation are widely cited. His papers on hyperspectral remote sens-
ing are first of its kind and, collectively, they have (1) determined optimal hyperspectral narrowbands
(OHNBs) in study of agricultural crops; (2) established hyperspectral vegetation indices (HVIs) to model
and map crop biophysical and biochemical quantities; (3) created framework and sample data for the
global hyperspectral imaging spectral libraries of crops (GHISA); (4) developed methods and techniques
of overcoming Hughes’ phenomenon; (5) demonstrated the strengths of hyperspectral narrowband
(HNB) data in advancing classification accuracies relative to multispectral broadband (MBB) data; (6)
showed advances one can make in modeling crop biophysical and biochemical quantities using HNB and
HVI data relative to MBB data; and (7) created a body of work in understanding, processing, and utiliz-
ing HNB and HVI data in agricultural cropland studies. This body of work has become a widely referred
reference worldwide. In studies of global croplands for food and water security, he has led the release
of the world’s first 30-m Landsat Satellite-derived global cropland extent product at 30 m (GCEP30;
https://www.usgs.gov/apps/croplands/app/map) (Thenkabail et al., 2021; https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/news/
release-of-gfsad-30-meter-cropland-extent-products/) and Landsat-derived global rainfed and irrigated
area product at 30 m (LGRIP30) (Teluguntla et al., 2023; https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/lgrip30v001/).
Earlier, he led producing the world’s first global irrigated area map (GIAM; https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/prod-
ucts/lgrip30v001/; https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/gfsad1kcdv001/) product at nominal 1-km spatial
resolution. The global cropland datasets using satellite remote sensing demonstrates a “paradigm shift”
in global cropland mapping using remote sensing through big data analytics, machine learning, and pet-
abyte-scale cloud computing on the Google Earth Engine (GEE). The LGRIP30 and GCEP30 products
are released through NASA’s LP DAAC and published in USGS professional paper 1868 (Thenkabail et
al., 2021). He has been principal investigator of many projects over the years including the NASA-funded
global food security support analysis data in the 30-m (GFSAD) project (www.usgs.gov/wgsc/gfsad30).
His career scientific achievements can be gauged by successfully making the list of the world’s top
1% of scientists as per the Stanford study ranking world’s scientists from across 22 scientific fields
and 176 subfields based on deep analysis evaluating about ten million scientists based on SCOPUS
data from Elsevier from 1996 to 2023 (Ioannidis, 2023; Ioannidis et al., 2020). Dr. Thenkabail was
recognized as Fellow of the American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS)
in 2023. Dr. Thenkabail has published more than 150 peer-reviewed scientific papers and edited
15 books. His scientific papers have won several awards over the years, demonstrating world-class
highest quality research. These include: 2023 Talbert Abrams Grand Award, the highest scientific
paper award of the ASPRS (with Itiya Aneece); 2015 ASPRS ERDAS award for best scientific paper
in remote sensing (with Michael Marshall); 2008 John I. Davidson ASPRS President’s Award for
Practical Papers (with Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla); and 1994 Autometric Award for the outstanding
paper in remote sensing (with Dr. Andy Ward).
Dr. Thenkabail’ s contributions to series of leading edited books places him as a world leader in
remote sensing science. There are three seminal book-sets with a total of 13 volumes that he edited that
have demonstrated his major contributions as an internationally acclaimed remote sensing scientist.
These are (1) Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, six-volume book-set, 2024) with 91 chapters
and nearly 3,000 pages and for which he is the sole editor; (2) Remote Sensing Handbook (First Edition,
three-volume book-set, 2015) with 82 chapters and 2,304 pages and for which he was the sole editor;
and (3) Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation (four-volume book-set, 2018) with 50 chapters and
1,632 pages that he edited as the chief editor (co-editors: Prof. John Lyon and Prof. Alfredo Huete).
xxxiii
xxxiv About the Editor

Dr. Thenkabail is at the center of rendering scientific service to the world’s remote sensing com-
munity over long periods of service. This includes serving as editor in chief (2011–present) of Remote
Sensing Open Access Journal; associate editor (2017–present) of Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing (PE&RS); Editorial Advisory Board (2016–present) of the International Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS); and Editorial Board Member (2007–2017) of the
Remote Sensing of Environment.
The USGS and NASA selected him as one of the three international members on the Landsat
Science Team (2006–2011). He is an Advisory Board member of the online library collection to sup-
port the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), and currently scientist for the
NASA and ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) Professional Engineer and Scientist Exchange
Program (PESEP) program for 2022–2024. He was the chair, International Society of Photogrammetry
and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) Working Group WG VIII/7 (land cover and its dynamics) from 2013–
2016; played a vital role for USGS as global coordinator, Agricultural Societal Beneficial Area (SBA),
Committee for Earth Observation (CEOS) (2010–2013) during which he co-wrote the global food secu-
rity case study for the CEOS for the Earth Observation Handbook (EOS), Special Edition for the UN
Conference on Sustainable Development, presented in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; was the co-lead (2007–
2011) of IEEE “Water for the World” initiative, a nonprofit effort funded by IEEE that worked in coordi-
nation with the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) in its GEO Water and GEO Agriculture initiatives.
Dr. Thenkabail worked as a postdoctoral researcher and research faculty at the Center for Earth
Observation (YCEO), Yale University (1997–2003), and led remote sensing programs in three inter-
national organizations including the following:

• International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2003–2008

• International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 1995–1997
• International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 1992–1995

He began his scientific career as a scientist (1986–1988) working for the National Remote Sensing
Agency (NRSA) (now renamed National Remote Sensing Center, or NRSC), Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), Department of State, government of India.
Dr. Thenkabail’s work experience spans over 25 countries including East Asia (China), South-
East Asia (Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam), Middle East (Israel, Syria), North
America (United States, Canada), South America (Brazil), Central Asia (Uzbekistan), South
Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka), West Africa (Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso,
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and
Togo), and Southern Africa (Mozambique, South Africa). Dr. Thenkabail is regularly invited as key-
note speaker or invited speaker at major international conferences and at other important national
and international forums every year.
Dr. Thenkabail obtained his PhD in agricultural engineering from The Ohio State University,
USA, in 1992. He has a master’s degree in hydraulics and water resources engineering, and bach-
elor’s degree in civil engineering (both from India). He has 168 publications including 15 books;
175+ peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and professional papers/monographs; and 15+
significant major global and regional data releases.

REFERENCES
Journals
Ioannidis, J.P.A. (2023). October 2023 data-update for “updated science-wide author databases of standardized
citation indicators”. Elsevier Data Repository, V6. https://doi.org/10.17632/btchxktzyw.6
Ioannidis, J.P.A., Boyack, K.W., & Baas, J. (2020). Updated science-wide author databases of standardized
citation indicators. PLoS Biology, 18(10): e3000918. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000918
About the Editor xxxv

Scientific Papers
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9IO5Y7YAAAAJ&hl=en

USGS Professional Paper, Data and Product Gateways, Interactive Viewers

Thenkabail, P.S., Teluguntla, P.G., Xiong, J., Oliphant, A., Congalton, R.G., Ozdogan, M., Gumma, M.K., Tilton,
J.C., Giri, C., Milesi, C., Phalke, A., Massey, R., Yadav, K., Sankey, T., Zhong, Y., Aneece, I., and Foley, D.
(2021). Global cropland-extent product at 30-m resolution (GCEP30) derived from Landsat satellite time-
series data for the year 2015 using multiple machine-learning algorithms on Google Earth Engine cloud: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1868, 63 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1868 (research paper) https://
lpdaac.usgs.gov/news/release-of-gfsad-30-meter-cropland-extent-products/ (download data, documents)
www.usgs.gov/apps/croplands/app/map (view data interactively)
P. Teluguntla, P. Thenkabail, A. Oliphant, M. Gumma, I. Aneece, D. Foley and R. McCormick (2023a). Landsat-derived
Global Rainfed and Irrigated-Cropland Product @ 30-m (LGRIP30) of the World (GFSADLGRIP30WORLD).
The Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC) of NASA and USGS. Pp. 103. https://
lpdaac.usgs.gov/news/release-of-lgrip30-data-product/ (download data, documents)

Books
Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volumes, 2024)
Thenkabail, Prasad. 2024. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume I:
Sensors, Data Normalization, Harmonization, Cloud Computing, and Accuracies. Taylor and Francis
Inc./CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. 978-1-032-89095-1—CAT# T132478. Print ISBN:
9781032890951. eBook ISBN: 9781003541141. Pp. 581.
Thenkabail, Prasad. 2024. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume II: Image
Processing, Change Detection, GIS, and Spatial Data Analysis. Taylor and Francis Inc./CRC Press, Boca
Raton, London, New York. 978-1-032-89097-5—CAT# T133208. Print ISBN: 9781032890975. eBook
ISBN: 9781003541158. Pp. 464.
Thenkabail, Prasad. 2024. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume III:
Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils. Taylor and Francis Inc./
CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. 978-1-032-89101-9—CAT# T133213. Print ISBN:
9781032891019; eBook ISBN: 9781003541165. Pp. 788.
Thenkabail, Prasad. 2024. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume IV: Forests,
Biodiversity, Ecology, LULC, and Carbon. Taylor and Francis Inc./CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York.
978-1-032-89103-3—CAT# T133215. Print ISBN: 9781032891033. eBook ISBN: 9781003541172. Pp. 501.
Thenkabail, Prasad. 2024. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume V: Water,
Hydrology, Floods, Snow and Ice, Wetlands, and Water Productivity. Taylor and Francis Inc./CRC Press,
Boca Raton, London, New York. 978-1-032-89145-3—CAT# T133261. Print ISBN: 9781032891453.
eBook ISBN: 9781003541400. Pp. 516.
Thenkabail, Prasad. Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Six Volume Book-set), Volume VI: Droughts,
Disasters, Pollution, and Urban Mapping. Taylor and Francis Inc./CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York.
978-1-032-89148-4 — CAT# T133267. Print ISBN: 9781032891484; eBook ISBN: 9781003541417. Pp. 467.

Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation (Second Edition, Four Volumes, 2018)

Thenkabail, P.S., Lyon, G.J., and Huete, A. (Editors) 2018. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation
(Second Edition, four-volume set).
Volume I: Fundamentals, Sensor Systems, Spectral Libraries, and Data Mining for Vegetation. CRC Press-
Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 449, Hardback ID: 9781138058545;
eBook ID: 9781315164151.
Volume II: Hyperspectral Indices and Image Classifications for Agriculture and Vegetation. CRC Press-Taylor
and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 296. Hardback ID: 9781138066038; eBook ID:
9781315159331.
xxxvi About the Editor

Volume III: Biophysical and Biochemical Characterization and Plant Species Studies. CRC Press-Taylor and Francis
Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 348. Hardback: 9781138364714; eBook ID: 9780429431180.
Volume IV: Advanced Applications in Remote Sensing of Agricultural Crops and Natural Vegetation. CRC
Press-Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 386. Hardback: 9781138364769;
eBook ID: 9780429431166.

Remote Sensing Handbook (First Edition, Three Volumes, 2015)

Thenkabail, P.S., (Editor-in-Chief), 2015. “Remote Sensing Handbook”
Volume I: Remotely Sensed Data Characterization, Classification, and Accuracies. Taylor and Francis Inc./
CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. ISBN 9781482217865—CAT# K22125. Print ISBN: 978-
1-4822-1786-5; eBook ISBN: 978-1-4822-1787-2. p. 678.
Volume II: Land Resources Monitoring, Modeling, and Mapping with Remote Sensing. Taylor and Francis
Inc./CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. ISBN 9781482217957—CAT# K22130. p. 849.
Volume III: Remote Sensing of Water Resources, Disasters, and Urban Studies. Taylor and Francis Inc./CRC
Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. ISBN 9781482217919—CAT# K22128. p. 673.

Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation (First Edition, Single Volume, 2013)

Thenkabail, P.S., Lyon, G.J., and Huete, A. (Editors) 2012. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation. CRC
PressTaylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 781 (80+ pages in color). www.
crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781439845370

Remote Sensing of Global Croplands for Food Security

(First Edition, Single Volume, 2009)
Thenkabail, P., Lyon, G.J., Turral, H., and Biradar, C.M. (Editors) 2009. Remote Sensing of Global Croplands
for Food Security. (CRC Press-Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. p. 556 (48
pages in color). Published in June 2009.

FIGURE Snap shots of the Editor-in-Chief's work and life.

Contributors
Jay Angerer Trenton Benedict
Livestock and Range Research Laboratory U.S. Geological Survey EROS Center
Miles City, MT, USA Sioux Falls, South Dakota

Damien Arvor D. Terrance Booth

Research Geographer Rangeland Resources Research Unit
Montpellier, France Cheyenne, Wyoming

Clement Atzberger Jesslyn F. Brown

Mantle-Labs Ltd. U.S. Geological Survey
UK Earth Resources Observation and Science
and (EROS) Center
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Institute of Geomatics
Vienna Molly E. Brown
Research Scientist
Frédéric Baret Department of Geographical Sciences
Research Director University of Maryland College Park
INRA-EMMAH/CAPTE College Park, Maryland
Avignon, France
Indrė Bručienė
Agnès Bégué Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Research Scientist Safety
CIRAD, UMR TETIS Faculty of Engineering, Agriculture
34093 Montpellier, France Academy
Vytautas Magnus University
Henrique Bellinaso Kaunas, Lithuania
Agronomist, Planning Assistant and Rural
Extensionist James B. Campbell
Remote Sensing Applied to Soils and Soil Department of Geography
Conservation Virginia Tech
São Paulo State Government, Secretariat of Blacksburg, Virginia
Agriculture and Supply
Coordination of Integrate Technical Sabine Chabrillat
Assistance—CATI, Piracicaba Regional Senior Scientist
Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil Helmholtz Centre Potsdam
GFZ German Research Centre for
Juliane Bendig Geosciences
Institute of Bio-and Geosciences Potsdam, Germany
Plant Sciences (IBG-2)
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Russell G. Congalton
Jülich, Germany University of New Hampshire
Durham, New Hampshire
Eyal Ben-Dor
Department of Geography and Human Samuel E. Cox
Environment Wyoming State Office
Tel Aviv University Bureau of Land Management
Israel Cheyenne, Wyoming
xxxvii
xxxviiiContributors

Craig S.T. Daughtry Lea Hallik

USDA-ARS Hydrology and Remote Sensing Tartu Observatory
Laboratory Faculty of Science and Technology
Beltsville, Maryland University of Tartu
Tartu County, Estonia
Kirsten de Beurs
Professor/Chair Alexander J. Hernandez
Laboratory of Geo-information Science and Department of Wildland Resources
Remote Sensing Utah State University
Wageningen University Logan, Utah
Netherlands
David Herrera
José A.M. Demattê Institute of Bio- and Geosciences
Professor and Researcher Agronomist Plant Sciences (IBG-2)
Soil Scientist, Remote Sensing Applied to Soils Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
University of São Paulo—“Luiz de Queiroz” Jülich, Germany
College of Agriculture
Yanbo Huang
Department of Soil Science
Research Agricultural Engineer
Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
Genetics and Sustainable Agriculture
Research Unit
Venkateswarlu Dheeravath
USDA-Agricultural Research Services
United Nations World Food Program
Mississippi State, Mississippi
Erbil, Iraq
Alfredo Huete
Marston H.D. Franceschini Professor
Agronomist, Researcher in Remote Sensing School of Life Sciences
University of São Paulo—“Luiz de Queiroz” University of Technology Sydney
College of Agriculture Ultimo, NSW, Australia
Department of Soil Science
Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil E. Raymond Hunt Jr.
USDA-ARS Beltsville Agricultural Research
Chandra Giri Center
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Beltsville, Maryland

Kathryn Grace Markus Immitzer

Professor Mantle-Labs Ltd.
University of Minnesota United Kingdom
Department of Geography, Environment and and
Society University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Minneapolis, Minnesota Institute of Geomatics
Vienna
Murali Krishna Gumma
International Crops Research Institute Ruchita Ingle
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Water Systems and Global Change Group
Patancheru, Hyderabad, India Wageningen University
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Joanne V. Hall
Department of Geographical Sciences Christoph Jedmowski
College Park, University of Maryland Institute of Bio-and Geosciences
College Park, Maryland Plant Sciences (IBG-2)
Contributors xxxix

Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Xuanlong Ma

Jülich, Germany Professor
MOE Key Laboratory of Western China’s
Laura Verena Junker-Frohn Environmental Systems
Institute of Bio- and Geosciences College of Earth and Environmental Sciences
Plant Sciences (IBG-2) Lanzhou University
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
Jülich, Germany Richard Massey
The Aerospace Corporation
Justin George Kalambukattu Colorado Springs, Colorado
Agriculture and Soils Department
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing Heather McNairn
Indian Space Research Organisation Science and Technology Branch
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Wasantha Kulawardhana
Department of Biological and Environmental Arjan J.H. Meddens
Sciences School of the Environment
Alabama A&M University Washington State University
Huntsville, Alabama Pullman, Washington

Lalit Kumar Graciela Metternicht

School of Environmental and Rural Science Institute of Environmental Studies
University of New England University of New South Wales Australia
Armidale, NSW, Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia

Suresh Kumar Yuxin Miao

Agriculture, Forestry and Ecology Group Director of Precision Agriculture Center
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing Department of Soil, Water and Climate
Indian Space Research Organisation University of Minnesota
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India St. Paul, Minnesota

Kristina Lekavičienė Cristina Milesi

Department of Agricultural Engineering and Safety, NASA Ames Research Center
Faculty of Engineering, Agriculture Academy Moffett Field, California
Vytautas Magnus University
Kaunas, Lithuania Pedro Millikan
U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Geospatial Technology
Camille Lelong and Applications Center (GTAC)
Research Scientist Rocky Mountain Research Station
CIRAD, UMR TETIS Vallejo, California
Montpellier, France
Cristine L.S. Morgan
Tatiana Loboda Chief Scientific Officer
Department of Geographical Sciences Soil Health Institute
University of Maryland Morrisville, North Carolina
College Park, Maryland
David J. Mulla
Thomas Loveland W.E. Larson Endowed Chair of Soil and Water
U.S. Geological Survey EROS Center Sciences
Sioux Falls, South Dakota Department of Soil, Water and Climate
xlContributors

University of Minnesota Rocky Mountain Research Station

Saint Paul, Minnesota Missoula, Montana

Vilma Naujokienė Natalia Restrepo-Coupe

Department of Agricultural Engineering and Designated Campus Colleague
Safety, Faculty of Engineering, Agriculture Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Academy The University of Arizona
Vytautas Magnus University Tucson, Arizona
Kaunas, Lithuania
Angus Retallack
Adam Oliphant Department of Ecology and Evolutionary
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Biology
Flagstaff, Arizona The University of Adelaide
Adelaide, SA, Australia
Mutlu Ozdogan
University of Wisconsin Matthew Rigge
Madison, Wisconsin USGS Earth Resources Observation and
Science (EROS) Center
Anna Pacheco Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Science and Technology Branch
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Rodnei Rizzo
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Agronomist, Soil Scientist, PhD in Applied
Ecology
Aparna Phalke Center of Nuclear Energy in Agriculture
The University of Alabama (CENA)
Huntsville, Alabama University of São Paulo, Luiz de Queiroz
Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brasil
Guillermo Ponce-Campos
School of Natural Resources and the Environment Temuulen Tsagaan Sankey
The University of Arizona School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber
Tucson, Arizona Systems
Northern Arizona University
Juan Quiros-Vargas Flagstaff, Arizona
Institute of Bio- and Geosciences
Plant Sciences (IBG-2) Egidijus Šarauskis
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Jülich, Germany Safety
Faculty of Engineering, Agriculture
R. Douglas Ramsey Academy
Department of Wildland Resources Vytautas Magnus University
Utah State University Logan Kaunas, Lithuania
Logan, Utah
Guy Serbin
Uwe Rascher Spatial Analysis Unit
Institute of Bio- and Geosciences Rural Economy and Development
Plant Sciences (IBG-2) Programme
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Teagasc Food Research Centre
Jülich, Germany Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland

Matthew Reeves Asfa Siddiqui

Research Ecologist Scientist/Engineer “SE”
Contributors xli

Urban and Regional Studies Department Soil Scientist, Spectral Sensing (Proximal and
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing Remote) Applied to Soils
Indian Space Research Organisation Institute of Agricultural Science (ICA)
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Federal University of Jequitinhonha and
Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM)
Bastian Siegmann Campus Unaí
Institute of Bio- and Geosciences Unaí, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Plant Sciences (IBG-2)
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Prasad S. Thenkabail
Jülich, Germany U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Flagstaff, Arizona
Margareth Simões
Research Engineer James Tilton
Embrapa—Brazilian Agricultural Research NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC)
Corporation Greenbelt, Maryland
UERJ—Rio de Janeiro State University
Richa Upadhyay
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Scientist/Engineer “SE”
Priyakant Sinha Geo-Sciences Department
Ecosystem Management Indian Institute of Remote Sensing
School of Environmental and Rural Science Indian Space Research Organisation
University of New England Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Armidale, NSW, Australia Gustavo M. Vasques
Soil Researcher
William K. Smith
Embrapa Soils
School of Natural Resources and the
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Environment
University of Arizona Elodie Vintrou
Tucson, Arizona Research Scientist
CIRAD, UPR AIDA
Terry Sohl
France
Geological Survey EROS Center
Sioux Falls, South Dakota Letícia G. Vogel
Agronomist
Carson A. Stam Researcher in Soil Science, Remote Sensing
Department of Wildland Resources Applied to Soils
Utah State University University of São Paulo—“Luiz de Queiroz”
Logan, Utah College of Agriculture
Department of Soil Science
Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla
São Paulo, Brazil
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Flagstaff, Arizona Cuizhen Wang
and Department of Geography
Bay Area Environmental Research Institute University of South Carolina
(BAERI) Columbia, South Carolina
NASA Ames Research Park
Moffett Field, California Robert Washington-Allen
Agriculture, Veterinary and Rangeland
Fabrício da S. Terra Sciences
Agronomist, Professor/Researcher University of Nevada
Agronomist Reno, Nevada
xliiContributors

Johanna Wetterlind University of Arizona

Research Assistant Tucson, Arizona
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Skara, Sweden Yongguang Zhang
International Institute for Earth System
Jun Xiong
Sciences
The Climate Corporation
Nanjing University, Nanjing
San Francisco, California
Jiangsu, China
Kamini Yadav
Baojuan Zheng
U.S. Forest Service
Corvallis, Oregon School of Geographical Sciences and Urban
Planning
Wen Zhang Arizona State University
School of Natural Resources and the Environment Tempe, Arizona
Acknowledgments
Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) brought together a galaxy of highly
accomplished, renowned remote sensing scientists, professionals, and legends from around the
world. The lead authors were chosen by me after careful review of their accomplishments and sus-
tained publication record over the years. The chapters in the second edition were written/revised
over a period of two years. All chapters were edited, and revised.
Gathering such a galaxy of authors was the biggest challenge. These are all extremely busy peo-
ple, and committing to a book project that requires substantial work is never easy. However, almost
all those whom I requested agreed to write a chapter specific to their area of specialization, and only
a few I had to convince to make time. The quality of the chapters should convince readers why these
authors are such highly rated professionals and why they are so successful and accomplished in
their fields of expertise. They not only wrote very high-quality chapters but also delivered them on
time, addressed any editorial comments in a timely manner without complaints, and were extremely
humble and helpful. Their commitment for quality science is what makes them special. I am truly
honored to have worked with such great professionals.
I would like to mention the names of everyone who contributed and made Remote Sensing
Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) possible. In the end, we had 91 chapters, a little over
3,000 pages, and a little more than 400 authors. My gratitude goes to each one of them. These are
well-known “who is who” in remote sensing science in the world. A list of all authors is provided
here. The names of the authors are organized chronologically for each volume and the chapters.
Each lead author of the chapter is in bold type. The names of the 400+ authors who contributed
to six volumes are as follows:

Volume I: Sensors, Data Normalization, Harmonization, Cloud Computing, and Accuracies—18

chapters written by 53 authors (editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail):
Drs. Sudhanshu S. Panda, Mahesh N. Rao, Prasad S. Thenkabail, Debasmita Misra, and James
P. Fitzgerald; Mohinder S. Grewal; Kegen Yu, Chris Rizos, and Andrew Dempster; D. Myszor,
O. Antemijczuk, M. Grygierek, M. Wierzchanowski, K.A. Cyran; Natascha Oppelt and Arnab
Muhuri; Philippe M. Teillet; Philippe M. Teillet and Gyanesh Chander; Rudiger Gens and
Jordi Cristóbal Rosselló; Aolin Jia and Dongdong Wang; Tomoaki Miura, Kenta Obata, Hiroki
Yoshioka, and Alfredo Huete; Michael D. Steven, Timothy J. Malthus, and Frédéric Baret; Fabio
Dell’Acqua and Silvio Dell’Acqua; Ramanathan Sugumaran, James W. Hegeman, Vivek B.
Sardeshmukh and Marc P. Armstrong; Lizhe Wang, Jining Yan, Yan Ma, Xiaohui Huang, Jiabao
Li, Sheng Wang, Haixu He, Ao Long, and Xiaohan Zhang; John E. Bailey and Josh Williams;
Russell G. Congalton; P.J. Blount; Prasad S. Thenkabail.

Volume II: Image Processing, Change Detection, GIS and Spatial Data Analysis—17 chapters writ-
ten by 64 authors (editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail):
Sunil Narumalani and Paul Merani; Mutlu Ozdogan; Soe W. Myint, Victor Mesev, Dale
Quattrochi, and Elizabeth A. Wentz; Jun Li, Paolo Gamba, and Antonio Plaza; Qian Du, Chiranjibi
Shah, Hongjun Su, and Wei Li; Claudia Kuenzer, Philipp Reiners, Jianzhong Zhang, Stefan Dech;
Mohammad D. Hossain and Dongmei Chen; Thomas Blaschke, Maggi Kelly, Helena Merschdorf;
Stefan Lang and Dirk Tiede; James Tilton, Selim Aksoy, and Yuliya Tarabalka; Shih-Hong Chio,
Tzu-Yi Chuang, Pai-Hui Hsu, Jen-Jer Jaw, Shih-Yuan Lin, Yu-Ching Lin, Tee-Ann Teo, Fuan Tsai,
Yi-Hsing Tseng, Cheng-Kai Wang, Chi-Kuei Wang, Miao Wang, and Ming-Der Yang; Guiying Li,
Mingxing Zhou, Ming Zhang, Dengsheng Lu; Jason A. Tullis, David P. Lanter, Aryabrata Basu,
Jackson D. Cothren, Xuan Shi, W. Fredrick Limp, Rachel F. Linck, Sean G. Young, Jason Davis, and

xliii
xlivAcknowledgments

Tareefa S. Alsumaiti; Gaurav Sinha, Barry J. Kronenfeld, and Jeffrey C. Brunskill; May Yuan;
Stefan Lang, Stefan Kienberger, Michael Hagenlocher, and Lena Pernkopf; Prasad S. Thenkabail.

Volume III: Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils—17 chap-
ters written by 110 authors (editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail):
Alfredo Huete, Guillermo Ponce-Campos, Yongguang Zhang, Natalia Restrepo-Coupe, and
Xuanlong Ma; Juan Quiros-Vargas, Bastian Siegmann, Juliane Bendig, Laura Verena Junker-
Frohn, Christoph Jedmowski, David Herrera, Uwe Rascher; Frédéric Baret; Lea Hallik, Egidijus
Šarauskis, Ruchita Ingle, Indrė Bručienė, Vilma Naujokienė, and Kristina Lekavičienė; Clement
Atzberger and Markus Immitzer; Agnès Bégué, Damien Arvor, Camille Lelong, Elodie Vintrou,
and Margareth Simões; Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla, Prasad S. Thenkabail, Jun Xiong, Murali
Krishna Gumma, Chandra Giri, Cristina Milesi, Mutlu Ozdogan, Russell G. Congalton, James
Tilton, Temuulen Tsagaan Sankey, Richard Massey, Aparna Phalke, and Kamini Yadav; Yuxin
Miao, David J. Mulla, and Yanbo Huang; Baojuan Zheng, James B. Campbell, Guy Serbin,
Craig S.T. Daughtry, Heather McNairn, and Anna Pacheco; Prasad S. Thenkabail, Itiya Aneece,
Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla, Richa Upadhyay, Asfa Siddiqui, Justin George Kalambukattu, Suresh
Kumar, Murali Krishna Gumma, Venkateswarlu Dheeravath; Matthew Reeves, Robert Washington-
Allen, Jay Angerer, E. Raymond Hunt Jr., Wasantha Kulawardhana, Lalit Kumar, Tatiana Loboda,
Thomas Loveland, Graciela Metternicht, R. Douglas Ramsey, Joanne V. Hall, Trenton Benedict,
Pedro Millikan, Angus Retallack, Arjan J.H. Meddens, William K. Smith, and Wen Zhang; E.
Raymond Hunt Jr., Cuizhen Wang, D. Terrance Booth, Samuel E. Cox, Lalit Kumar, and Matthew
Reeves; Lalit Kumar, Priyakant Sinha, Jesslyn F Brown, R. Douglas Ramsey, Matthew Rigge,
Carson A. Stam, Alexander J. Hernandez, E. Raymond Hunt, Jr., and Matthew Reeves; Molly E
Brown, Kirsten de Beurs, and Kathryn Grace; José A.M. Demattê, Cristine L.S. Morgan, Sabine
Chabrillat, Rodnei Rizzo, Marston H.D. Franceschini, Fabrício da S. Terra, Gustavo M. Vasques,
Johanna Wetterlind, Henrique Bellinaso, and Letícia G. Vogel; E. Ben-Dor, José Alexandre M.
Demattê; Prasad S. Thenkabail.

Volume IV: Forests, Biodiversity, Ecology, LULC and Carbon: 12 chapters written by 71 authors
(editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail):
E.H. Helmer, Nicholas R. Goodwin, Valéry Gond, Carlos M. Souza Jr., and Gregory P. Asner;
Juha Hyyppä, Xiaowei Yu, Mika Karjalainen, Xinlian Liang, Anttoni Jaakkola, Mike Wulder,
Markus Hollaus, Joanne C. White, Mikko Vastaranta, Jiri Pyörälä, Tuomas Yrttimaa, Ninni
Saarinen, Josef Taher, Juho-Pekka Virtanen, Leena Matikainen, Yunsheng Wang, Eetu Puttonen,
Mariana Campos, Matti Hyyppä, Kirsi Karila, Harri Kaartinen, Matti Vaaja, Ville Kankare,
Antero Kukko, Markus Holopainen, Hannu Hyyppä, Masato Katoh, Eric Hyyppä; Gregory P.
Asner, Susan L. Ustin, Philip A. Townsend, and Roberta E. Martin; Sylvie Durrieu, Cédric Véga,
Marc Bouvier, Frédéric Gosselin, Jean-Pierre Renaud, Laurent Saint-André; Thomas W. Gillespie,
Morgan Rogers, Chelsea Robinson, Duccio Rocchini; Stefan LANG, Christina CORBANE, Palma
BLONDA, Kyle PIPKINS, Michael FÖRSTER; Conghe Song, Jing Ming Chen, Taehee Hwang,
Alemu Gonsamo, Holly Croft, Quanfa Zhang, Matthew Dannenberg, Yulong Zhang, Christopher
Hakkenberg, Juxiang Li; John Rogan and Nathan Mietkiewicz; Zhixin Qi, Anthony Gar-On Yeh,
Xia Li, Qianwen Lv; R.A. Houghton; Wenge Ni-Meister; Prasad S. Thenkabail.

Volume V: Water Resources: Hydrology, Floods, Snow and Ice, Wetlands, and Water Productivity—13
chapters written by 60 authors (editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail):
James B. Campbell and Lynn M. Resler; Sadiq I. Khan, Ni-Bin Chang, Yang Hong, Xianwu
Xue, Yu Zhang; Santhosh Kumar Seelan; Allan S. Arnesen, Frederico T. Genofre, Marcelo P.
Curtarelli, and Matheus Z. Francisco; Allan S. Arnesen, Frederico T. Genofre, Marcelo P. Curtarelli,
and Matheus Z. Francisco; Sandro Martinis, Claudia Kuenzer, and André Twele; Le Wang, Jing
Miao, Ying Lu; Chandra Giri; D. R. Mishra, X. Yan, S. Ghosh, C. Hladik, J. L. O’Connell, H. J.
Acknowledgments xlv

Cho; Murali Krishna Gumma, Prasad S. Thenkabail, Pranay Panjala, Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla,
Birhanu Zemadim Birhanu, Mangi Lal Jat; Trent W. Biggs, Pamela Nagler, Anderson Ruhoff,
Triantafyllia Petsini, Michael Marshall, George P. Petropoulos, Camila Abe, Edward P. Glenn;
Antônio Teixeira, Janice Leivas; Celina Takemura, Edson Patto, Edlene Garçon, Inajá Sousa,
André Quintão, Prasad S. Thenkabail, and Ana Azevedo; Hongjie Xie, Tiangang Liang, Xianwei
Wang, Guoqing Zhang, Xiaodong Huang, and Xiongxin Xiao; Prasad. S. Thenkabail.

Volume VI: Droughts, Disasters, Pollution, and Urban Mapping—14 chapters written by 53 authors
(editor-in-chief: Prasad S. Thenkabail)
Felix Kogan and Wei Guo; F. Rembold, M. Meroni, O. Rojas, C. Atzberger, F. Ham and E.
Fillol; Brian D.Wardlow, Martha A. Anderson, Tsegaye Tadesse, Mark S. Svoboda, Brian Fuchs,
Chris R. Hain, Wade T. Crow, and Matt Rodell; Jinyoung Rhee, Jungho Im, and Seonyoung Park;
Marion Stellmes, Ruth Sonnenschein, Achim Röder, Thomas Udelhoven, Gabriel del Barrio, and
Joachim Hill; Norman Kerle; Stefan LANG, Petra FÜREDER, Olaf KRANZ, Brittany CARD,
Shadrock ROBERTS, Andreas PAPP; Robert Wright; Krishna Prasad Vadrevu and Kristofer
Lasko; Anupma Prakash, Claudia Kuenzer, Santosh K. Panda, Anushree Badola, Christine F.
Waigl; Hasi Bagana, Chaomin Chena, and Yoshiki Yamagata; Yoshiki Yamagata, Daisuke
Murakami, Hajime Seya, and Takahiro Yoshida; Qingling Zhang, Noam Levin, Christos Chalkias,
Husi Letu and Di Liu; Prasad S. Thenkabail.
The authors not only delivered excellent chapters, but they also provided valuable insights and
inputs for me in many ways throughout the book project.
I was delighted when Dr. Compton J. Tucker, senior Earth scientist, Earth Sciences Division,
Science and Exploration Directorate, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) agreed to write
the foreword for the book. For anyone practicing remote sensing, Dr. Tucker needs no introduction.
He has been a “godfather” of remote sensing and has inspired a generation of remote sensing scien-
tists. I have been a student of his without ever really being one. I mean, I have not been his student
in a classroom, but have followed his legendary work throughout my career. I remember reading his
highly cited paper (now with citations nearing 7,700!):

• Tucker, C.J. (1979) “Red and Photographic Infrared Linear Combinations for Monitoring
Vegetation,” Remote Sensing of Environment, 8(2),127–150.

I first read this paper in 1986 when I had just joined the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA;
now NRSC), Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). Ever since, Dr. Tucker’s pioneering works
have been a guiding light for me. After getting his PhD from the Colorado State University in 1975,
Dr. Tucker joined NASA GSFC as a postdoctoral fellow in 1975 and became a full-time NASA
employee in 1977. Ever since, he has conducted several path-finding research studies. He has used
NOAA AVHRR, MODIS, SPOT Vegetation, and Landsat satellite data for studying deforestation,
habitat fragmentation, desert boundary determination, ecologically coupled diseases, terrestrial pri-
mary production, glacier extent, and how climate affects global vegetation. He has authored or coau-
thored more than 280 journal articles that have been cited more than 93,000 times, is an adjunct
professor at the University of Maryland, is a consulting scholar at the University of Pennsylvania’s
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and has appeared in more than 20 radio and TV pro-
grams. He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and has been awarded several medals
and honors, including NASA’s Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal, the Pecora Award from
the US Geological Survey, the National Air and Space Museum Trophy, the Henry Shaw Medal
from the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Galathea Medal from the Royal Danish Geographical
Society, and the Vega Medal from the Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography. He was the
NASA representative to the U.S. Global Change Research Program from 2006 to 2009. He is instru-
mental in releasing the AVHRR 33-year (1982–2014) Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping
Studies (GIMMS) data. I strongly recommend that everyone read his excellent foreword before
xlviAcknowledgments

reading the book. In the foreword, Dr. Tucker demonstrates the importance of data from Earth
Observation (EO) sensors from orbiting satellites to maintaining a reliable and consistent climate
record. Dr. Tucker further highlights the importance of continued measurements of these variables
of our planet in the new millennium through new, improved, and innovative EO sensors from Sun-
synchronous and/or geostationary satellites.
I want to acknowledge with thanks for the encouragement and support received by my U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) colleagues. I would like to mention the late Mr. Edwin Pfeifer, Dr. Susan
Benjamin (my director at the Western Geographic Science Center), Dr. Dennis Dye, Mr. Larry
Gaffney, Mr. David F. Penisten, Ms. Emily A. Yamamoto, Mr. Dario D. Garcia, Mr. Miguel Velasco,
Dr. Chandra Giri, Dr. Terrance Slonecker, Dr. Jonathan Smith, Timothy Newman, and Zhouting
Wu. Ofcouse, my dear colleagues at USGS, Dr. Pardhasaradhi Teluguntla, Dr. Itiya Aneece, Mr.
Adam Oliphant, and Mr. Daniel Foley, have helped me in numerous ways. I am ever grateful for
their support and significant contributions to my growth and this body of work. Throughout my
career, there have been many postdoctoral level scientists who have worked with me closely and
contributed in my scientific growth in different ways. They include Dr. Murali Krishna Gumma,
head of Remote Sensing at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; Dr.
Jun Xiong, Geo ML ≠ ML with GeoData, Climate Corp., Dr. Michael Marshall, associate professor,
University of Twente, Netherlands; Dr. Isabella Mariotto, former USGS postdoctoral researcher; Dr.
Chandrashekar Biradar, country director, India for World Agroforestry; and numerous others. I am
thankful for their contributions. I know I am missing many names: too numerous to mention them
all, but my gratitude for them is the same as the names I have mentioned here.
There is a very special person I am very thankful for: the late Dr. Thomas Loveland. I first met
Dr. Loveland at USGS, Sioux Falls, for an interview to work for him as a scientist in the late 1990s
when I was still at Yale University. But even though I was selected, I was not able to join him as I
was not a U.S. citizen at that time and working for USGS required that. He has been my mentor and
pillar of strength over two decades, particularly during my Landsat Science Team days (2006–2011)
and later once I joined USGS in 2008. I have watched him conduct Landsat Science Team meetings
with great professionalism, insights and creativity. I remember him telling my PhD advisor on me
being hired at USGS: “We don’t make mistakes!” During my USGS days, he was someone I could
ask for guidance and seek advice and he would always be there to respond with kindness and under-
standing. And, above all, share his helpful insights. It is too sad that we lost him too early. I pray for
his soul. Thank you, Tom, for your kindness and generosity.
Over the years, there are numerous people who have come into my professional life who have
helped me grow. It is a tribute to their guidance, insights, and blessings that I am here today. In
this regard, I need to mention a few names as gratitude: (1) Prof. G. Ranganna, my master’s thesis
advisor in India at the National Institute of Technology (NIT), Surathkal, Karnataka, India. Prof.
Ranganna is 92 years old (2024). I met him few months back and to this day, he remains my guiding
light on how to conduct oneself with fairness and dignity in professional and personal conduct. Prof.
Ranganna’s trait of selflessly caring for his students throughout his life is something that influenced
me to follow. (2) Prof. E.J. James, former director of the Center for Water Resources Development
and Management (CWRDM), Calicut, Kerala, India. Prof. James was my master’s thesis advisor in
India, whose dynamic personality in professional and personal matters had an influence on me. Dr.
James’ always went out of his way to help his students in spite of his busy schedules. (3) The late
Dr. Andrew Ward, my PhD advisor at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. He funded my
PhD studies in the U.S. through grants. Through him I learned how to write scientific papers and
how to become a thorough professional. He was a tough task master, your worst critic (to help you
grow), but also a perfectionist who helped you grow as a peerless professional, and above all a very
kind human being at the core. He would write you long memos on the flaws in your research, but
then help you out of it by making you work double the time! To make you work harder, he would tell
you, “You won’t get my sympathy.” Then when you accomplished the task, he would tell you, “You
have paid back for your scholarship many times over!!” (4) Dr. John G. Lyon, also my PhD advisor
Acknowledgments xlvii

at The Ohio State University. He was a peerless motivator, encouraged you to believe in yourself.
(5) Dr. Thiruvengadachari, a scientist at the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), which is
now the National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC), India. He was my first boss at the Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO) and through him I learned the initial steps in remote sensing science.
I was just 25 years of age then and had joined NRSA after my Master of Engineering (hydraulics
and water resources) and Bachelor of Engineering (civil engineering) degrees. The first day in office
Dr. Thiruvengadachari asked me how much remote sensing I knew. I told him “Zero” and instantly
thought, he will ask me to leave the room. But his response was “very good!” and he gave me a
manual on remote sensing from Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing (LARS), Purdue
University, to study. Those were the days when there was no formal training in remote sensing in
universities. So, my remote sensing lessons began working practically on projects and one of our
first projects was “drought monitoring for India using NOAA AVHRR data.” This was an intense
period of learning the fundamentals of remote sensing science for me by practicing on a daily
basis. Data came in 9 mm tapes, data was read on massive computing systems, image processing
was done mostly working on night shifts by booking time on centralized computing, fieldwork was
conducted using false color composite (FCC) outputs and topographic maps (there was no global
positioning systems or GPS), geographic information system (GIS) was in its infancy, and a lot of
calculations were done using calculators, as we had just started working in IBM 286 computers with
floppy disks. So, when I decided to resign my NRSA job and go to the United States to do my PhD,
Dr. Thiruvengadachari told me, “Prasad, I am losing my right hand, but you can’t miss this oppor-
tunity.” Those initial wonderful days of learning from Dr. Thiruvengadachari will remain etched
in my memory. I am also thankful to my very good old friend Shri C.J. Jagadeesha, who was my
colleague at NRSA/NRSC, ISRO. He was a friend who encouraged me to grow as a remote sensing
scientist through our endless rambling discussions over tea in Iranian restaurants outside NRSA
those days and elsewhere.
I am ever grateful to my former professors at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA:
the late Prof. Carolyn Merry, Dr. Duane Marble, and Dr. Michael Demers. They have taught, and/
or encouraged, and/or inspired, and/or gave me opportunities at the right time. The opportunity
to work for six years at the Center for Earth Observation of the Yale University (YCEO) was
incredibly important. I am thankful to Prof. Ronald G. Smith, director of YCEO for the oppor-
tunity, guidance, and kindness. At YCEO, I learned and advanced myself as a remote sensing
scientist. The opportunities I got working for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
(IITA) based in Nigeria and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) based in Sri
Lanka, where I worked on remote sensing science pertaining to a number of applications such as
agriculture, water, wetlands, food security, sustainability, climate, natural resources management,
environmental issues, droughts, and biodiversity water, were extremely important in my growth as
a remote sensing scientist—especially from the point of view of understanding the real issues on
the ground in real-life situations. Finding solutions and applying one’s theoretical understanding
to practical problems and seeing them work has its own nirvana.
As it is clear from the preceding, it is of great importance to have guiding pillars of light at
crucial stages of your education. That is where you become what you become in the end, grow, and
make your own contributions. I am so blessed to have had these wonderful guiding lights come into
my professional life at right time of my career (which also influenced me positively in my personal
life). From that firm foundation, I could build on from what I learned and through the confidence of
knowledge and accomplishments pursue my passion for science and do several significant pioneer-
ing research projects throughout my career.
I mention all of the preceding as a gratitude for my ability today to edit such a monumental
Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI).
I am very thankful to Ms. Irma Shagla-Britton, manager and leader for Remote Sensing and
GIS books at Taylor and Francis/CRC Press. Without her consistent encouragement to take on this
responsibility of editing Remote Sensing Handbook, especially in trusting me to accomplish this
xlviiiAcknowledgments

momentous work over so many other renowned experts, I would never have gotten to work on this
in the first place. Thank you, Irma. Sometimes you need to ask several times, before one can say
yes to something!
I am very grateful to my wife (Ms. Sharmila Prasad), daughter (Dr. Spandana Thenkabail), and
son-in-law (Mr. Tejas Mayekar) for their usual unconditional understanding, love, and support. My
wife and daughter have always been pillars of my life, now joined by my equally loving son-in-law.
I learned the values of hard work and dedication from my revered parents. This work wouldn’t
come through without their life of sacrifices to educate their children and their silent blessings.
My father’s vision in putting emphasis on education and sending me to the best of places to study
despite our family’s very modest income and my mother’s endless hard work are my guiding light
and inspiration. Ofcouse, there are many, many others to be thankful for, but too many to mention
here. Finally, it must be noted that the work of this magnitude, editing monumental Remote Sensing
Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) continuing from the three-volume first edition, requires
blessings of almighty. I firmly believe nothing happens without the powers of the universe bless-
ing you and providing needed energy, strength, health, and intelligence. To that infinite power my
humble submission of everlasting gratefulness.
It has been my deep honor and great privilege to have edited the Remote Sensing Handbook
(Second Edition, Volumes I–VI) after having edited the three-volume first edition that was pub-
lished in 2014. Now, after ten years, we will have a six-volume second edition in the year 2024. A
huge thanks to all the authors, publisher, family, friends, and everyone who made this huge task
possible.

Dr. Prasad S. Thenkabail, PhD

Editor in Chief
Remote Sensing Handbook (Second Edition, Volumes I–VI)

Volume I: Sensors, Data Normalization, Harmonization, Cloud Computing, and Accuracies

Volume II: Image Processing, Change Detection, GIS, and Spatial Data Analysis
Volume III: Agriculture, Food Security, Rangelands, Vegetation, Phenology, and Soils
Volume IV: Forests, Biodiversity, Ecology, LULC and Carbon
Volume V: Water, Hydrology, Floods, Snow and Ice, Wetlands, and Water Productivity
Volume VI: Droughts, Disasters, Pollution, and Urban Mapping
Part I
Vegetation and Biomass
 1 Measuring Terrestrial
Productivity from Space
Alfredo Huete, Guillermo Ponce-Campos,
Yongguang Zhang, Natalia Restrepo-Coupe, and
Xuanlong Ma

ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS

AGB Aboveground Biomass
APAR Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation
AVHRR Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer
EO Earth Observation
EVI Enhanced Vegetation Index
FLUXNET A network of micrometeorological tower sites to measure carbon dioxide, water, and
energy balance between terrestrial systems and the atmosphere
GPP Gross Primary Productivity
LAI Leaf Area Index
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LST Land Surface Temperature
LUE Light Use Efficiency
MERIS Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
MODIS Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NIR Near-Infrared
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPP Net Primary Productivity
PAR Photosynthetically Active Radiation
PRI Photochemical Reflectance Index
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre, French Earth Observing Satellites
TOA Top of Atmosphere
TROPOMI TROPOspheric monitoring instrument
VI Vegetation Index

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Terrestrial productivity is defined as the process by which plants use sunlight to produce organic
matter from carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb
CO2 from the atmosphere and use sunlight to combine it with water to form sugar molecules (CH2O)
and oxygen (O2). The chemical reaction is:

CO2 + H2O + light energy = CH2O + O2(1.1)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003541165-2 3
4 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

The organic compounds produced by plants are assimilated for building plant structures (leaves,
stems, wood branches, trunks, and roots) and stored in biomass (Figure 1.1). Vegetation productivity
forms the basis of terrestrial biosphere functioning and carbon, energy, and water budgets. Accurate
estimates of vegetation productivity across space and time are necessary for quantifying carbon bal-
ances at regional to global scales (Schimel, 1998).
Part of the carbon fixed in photosynthesis by plants is returned to the atmosphere through
the process of respiration, in which oxygen combines with sugar to release water, CO 2 , and
energy. Through autotrophic respiration, plants break down the sugar to get the energy
needed to grow.
The basic chemical reaction in respiration is:

CH2O + O2 = CO2 + H2O + energy (1.2)

1.1.1 Key Productivity Definitions

There are various ways to define productivity, including:

1. The rate of carbon fixation by the terrestrial biosphere, or total plant organic carbon
produced per unit of time and over a defined area is termed photosynthesis, or gross
primary productivity (GPP). GPP is the basis for food, fiber, and wood production, and

FIGURE 1.1 Terrestrial carbon cycle. (Source: https://public.ornl.gov/site/gallery/.)

Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 5

has important implications for human welfare. It is the largest carbon flux between the
terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere and is a key measure of ecosystem metabolism
(Figure 1.2).
2. Terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) is the rate of carbon fixed by plants and accu-
mulated as biomass (Cramer et al., 1999; Zhao and Running, 2010). As part of the carbon
fixed in photosynthesis by plants is returned to the atmosphere through autotrophic respi-
ration (Ra), NPP is the net balance between GPP and Ra:

NPP = GPP—Ra (1.3)

3. The accumulated plant biomass may be consumed by other organisms, along food chains,
which further break down the plant sugar to get energy (heterotrophic respiration, or R h).
Net ecosystem productivity (NEP) is defined as GPP minus total ecosystem respiration (ER),
which is the sum of autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration, including respiration from
soils, microbes, plants, and litter:

NEP = NPP—Rh (1.4)

4. Net biome productivity (NBP) is defined as the overall net ecosystem carbon balance, and
includes other processes such as deforestation, harvest, fire, disease, and disturbance that
can also lead to the loss of, and changes in, carbon (Figure 1.2):

NBP = NEP minus disturbance carbon losses (1.5)

An area will be designated a land carbon sink when GPP exceeds ecosystem respiration and distur-
bance carbon losses, that is, positive NBP. When the reverse occurs, an area is considered as a land
carbon source.

FIGURE 1.2 Terrestrial carbon fluxes: GPP—Gross Primary Productivity; AR—Autotrophic Respiration;
NPP—Net Primary Productivity; HR—Heterotrophic Respiration; NEP—Net Ecosystem Productivity; NBP—Net
Biome Productivity. Carbon stocks include AGB—Above Ground Biomass; SOC—Soil Organic Carbon.
(Source, Xiao et al., 2019, Figure 1.1.)
6 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

1.1.2 Seasonal Biosphere Productivity

Vegetation productivity will vary at seasonal to annual time scales, as plants grow, develop, and
senesce through their growing cycle phenophases. There is a tightly coupled relationship between
the atmosphere and biosphere that can be observed with CO2 fluctuations in the atmosphere with
the changing seasons. When the large land masses of the Northern Hemisphere green up during
spring and summer, atmosphere CO2 decreases as carbon is removed from the atmosphere though
increased photosynthesis. In the autumn and winter, many plants senesce and decay with GPP
declining while ecosystem respiration increases, thus returning CO2 back to the atmosphere.

1.1.3 Constraints on Productivity
Vegetation productivity is also spatially variable, limited or co-limited by spatially and temporally
varying resource constraints (e.g., nutrients, light, water, temperature; Nemani et al., 2003) (Figure 1.3).
GPP and microbial respiration will be primarily limited by water availability in arid regions, by
cold temperatures at high latitudes and elevations, and by solar radiation in humid regions. This
results in spatially distributed high biomass, productive ecosystems as well as low biomass areas
(e.g., deserts) with sparse production over the planet in response to climatic, geologic (nutrients),
and topographic variations. Improved knowledge of these resource constraints and main drivers
of plant productivity is needed for predictable assessments of climate change. GPP is essentially
an integrator of resource availability and disturbances, and according to the resource optimization
theory (Field et al., 1995), ecological processes tend to adjust plant characteristics over time periods
of weeks or months to match the capacity of the environment to support photosynthesis and maxi-
mize growth.

1.2 MEASURES OF PRODUCTIVITY

Accurate estimates of photosynthesis and productivity in the biosphere are necessary for quantifying
carbon balances across space and time, and at regional to global scales, but are quite challenging
to accomplish (Ryu et al., 2019: Baldocchi et al., 2001; Schimel, 1998). The determination of pro-
ductivity across diverse landscapes is traditionally carried out in various, often inconsistent ways,

FIGURE 1.3 Potential limits and co-limitations to vegetation net primary production based on fundamental
physiological limits of solar radiation, water balance, and temperature. Greener colors depict biomes increas-
ingly limited by radiation, while red colors are water-limited and blue colors are temperature-limited. Many
regions are limited by more than one factor. (Adapted from Nemani et al., 2003.)
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 7

that include field and plot scale biomass measurements, plant harvests, micrometeorological flux
measurements, Earth Observations (EO), and empirical to process-based models.

1.2.1 Field Methods
In situ measures of productivity and carbon stocks involve sampling methods that will vary with
biome type, and can include tree inventories, litter traps, grassland forage estimates, destructive
sampling, cropland harvests, and market statistics. Traditionally, national-scale carbon monitoring
has been accomplished with networks of field inventory plots, which provide direct carbon measure-
ments of only very small areas of forest, and are further difficult to install, monitor, and maintain
over time (Chambers et al., 2009).
Established long-term experimental plots further enable cross-site production comparisons. Plot-
level methods generally measure aboveground net primary production (ANPP) from which gross
primary production (GPP) can be estimated by correcting for respiratory losses (Field et al., 1995).
Agricultural yield statistics combined with maps of cropland areas provide large-scale ANPP esti-
mates from local to national level census statistics (Monfreda et al., 2008; Guanter et al., 2014).
These methods are amenable to many uncertainties due to differences in site-based procedures, and
in some cases, inconsistent sampling methods over time at a given site (Sala et al., 1988; Biondini
et al., 1991; Moran et al., 2014). For example, established procedures for biomass clipping of grass
sampling plots vary in timing from either the peak of the growing season or the end of the growing
season (Moran et al., 2014).

1.2.2 Eddy Covariance Flux Towers

A global network of “regional networks” encompassing over 1,000 active and historic flux micro-
meteorological tower sites, known as FLUXNET, provide continuous measurements of carbon,
water, and energy exchanges between ecosystems and the atmosphere (Running et al., 1999;
Baldocchi, 2008). The eddy covariance method is used to directly measure fluxes at a spatial
scale of hundreds of meters, by computing the covariance between the vertical velocity and target
scalar mixing ratios at each tower site. The carbon gas flux measured is the net amount result-
ing from ecosystem respiration (ER) and photosynthesis (GPP), and is termed net ecosystem
exchange (NEE):

NEE = GPP + ER (1.6)

This yields information on diurnal, daily, and seasonal dynamics plus inter-annual variations of
net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide between the land surface and the atmosphere
(Baldocchi et al., 2001; Verma et al., 2005). GPP is the residual calculated from the direct mea-
surements of NEE and estimates of respiration. This generates valuable in situ information for
validation and independent assessments of EO-based productivity products and carbon models
(Xiao et al., 2019).

1.2.3 Earth Observation Data

For five decades, EO data has played an increasingly important role in global carbon cycle stud-
ies (Xiao et al., 2019; Ryu et al., 2019). EO sensors offer synoptic-scale observations of ecosystem
states, land cover, landscape dynamics, disturbances, and fire, and are seen as invaluable tools
to help fill the large spatial gaps and restrictive coverage afforded by situ measurements, as well
as to better constrain and improve the accuracies of terrestrial ecosystem models. EO provides
much needed data and information of under-sampled critical regions (e.g., tropical, arctic/boreal,
and arid environments) and facilitates broad-scale patterns of ecosystem functioning. A strategic
8 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

combination of EO and in situ data, can provide the dense sampling in space and time required to
characterize the heterogeneity of ecosystem structure and function.
A wide variety of satellite sensors have been used to quantify carbon fluxes (Running et al.,
2004; Xiao et al., 2019) and biomass stocks (Saatchi et al., 2011) at various spatial and temporal
scales. These include sensors in the optical, thermal, and microwave regions of the electromagnetic
(EM) spectrum, and include measures of vegetation chlorophyll content, leaf area, biomass, non-
photosynthetic vegetation (NPV), solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF), canopy height and
structure, and atmosphere carbon gases (Figure 1.4). Recent satellites with high resolution spec-
trometers, which can retrieve concentrations of key atmospheric gases (such as the Orbiting Carbon
Observatory-2; OCO-2), are providing valuable insights into global variations in, and sources of,
greenhouse gases. This combination renders EO a powerful tool for studying vegetation productiv-
ity at local, regional, and global scales (Gitelson et al., 2006; Schimel et al., 2015). A summary of
the various EO-based estimates of GPP is shown in Table 1.1.

1.3 EO PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES

There are many empirical, diagnostic, and process-based models that have been developed during
the EO era to quantify land productivity, with many of these methods integrating independently
derived carbon flux measurements from satellite data, EC tower fluxes, and field measurements.
Vegetation productivity is directly related to the interaction of solar radiation with the plant canopy.
As plants grow, the productivity gain resulting from their conversion of CO2 into biomass through
photosynthesis, can be quantified with EO approaches involving vegetation indices (VIs), solar-
induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF), and light use efficiency (LUE) models.

FIGURE 1.4 Earth Observations (EO) of terrestrial ecosystem productivity and carbon cycle studies.
(Source: Xiao et al., 2019, Figure 1.2.)
 Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space
TABLE 1.1
Examples of Remote Sensing Methods of Deriving Gross Primary Productivity, GPP, with Some References
Gross Primary
Productivity Satellite Products Other Non-Satellite
Measurement Biome/Location used Drivers Method/Approach Equation R2 Reference
BIOME-BGC Continental MODIS FPAR Maximum light use See equation GPP = εmax × 0.45 × NA Running
(Biogeochemical (MOD15); efficiency (εmax) from SWrad × fPAR × et al., 2004
Cycles) MODIS GPP/ photosynthetic active a biome-properties f(VPD) × f(Ta)
NPP, where GPP is radiation (PAR) as look-up table and
Gross Primary 0.45 × SWrad maximum daily vapor
Productivity and NPP (shortwave downward pressure deficit (VPD)
is Net Primary solar radiation) and minimum daily
Productivity air temperature
(Tmin) from forcing
meteorology.
GPP and light use North American MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + 0.76 MODIS GPP Sims et al.,
efficiency (LUE) ecosystems from bLUE = m × EVI + b - GPP0.92 EVI- 2006
evergreen needleleaf GPP0.76 EVI
and deciduous forest to - LUE0.62 MODIS
grassland to savanna LUE -LUE
GPP Tropical forests and MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + b 0.5 Huete et al.,
converted pastures at 2006
the Amazon basin
GPP and maximum Net Northern Europe MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + GPP-EVI:0.81 Olofsson
Ecosystem Exchange ecosystems from bNEEmax = m × deciduous, 0.69, et al., 2008
(NEEmax) evergreen needleleaf EVI + b coniferous forests
and deciduous forest to NEEmax-EVI:0.83
grasslands deciduous. 0.72,
coniferous forests
GPP Dry to humid tropical MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = 8282 × EVI + 0.74 Huete et al.,
forest sites in Southeast 2118, GPP [kgC ha−1 2008
Asia mo−1]
(Continued)

9
 10
TABLE 1.1 (Continued)
Examples of Remote Sensing Methods of Deriving Gross Primary Productivity, GPP, with Some References
Gross Primary
Productivity Satellite Products Other Non-Satellite
Measurement Biome/Location used Drivers Method/Approach Equation R2 Reference
GPP African tropical savanna MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + b NA Sjöström
ecosystems including et al., 2011
shrubland, woodlands,
crops and grasslands
GPP Northern Australian MODIS EVI and Eddy covariance Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + Linear regression Ma et al.,
mesic and xeric MODIS GPP product measured water bGPP = b + EVI-GPP ranges 2013
tropical savannas availability index (EF) m(MODIS GPP) GPP from 0.89 (woodland)
and PAR = b + m(EVI × PAR) to 0.52 (wooded
GPP = b + m(EVI × grassland)
PAR × EF)
Temperature and North American MODIS daytime land NA See equation GPP = (EVIscaled × NA Sims et al.,
Greenness Model ecosystems from surface temperature LSTscaled) × m LSTscaled 2008
(T-G) evergreen needleleaf (LST) and EVI = min[(LST/30);
and deciduous forest to (2.5 − (0.05 × LST))]
grassland to savanna EVIscaled = EVI−0.10

Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

Greenness and Crops, including MODIS NDVI and a PARtoc is the top of See equation GPP = VIchl × PARtoc 0.84 GPP = EVI2 × Peng and
Radiation (G-R) soybean and maize– chlorophyll-related canopy measured PAR GPP = NDVI × PARtoc PARtoc 0.87 GPP = Gitelson,
model soybean rotation spectral index (VIchl): Red edge NDVI × 2012
EVI or wide dynamic PARtoc 0.9 to 0.9 GPP
range vegetation index = EVI × PARtoc
(WDRVI)
Greenness and Northern Australian MODIS EVI PARtoa is the top of See equation GPP = EVI × PARtoa NA Ma et al.,
Radiation (G-R) mesic and xeric atmosphere PAR 2014
model tropical savannas
 Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space
Temperature and Temperate and boreal MODIS EVI NA Linear regression GPP = m × EVI + T-G model GPP:0.27
Greenness Model forest ecosystems in bGPP = ScaledEVI × to 0.91 at Wu et al.,
(T-G) and Greenness North America ScaledLST non-forests~0.9 at 2011
and Radiation (G-R) deciduous forests
model 0.28 to 0.91
evergreen forests
Vegetation Single temperate MODIS EVI, NDVI, Temperature (air) and See equation GPP = ε × fAPARchl × GPP-NDVI,
Photosynthesis Model deciduous broadleaf LSWI, water (Wscalar), leaf phenology PARtocε = εmax × 0.64GPP-EVI, Xiao et al.,
(VPM) ecosystem forest leaf phenology (Pscalar) information Tscalar, Tscalar × Wscalar × 0.84GPP - VPM GPP, 2004
Pscalar, respectively PscalarGPP = −74.4 + 0.92
179.4 × NDVIGPP =
−68.3 + 299.7 × EVI,
GPP [gC m−2 10-day]
Vegetation Nine vegetation classes, MODIS EVI, and Incoming solar Model NA Monthly NEE - VPRM
Photosynthesis and including evergreen LSWI radiation and air NEE ranges from Mahadevan
Respiration Model and deciduous forests, temperature 0.96 (deciduous et al., 2008
(VPRM) Net grasslands, and shrub temperate forest) to >
Ecosystem Exchange, sites in North America 1 at grasses and
NEE = GPP - agricultural areas
ecosystem respiration
Light use efficiency, Crops: sunflower Photochemical NA Linear regression LUE = m × PRI + b NA Gamon et al.,
LUE reflectance index 1992;
(PRI)
GPP Cropland and grassland Solar-induced NA Linear regression US croplands: GPP = 0.92, US
ecosystems chlorophyll −0.88 + 3.55 × croplands0.79, Guanter
fluorescence (SIF) SIFEurope grasslands: Europe et al., 2014
GPP = 0.35 + 3.71 × grasslands0.87, All
SIFAll sites: GPP = sites
−0.17 + 3.48 × SIF,
GPP [gC m−2 d−1]

11
12 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

1.3.1 EO Measures of GPP

EO-based estimates of GPP have been implemented at global scales, based on the LUE equation
that defines the amount of carbon fixed through photosynthesis as proportional to the solar energy
absorbed by green vegetation multiplied by the efficiency with which the absorbed light is used in
carbon fixation (Pei et al., 2022; Ryu et al., 2019):

GPP = εpar × APAR = εpar × fAPAR × PAR (1.7)

where
• εpar, or LUE, is the efficiency of conversion of absorbed light into aboveground biomass;
• PAR is the photosynthetically active radiation;
• APAR is the absorbed PAR integrated over a time period; and
• fAPAR is the fraction of APAR to the PAR available.

Monteith (1972) suggested that productivity of stress-free annual crops would be linearly related to
vegetation absorbed PAR.
EO-based modeling approaches focus on the fAPAR term, which is derived through spectral
vegetation index (VI) relationships (Asrar et al., 1984; Sellers, 1985; Goward and Huemmrich,
1992). VIs exploit the chlorophyll-absorbing red band relative to the non-absorbing and high scat-
tering near-infrared (NIR) band to assess the amount and vigor of a vegetated pixel. The normalized
difference vegetation index (NDVI, Tucker, 1979) is written as,

NDVI = (NIR  red ) / (NIR + red ) (1.8)

where ρNIR and ρred are spectral reflectance values (unitless) for NIR and red band, respectively.
Asrar et al. (1984) showed the NDVI was linearly related with APAR and thereby related to pro-
ductivity through the potential capacity of vegetation to absorb light for photosynthesis (Figure 1.5).
The linear relationship between NDVI and fAPAR has been documented through field measurements
(Fensholt et al., 2004) and theoretical analyses (Sellers, 1985; Goward and Huemmrich, 1992; Myneni
and Williams, 1994), although these relationships were not universal, and appeared to be unique to
vegetation type, structure, and soil optics.

1.3.2 VI Relationships with Flux Tower GPP

Monteith and Unsworth (1990) noted that VIs can legitimately be used to estimate the rate of pro-
cesses that depend on absorbed light, such as photosynthesis and transpiration. The integration of
tower measured carbon fluxes with VIs has thus been the focus of many investigations across many
ecosystems (Zeng et al., 2022; Sjöström et al., 2011; Glenn et al., 2008; Sims et al., 2006; Gitelson
et al., 2006; Rahman et al., 2005). As top-of canopy measurements, flux towers do not require knowl-
edge of LAI or details of canopy architecture to estimate fluxes facilitating their comparisons with
satellite spectral index measures that similarly involve community properties to estimate greenness,
and thereby minimizing the need for meteorological and LUE information. With the measurement
footprint of flux towers at least partially overlapping the pixel size of daily return satellites (e.g., 250
m for MODIS), VIs can simplify the upscaling of carbon fluxes, such as photosynthesis, from the
network of flux towers to larger landscape units and to regional scales (Schimel et al., 2015).
Several studies reported that the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) provided reasonably accurate
estimates of GPP across a wide range of ecosystems (including dense forests) in North America
(Rahman et al., 2005), Northern Europe (Olofsson et al., 2008), African tropical savanna ecosys-
tems (Sjöström et al., 2011), mesic and xeric tropical savannas in northern Australia (Ma et al.,
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 13

FIGURE 1.5 Linear relationship between in situ NDVI and field measured fAPAR across multiple cropland
and biome sites in Africa. (Source: Fensholt et al., 2004.)

2013), and in dry to humid tropical forest sites in Southeast Asia and the Amazon (Xiao et al., 2005;
Huete et al., 2006, 2008). EVI is expressed as:

R  red
EVI G  (1.9)
R  L  C1  red  C2  blue

where ρNIR, ρred, and ρblue are atmospherically corrected spectral reflectances; G is a gain factor; and
C1 and C2 are aerosol resistance coefficients; and L functions as the soil-adjustment factor, with all
terms dimensionless (Huete et al., 2002). In the MODIS EVI product, C1 and C2 are 6.0 and 7.5,
respectively, and G is 2.5.
The direct relationships between EVI and tower GPP may be partly a result of fairly good corre-
lations between LUE and EVI that make an independent estimate of LUE less necessary. Sims et al.
(2006) reported that LUE derived from nine flux towers in North America was well-correlated with
EVI (r2 = 0.76), while Wu et al. (2011) reported moderate correlation between EVI and tower LUE
in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems in North America. Further, the 16-day averaging period
may also remove the influences of short-term fluctuations in solar radiation and other environmental
parameters, thereby minimizing the need for climatic drivers.
On the hand, the strength of the linear relationship between EVI and tower GPP can vary sig-
nificantly with biome type, being greater in seasonally contrasting biomes (e.g., deciduous forests)
compared with more aseasonal evergreen forests (Rahman et al., 2005; Sims et al., 2006). Sims
et al. (2006) further noted that when data from the winter period of inactive photosynthesis was
excluded by use of land surface temperature (LST) observations below 0°C, the EVI-tower GPP
relationship improved.
Similarly, distinct differences in VI relationships with tower GPP were found between
phenology-driven and meteorologically driven Australian ecosystems. Restrepo-Coupe et al. (2016)
found that in primarily meteorologically driven (e.g., PAR, temperature, and/or precipitation) and
14 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

relatively aseasonal ecosystems, there were no statistically significant relationships between GPP
and MODIS vegetation products (LAI, fAPAR, VIs). The poor correlations were observed where
meteorology and phenology were asynchronous (e.g., Mediterranean ecosystems) and VI greenness
values may hold constant even when temperatures inhibit photosynthesis or when warming temper-
atures induce high rates of photosynthesis with no corresponding change in greenness. On the other
hand, in phenology-driven ecosystems, changes in the vegetation status can be well-represented by
VIs, and highly correlated VI-GPP relationships can be found in locations where key meteorologi-
cal variables and vegetation phenology were synchronous.

1.3.3 Temperature-Greenness (T-G) Model

Sims et al. (2008) introduced the temperature and greenness (T-G) model, using combined daytime
LST and EVI MODIS products to take into account the restrictive role of non-optimal tempera-
tures on vegetation productivity. They found the T-G model substantially improved the correlation
between predicted and measured GPP at 11 EC flux tower sites across North American biomes com-
pared with the MODIS GPP product or MODIS EVI alone, while keeping the model based entirely
based on remotely sensed variables without any ground-based meteorological inputs (Sims et al.,
2008). The T-G model may be described as follows,

GPP = (EVIscaled × LSTscaled) × m (1.10)

LSTscaled = min[(LST/30); (2.5−(0.05 × LST))] (1.11)
EVIscaled = EVI−0.10 (1.12)

where LSTscaled sets GPP to zero when LST is less than zero, and defines the inactive winter period;
EVIscaled adjusts EVI values to a zero baseline value in which GPP is known to be zero; m is a scalar
that varies between deciduous and evergreen sites, with units of mol C m−2 day−1; and LSTscaled
also accounts for low temperature limitations to photosynthesis when LST is between 0°C and 30°C,
and accounts for high temperature and high VPD stress in sites that exceed LST values of 30°C
(Sims et al., 2008; Figure 1.6).

FIGURE 1.6 Gross primary productivity (GPP) measured at the eddy covariance flux towers as a function
of daytime land surface temperature (LST) measured by the MODIS satellite. Solid line represents scaled
LST from the Temperature-Greenness (T-G) model. GPP is enhanced by increasing temperatures, but only to
approximately 30°C before being negatively influenced (Source: Sims et al., 2008.)
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 15

LST is closely related to VPD and thus can provide a measure of drought stress, consistent with
the BIOME-BGC model, where temperature and VPD are used as scalars directly modifying LUE
(Running et al., 2004). LST is a useful measure of physiological activity of the upper canopy leaves,
provided that leaf cover is high enough that LST is not significantly affected by soil surface tem-
perature. Thus, the T-G model has been found less useful in sparsely vegetated ecosystems (e.g.,
shrublands) where soil surface temperatures significantly influence derived LST values, rendering
them less useful as indicators of plant physiology. As an example, Ma et al. (2014) found coupling
EVI with LST showed no improvements in predicting savanna GPP compared with using EVI alone
over the relatively open tropical savannas in northern Australia, with appreciable soil exposure. This
may also be due to temperature not being a limiting factor or significant driver of photosynthesis in
tropical savannas (Leuning et al., 2005; Cleverly et al., 2013; Kanniah et al., 2013a).

1.3.4 Greenness and Radiation (G-R) LUE Models

Chlorophyll spectral indices can be coupled with measures of light energy, PAR, to provide
robust estimates of GPP. Canopy level chlorophyll represents a community property that is most
relevant in quantifying the amount of absorbed radiation used for productivity. The fraction of
PAR specifically absorbed by chlorophyll throughout the canopy ( fAPARchl) can lead to more
accurate GPP estimates than through more general fAPAR products that may include non-photo-
synthetic PAR absorption (Zhang et al., 2014b). Gitelson et al. (2006) showed that for the same
LAI amount, the chlorophyll content during the green-up stage might be more than two times
higher than the chlorophyll content in leaves in the reproductive and senescence stages. In the
Greenness and Radiation (G-R) model, both fAPAR and LUE are driven by total chlorophyll con-
tent with strong correlations between GPP/PAR and canopy chlorophyll content (Gitelson et al.,
2006; Peng et al., 2011),

GPP  VIchl  PARtoc(1.13)

where VIchl is a chlorophyll-related spectral index and PARtoc is the top-of-canopy measured PAR
(MJ m−2 day−1).
Chlorophyll spectral indices may include (1) commonly used VIs, such as EVI and the Wide
Dynamic Range Vegetation Index (WDRVI), which indirectly indicate total chlorophyll content
through “greenness” estimates; and (2) narrow-band chlorophyll spectral indices, such as the
MERIS Terrestrial Chlorophyll Index (MTCI), which more directly represent canopy scale chloro-
phyll content (Peng et al., 2013). The WDRVI equation is:

WDRVI = (a * NIR  red ) / (a * NIR + red ) (1.14)

where a is a weighing coefficient with value between 0.1 and 0.2 (Gitelson, 2004; Gitelson et al.,
2006).
MTCI is the ratio of the difference in reflectance between an NIR and red edge band and the
difference in reflectance between red edge and red band as:

  
MTCI = 753.75  708.75 / 708.75  681.25 (1.15)

where ρ753.75, ρ708.75, and ρ681.25 are reflectances in the center wavelengths of the MERIS narrow-band
channel settings (Dash and Curran, 2004). The red edge band has been used extensively to retrieve
leaf chlorophyll contents (Zhang et al., 2022). The G-R model has been successfully applied in
estimating GPP in natural ecosystems (Sjöström et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2011, 2014) and croplands,
including maize, soybeans, and wheat (Wu et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2011).
16 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

The LUE term in G-R model may be defined as either the ratio of GPP to APAR, or the ratio of
GPP to PAR (Gower et al., 1999), with the latter sometimes referred to as ecosystem-LUE, or eLUE,

ε = GPP/APAR, (1.16)

eLUE = GPP / PAR = fAPAR  (1.17)

An advantage of using chlorophyll-based VIs in G-R models is that the biological drivers of photo-
synthesis, fAPAR and ε, resulting from environmental stress and leaf age phenology, are combined
into eLUE, thereby simplifying EO-based productivity estimates.
Other measures of PAR that have been used include “potential’ PAR, or maximal clear-
sky PAR (PARpotential; Peng et al., 2013; Rossini et al., 2014) and top-of-atmosphere PAR
(PARtoa). PARpotential can be calibrated from long term PARtoc measurements or mod-
eled using an atmosphere radiative transfer code (Kotchenova and Vermote, 2007). Gitelson
et al. (2012) found an improved performance of PARpotential relative to PARtoc noting that
decreases in PARtoc during the day do not always imply a decrease in GPP. Further, Kanniah
et al. (2013b) showed that the negative forcings of wet season cloud cover over Australian tropi-
cal savannas were partly compensated by enhanced LUE resulting from a greater proportion
of diffuse radiation. Ma et al. (2014) found that coupling of EVI with PARtoa better predicted
GPP than coupling EVI with PARtoc and attributed this to tower sensor-based measurement
uncertainties of PARtoc, as well as better approximations of meteorological controls on GPP
by PARtoa.

1.3.5 Solar-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF) as Proxy for GPP

More recent EO capabilities to measure solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) provide a more
direct approach for estimating GPP with more accurate projections of terrestrial GPP (Mohammed
et al., 2019; He et al., 2019: Frankenberg et al., 2011). The PAR absorbed by chlorophyll in leaves is
used to drive photosynthesis, but some radiation is dissipated as heat or emitted back into the atmo-
sphere at longer wavelengths (650–850 nm). This re-emitted red and near infrared (NIR) light from
illuminated plants as a by-product of photosynthesis, has been found to more strongly correlate with
GPP compared with VIs (Baker, 2008; Meroni et al., 2009; Frankenberg et al., 2011; Guanter et al.,
2012). Chlorophyll fluorescence may be conceptualized as:

SIF = εf × PAR × fAPAR(1.18)

where εf is the fAPAR photons that are re-emitted from the canopy as SIF photons, or yield of fluo-
rescence photons.
SIF data provide information on both the light absorbed and the efficiency with which it is being
used for photosynthesis. It is an independent measurement, linked to chlorophyll absorption, theo-
retically less sensitive to soil background, providing unique information on photosynthesis relative
to VIs. The SIF expression can be combined with the GPP-based LUE equation to yield:

GPP = (εpar/εf) × SIF (1.19)

Empirical studies at the leaf and canopy scale indicate that the two LUE terms tend to covary under
the conditions of EO measurement (Flexas et al., 2002). SIF is seen as one way to increase the effective
remotely sensed temporal resolution of vegetation photosynthesis, with near real time capabili-
ties. SIF has been found to be more dynamic than greenness measures, and respond more quickly
to environmental stress, though both change in stress-induced LUE and canopy light absorption
(Porcar-Castell et al., 2014: Schimel et al., 2015).
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 17

As SIF responds to both incoming radiation and fluorescence yield, one may also normalize SIF
by PAR (SIF/PAR) to better relate SIF signals to canopy properties (Shen et al., 2020). Shen et al.
(2020) also combined SIF and EVI, as measure of SIF per unit greenness. Zhang et al., 2016 used
the SCOPE model to better understand the relationship between SIF and GPP for EO applications.
They reported the SIF-GPP relationship was primarily driven by APAR, especially at the seasonal
scale.
Current sensors with capabilities to measure SIF include, NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-
2/3 (OCO-2/3) satellite (Frankenberg et al., 2014), the Global Ozone Monitoring Instrument
(GOME-2), and the more recent TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) on board
the Copernicus Sentinel-5, and the Chinese TanSat. The Sentinel-5 Precursor Tropospheric
Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) (Veefkind et al., 2012) satellite mission now provides
advance spectrometer and fluorescence data with significantly finer spatial resolution. Preparatory
studies are also underway for the future European FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX) satellite mis-
sion (Meroni et al., 2009) that will provide measurements characterizing the spectral shape of
fluorescence emission and enable estimates of photosynthesis rates under different vegetation
stress conditions.

1.4 EO LIGHT USE EFFICIENCY PRODUCTIVITY MODELS

The simple LUE-based productivity equation comprises a large amount of biological complexity,
resulting in numerous productivity modeling approaches through knowledge of the two conversion
coefficients, fAPAR and LUE (ε). The LUE concept has been widely adopted by the EO community
to assess and extrapolate carbon processes and has been one of the most important methods to map
GPP and NPP regionally or globally (Pei et al., 2022; Running et al., 2004).
LUE is very difficult to measure as it dynamically varies with plant functional type, vegeta-
tion phenophase, and different environmental stress conditions (Pei et al., 2022; Jenkins et al.,
2007; Sims et al., 2006; Turner et al., 2004; Ruimy et al., 1995). LUE models assume the actual
LUE (εg) is downregulated from its theoretical maximum LUE (ε0) by environmental condi-
tions, such as temperature or water stress. There are scarce measurements of LUE available,
particularly at the landscape scale, and maximum LUE values have only been specified for a
limited set of biome types, with these values down-regulated by environmental stress scalars
derived from meteorological inputs (Zhao et al., 2005; Heinsch et al., 2006). EO measures also
provide water stress and incident radiation (Zhang et al., 2014a), as well as spatially explicit
information on land cover type (Friedl et al., 2010) that determines maximum LUE and other
model parameters.
The general form of the LUE-based productivity model can be expressed as:

g = 0  f  T, W, (1.20)

where f (T, W, . . .) represents environmental conditions, such as air temperature f (Ta) and soil water
f (SW).

1.4.1 BIOME-BGC Model

The BIOME-BGC (BioGeochemical Cycles) model calculates daily GPP as a function of incom-
ing solar radiation, conversion coefficients, and environmental stresses (Running et al., 2004). This
was implemented as the first operational standard satellite product for MODIS (MOD17), providing
global estimates of GPP (Figure 1.7), expressed as follows,

GPP = max  0.45 x SWrad  f PAR  f  VPD   f  Tmin  (1.21)

18 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

where
• εmax is the maximum light-use-efficiency (g C MJ−1) obtained from a biome-properties
look-up table (BPLUT);
• SWrad is short-wave downward solar radiation (MJ−1 d−1), of which 45% is assumed to be PAR;
• f(VPD) and f(Tmin) are vapor pressure deficit and minimum air temperature reduction sca-
lars for the biome specific εmax values, and
• fAPAR is directly input from the MODIS FPAR (MOD15) product (Running et al., 2004;
Zhao et al., 2005).

MODIS FPAR retrievals are physically based and use biome specific lookup tables (LUT) gener-
ated using a three-dimensional radiative transfer model (Myneni et al., 2002). The reduction scalars
encompass LUE variability resulting from water stress (high daily VPD) and low temperatures
(low daily minimum temperature Tmin) (Running et al., 2004). The MODIS GPP product is directly
linked to remote sensing and weather forecast products and can provide near-real time information
on productivity and the influence of anomalies such as droughts. A consistent forcing meteorology
is based upon the NCEP/NCAR (National Centres for Environmental Prediction/National Centre
for Atmospheric Research) Reanalysis II datasets (Kanamitsu et al., 2002) (Figure 1.7).
Ichii et al. (2007) used the BIOME-BGC model to simulate seasonal variations in GPP for differ-
ent rooting depths, from 1m to 10m, over Amazon forests and determine which rooting depths best
estimated GPP consistent with satellite-based EVI. They were subsequently able to map rooting depths
at regional scales and improve the assessments of carbon, water, and energy cycles in tropical forests.
The utility and accuracy of MODIS GPP/NPP products have been validated in various FLUXNET
studies, which have also demonstrated the value of independent tower flux measures to better under-
stand the satellite based GPP/NPP products (Leuning et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 2005; Turner et al., 2006).
These studies highlight the capabilities of MODIS GPP to correctly predict observed fluxes at tower

FIGURE 1.7 MODIS Gross Primary Production EO product (MOD17), displaying the mean GPP across
years 2000–2005 for the global terrestrial surface. The highest GPP rates are seen in the tropical forests of
southeast Asia, the Amazon basin, and equatorial Africa. The lowest rates are seen in Australia, South Africa,
western North America, the Sahel, and Atacama desert. (Courtesy of Numerical Terradynamic Simulation
Group, University of Montana, www.ntsg.umt.edu/project/mod17.)
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 19

sites, but also draw attention to some of the uncertainties associated with use of coarse resolution and
interpolated meteorology inputs, uncertainties with the LUT-based values, noise, and uncertainties in
the satellite fAPAR inputs, and difficulties in constraining the light-use-efficiency term (Zhao et al.,
2005; Heinsch et al., 2006; Yuan et al., 2010; Sjöström et al., 2013). Since meteorological inputs are
often not available at sufficiently detailed temporal and spatial scales, they can introduce large errors
into the carbon exchange estimates.
Turner et al. (2006) concluded that although the MODIS NPP/GPP products are generally respon-
sive to spatial-temporal trends associated with climate, land cover, and land use, they tend to over-
estimate GPP at low productivity sites and underestimate GPP at high productivity sites. Similarly,
Sjöström et al. (2013) found that although MODIS-GPP described seasonality at 12 African flux
tower sites quite well, it tended to underestimate tower GPP at the dry sites in the Sahel region due
to uncertainties in the meteorological and fAPAR input data and the underestimation of εmax. Jin
et al. (2013) reported the MODIS GPP product to substantially underestimate tower GPP during the
green-up phase at a woodland savanna site in Botswana, while overestimating tower-GPP during
the brown-down phase.
Some studies have found that when properly parameterized with site-level meteorological
measurements, MODIS GPP becomes more closely aligned with flux tower derived GPP (Turner
et al., 2003; Sjöström et al., 2013; Kanniah et al., 2009). Kanniah et al. (2011), however, found that
utilizing site-based meteorology could only improve GPP estimates during the wet season over
northern Australian savannas, and suggested the MODIS GPP product has a systematic limitation
in the estimation of savanna GPP in arid and semi-arid areas due to the lack of the representation of
soil moisture. Sjöström et al. (2013) also found soil moisture information to be quite important for
accurate GPP estimates in drier African savannas.

1.4.2 Vegetation Photosynthesis Model (VPM)

Xiao et al. (2004) developed a mostly satellite-based Vegetation Photosynthesis Model (VPM) that
estimates GPP using satellite inputs of EVI and the land surface water index (LSWI),

GPP = ε × fAPARchl × PARtoc(1.22)

ε = εmax × Tscalar × Wscalar × Pscalar(1.23)
where
• fAPARchl is estimated as a linear function of EVI;
• PARtoc is measured at the site; and
• Tscalar, Wscalar, Pscalar are scalars for the effects of temperature, water and leaf phenology on
vegetation, respectively (Figure 1.8).
• Tscalar is based on air temperature and uses minimum, maximum, and optimum tempera-
ture for photosynthesis at each time step; the
• Wscalar is based on satellite-derived LSWI that accounts for the effect of water stress on
photosynthesis;

Wscalar = (1 + LSWI)/(1 + LSWImax),(1.24)

LSWI = (ρnir—ρswir)/(ρnir + ρswir),(1.25)
where
• ρswir is the reflectance in a broadband shortwave infrared band (e.g., MODIS, 1580–1750
nm) and
• LSWImax is the maximum value for the growing season.
20 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

FIGURE 1.8 Schematic diagram of the Vegetation Photosynthesis and Respiration Model (VPRM) utilizing
EVI, LSWI, and scalars for temperature, leaf phenology, and canopy water content, Tscalar, Pscalar, and Wscalar,
respectively. The VPM model uses primarily remote sensing data along with air temperatures, while the VPRM
model additionally assimilates tower flux and meteorological information. (Source: Mahadevan et al., 2008.)

The Pscalar accounts for the effect of leaf age on photosynthesis and is dependent on the growing sea-
son life expectancy of the leaves (Wilson et al., 2001). Pscalar is calculated over two phenophases as,

Pscalar = (1 + LSWI)/2 (1.26)

from bud burst to full leaf expansion, and Pscalar = 1, after full expansion (Xiao et al., 2004).
The VPM model has been applied to both MODIS and SPOT-4 VEGETATION sensor data to
produce tower-calibrated estimates of GPP across a wide range of biomes, including evergreen and
deciduous forests, grasslands, and shrub sites in temperate North America and in seasonally moist
tropical evergreen forests in the Amazon (Mahadevan et al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2005; Jin et al., 2013).

1.5 EO MEASURES OF NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (NPP)

There are many empirical, diagnostic and process-based models that have been developed over the
past decades to monitor and assess vegetation productivity, with many of these methods employing
EO data in conjunction with in situ measurements to varying extents.

1.5.1 Annual Integrated VI Estimates of Productivity

Vegetation indices (VIs) may be more appropriate measures of net primary productivity, NPP (see
Equation 1.3), the balance between GPP and plant autotrophic respiration, that is, VIs may be more
closely related to the vegetation remaining after respiration. Several studies have suggested that
ecosystem NPP can be captured by the annual VI integral, that integrates growing season produc-
tion through VI relationships with f APAR. Goward et al. (1985) found good relationships between
aboveground NPP (ANPP) and integrated NDVI from AVHRR, over annual growing periods of
North American biomes (Figure 1.9). Wang et al. (2004) found that the NDVI integral over the early
growing season was strongly correlated to in situ forest measurements of diameter increase and tree
ring width in the U.S. central Great Plains.
More recently, the integrated Enhanced Vegetation Index (iEVI) was also found to be a good
proxy of ANPP. Ponce Campos et al. (2013) compiled in situ field measures of ANPP across ten sites
in the United States ranging from arid grassland to forest and directly compared annual integrated
values of the MODIS enhanced vegetation index (iEVI) (Figure 1.10):

ANPP= 51.42 × iEVI1.15(1.27)

Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 21

FIGURE 1.9 Relationship between biome averaged integrated NDVI from NOAA-AVHRR sensors and net
primary productivity rates. (Source: Goward et al., 1985.)

where a log-log relation accounted for the uneven distribution of ANPP estimates over time.
The annual integrated VI offers a robust approximation of vegetation productivity because, in
general, VIs provide both a measure of the capacity to absorb light energy, as well as reflect recent
environmental stress acting on the canopy, with stress forcings showing up as reductions in NDVI
expressed as either less chlorophyll or less foliage (Running et al., 2004).
Moran et al. (2014) found plot-scale measurements of ANPP at arid and mesic grassland sites
were significantly related to MODIS iEVI over a decadal time period in a log-log relation (r2 = 0.71,
P <0.01). Zhang et al. (2013) studied the ecological impacts of rainfall intensification on vegetation
productivity through use of iEVI as a surrogate measure of ANPP. They found extreme precipitation
patterns, associated with heavy rainfall events followed by longer dry periods, caused higher water
stress conditions which resulted in strong negative influences on ANPP across biomes and reduced
rainfall use efficiencies (20% on average).
Generally, in situ measures of productivity are made at discrete times within the growing season
and there is a need to synchronize the satellite measurements with scheduled or variable destructive
or harvesting sampling dates to reduce in situ ANPP-VI uncertainties. Often it is difficult to predict
and sample at peak productivity and greenness periods. Continuous VI growing season productivity
profiles allow one to better synchronize VI temporal values with actual in situ sampling periods.
For example, Moran et al. (2014) found significant improvements in productivity–iEVI relationships
across a range of grassland sites, when the EVI was only partially integrated from the beginning
22 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

FIGURE 1.10 Relationship between in situ estimates of aboveground net primary production (ANPPg) and
annual integrated EVI (iEVI) derived from MODIS data (2000–2009) for ten sites across several biomes. The
solid line represents the linear regression used to estimate ANPP from iEVI (ANPPs). (Source: Ponce Campos
et al., 2013.)

to the peak of the growing season period (rather than the full season). This was due to the synchro-
nization of time periods to peak biomass periods when grassland ANPP destructive sampling is
typically conducted. In such cases, EO data provides better temporal stability and opportunities to
reduce productivity uncertainties. In the case of the VPM model, phenological factors such as leaf
age and life expectancy, which play important roles in productivity, were explicitly incorporated
(Xiao et al., 2004).

1.5.2 EO NPP Model Products

Estimates of annual NPP are now routinely produced operationally over the global terrestrial
surface at 1 km spatial resolution through production efficiency models with near real-time satel-
lite data inputs from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) (Turner
et al., 2006) (Figure 1.11). MODIS NPP is determined by first computing daily net photosynthesis
values, which is the difference of GPP and maintenance respiration. The NPP product is a cumu-
lative composite of GPP values composited over a year and at global scale, NPP is estimated to
be about half of the GPP (see Section 4.1, BIOME-BGC model.) and synthesized NPP. Using the
MODIS NPP products, Zhao and Running (2010) found that global NPP declined slightly by 0.55
petagram carbon (Pg C, with Pg = 1015 grams) due to the early 21st-century global drought from
2000 to 2009.
Another popular EO-based LUE model for quantifying NPP or GPP is the Carnegie Ames
Stanford Approach (CASA) Biosphere model (Potter et al., 1993). CASA has been widely used to
simulate carbon dynamics at regional to global scales using VI inputs. Liu et al., (2019) used the
CASA model to investigate global urban expansions on terrestrial NPP and found urbanization-
induced decrease in NPP offset 30% of the climate-driven increase over the period (2000–2010).
Further, Jay et al. (2016) fused high resolution Landsat land cover data with MODIS EVI values
to generate a finer version of the CASA ecosystem model. Their monthly estimates of NPP per-
formed very high against tower flux data from Ameriflux with R 2 of 0.82. This demonstrated
the potential to improve LUE models and estimates of NPP though more accurate land cover
parameter inputs. Low correlations between CASA and tower derived NPP mainly occurred in
disturbed areas.
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 23

FIGURE 1.11 MODIS Net Primary Production satellite product (MOD17). Example showing the mean NPP
across years 2000–2005 for the global terrestrial surface. The highest production is seen across the equa-
torial zone encompassing southeast Asia, the Amazon basin, and equatorial Africa. The least productive
regions appear in Australia and the Sahelian region. (Courtesy of Numerical Terradynamic Simulation Group,
University of Montana, www.ntsg.umt.edu/project/mod17.)

1.5.3 PhotocheMical reflectance inDex (Pri)

There has been much interest in reducing the uncertainties in GPP/NPP models through direct
remote sensing assessments of LUE. The photochemical reflectance index (PRI) is a hyperspectral
index that provides a scaled LUE measure, or photosynthetic efficiency, based on light absorption
processes by carotenoids (Ryu et al., 2019; Gamon et al., 1992; Garbulsky et al., 2011),
24 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

NEP = GPP – Ra – Rh (1.29)

NBP = NEP – fire – harvest (1.30)

Mahadevan et al. (2008) further developed the Vegetation Photosynthesis and Respiration Model
(VPRM), a satellite-based assimilation scheme that estimates hourly values of NEE using EVI,
LSWI, and high-resolution meteorology observations of sunlight and air temperature (Figure 1.8).
NEE represents the difference between uptake (photosynthesis) and loss (respiration) processes that
vary over a wide range of timescales (Goulden et al., 1996; Katul et al., 2001). The VPRM model
provides fine-grained fields of surface CO2 fluxes for application in inverse models at continental
and smaller scales (Mahadevan et al., 2008). This capability is presently limited by the number of
vegetation classes for which NEE can be constrained using eddy covariance tower flux data.
The recent availability of column CO2 concentration retrievals from newly launched satellites has
made it feasible to quantify NEP and NBP from satellite observations. These satellites use high resolu-
tion spectrometers to measure the intensity of sunlight, at different wavelengths, for retrievals of colum-
nar CO2 and CH4 concentrations. For example, Japanese GOSAT (launched in 2009), NASA’s OCO-2
(launched in 2014), and Chinese TanSat (launched in 2016) provide comprehensive, global measure-
ments of CO2 in the atmosphere, including seasonal fluctuations of the greenhouse gas and their spatial
sources and sinks. This enables a better understanding of how ecosystems absorb and release CO2, both
seasonally and across years in response to interannual climate variability. Basu et al. (2013) estimated
the global distribution of CO2 fluxes using column CO2 measurements from the GOSAT instrument.
Inversions of satellite CO2 observations provide useful constraints on terrestrial carbon sinks and sources.
Ma et al. (2016) investigated carbon fluxes during an unusual, extremely wet year across Australia
in 2011, in which an exceptionally large land carbon sink anomaly was recorded, of which more
than half was attributed to Australia (Figure 1.12). They amassed multiple EO carbon measures

FIGURE 1.12 Australian continental averages of annual integrated EVI, SIFn (PAR normalized SIF), Total
Water Storage Change (TWSC, cm), continental total fire carbon emission (Pg C yr−1), and interannual varia-
tions of NEP (Pg C yr−1). Interannual variations in NEP is derived from GOSAT atmospheric inversion model-
ing. The gray shaded area represents the Bayesian uncertainty range of inverted NEP (±1σ). (Source: Ma et al.
(2016), Figure 1.1.)
Measuring Terrestrial Productivity from Space 25

including atmospheric CO2 from GOSAT, EVI from MODIS, and SIF from GOME-2, and found
semi-arid Australian net CO2 uptake was highly transient and rapidly dissipated by subsequent
drought. They showed the accuracies of EO-based CO2 retrievals to be approaching the levels
needed to constrain CO2 fluxes for accurate determinations of net biome productivity (NBP) at
regional to continental scales.

1.6 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE

Modeling of carbon, water, and energy fluxes between terrestrial surfaces and the atmosphere are
increasingly important for hydrological and climate studies. Ecophysiological information relating
to photosynthetic activity, biomass, productivity, water content, phenology, soil moisture, and nutri-
ent status may be acquired and analyzed consistently and repeatedly over large areas.
Space-based earth observations (EO) strongly complement in situ observations in providing
quantitative ecosystem production assessments and information globally. While EO spaceborne
measurements have uncertainty and bias errors of their own, they can help in reducing bias errors
associated with relatively sparse in situ systems and benchmarking land surface models. Given
the challenges of long term, in situ observations at regional scales, EO measurements have made
increasingly important contributions, complementing the detailed information available in situ by
providing broad spatial and temporal coverage. To have comprehensive knowledge of carbon stocks
and fluxes everywhere and over time involves the coordination of in situ and remote observations.
It still remains a challenge to develop such a coherent set of terrestrial ecosystem observations of
the carbon cycle, and be able to develop early warning and prediction capabilities of carbon cycle
feedbacks.
New space-based observations, including fluorescence, hyperspectral, thermal, microwave and
LiDAR are greatly expanding the number of ecosystem properties that can be quantified from
space. New hyperspectral missions will provide future data fusion opportunities for the scaling
and extension of leaf physiologic processes and phenology from species and ecosystem to regional
and global scales. This will enable improvements in chlorophyll indices and use of PRI in LUE
productivity models. Microwave remote sensing, specifically using metrics like Vegetation Optical
Depth, that describes the vegetation’s attenuation of radiation by biomass and water content and in
the microwave domain, are increasingly being used for carbon flux studies, including GPP (Dou
et al., 2023). VOD measurements can improve productivity monitoring through observations under
cloud cover, enabling consistent, uninterrupted monitoring. VODCA2GPP is a recent long-term
(1988–2020) GPP dataset derived from microwave remote sensing (Wild et al., 2022).
Advances made in global weather forecasting accuracies and the development of next generation
geostationary satellites with sub-daily (10- to 30-minute) spectral and thermal observations also
facilitate the acquisition of cloud-free observations as well as reveal water and temperature stress
impacts on diurnal vegetation patterns. Daily MODIS VI-PAR-based GPP products at 250 m were
recently developed with the NIRv index (NIRv = NDVI*NIR) over the U.S. (Jiang et al., 2021).
Machine learning is increasingly being used for data fusion and extrapolating of in situ data with
EO data, for example, Zhan et al. (2022) applied machine learning to improve flux tower NEE par-
titioning into respiration and GPP by establishing the relationships between SIF and GPP. Through
combinations of the techniques and observations described earlier will enable a more thorough
coupling of the environmental conditions that plants experience with improved characterization of
their biophysical states, and with better monitoring capabilities to track plant responses to environ-
mental changes. These advances are providing a better understanding of the dynamics of terrestrial
productivity and the use of EO data to drive productivity models of the land surface. This has the
potential for routine estimates of the key carbon fluxes and stocks shown in Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.12
using EO instruments and techniques. These observations will have the common goal of helping us
better understand our planet’s vegetation and understand how it is changing in regard to our food,
health, and economic security needs.
26 Remote Sensing Handbook, Volume III

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