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Department of Civil Engineering

University of South Africa
Pretoria
 STUDY UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

CONTENTS PAGE

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 2

1.2 INTRODUCTION 2

1.3 MODES (METHODS) OF TRANSPORT 5

1.3.1 Road transport 6

[Link] Road networks in the RSA 6
[Link] Road network maintenance 8
1.3.2 Rail transport 10
1.3.3 Air transport 12
1.3.4 Water transport 14
1.3.5 Pipeline transport 15
1.3.6 Urban transits 17

1.4 FUNDING OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS 17

1.4.1 Sources of funds 17

[Link] Taxation
[Link] Loans
[Link] Private enterprise
1.4.2 Allocation of funds 19

1.5 ROAD AUTHORITIES AND ALLIED ORGANISATIONS 19

1.5.1 Department of Transport (DoT) 20

1.5.2 Provincial government 20
1.5.3 Local government 21
1.5.4 Research organisations 21
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1.6 UNIT 1: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 21

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 22

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 describe the scope of transportation engineering and role of transportation
engineers
 explain the elements of a transportation system and describe the various modes
of transport
 explain the transportation system in a civilised society as it applies to the South
African context
 define administrative levels and assignment of jurisdictional responsibility in
relation to transportation infrastructures
 list national organisations concerned with transportation
 define the funding mechanisms of transportation facilities

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is concerned with

transportation systems such as roads, railways, waterways and airports. Wikipedia
[n.d.] defines transportation engineering as “the application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods transport”.

Transportation is the means of moving people and goods between centres of human
activity. Papacostas and Prevedouros (2009) define a transportation system as
“consisting of the fixed facilities, the flow entities, and the control system that permit
people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical space efficiently (i.e. safe
and at right cost) in order to participate in a timely manner in some desired activity”.
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The fixed facilities of a highway transport system are the road segments, nodes (i.e.
intersections and interchanges) and associated structures. The flow entities are
vehicles making the traffic on the road. The control systems include (but are not limited
to)
 traffic signs
 traffic devices
 road markings
 police enforcement

The geometric design of the road belongs to the fixed facility element, whereas traffic
signs and road markings, usually part of geometric design, belong to the control
system. Traffic demand is also an element of a transportation system.

The aim of this study unit is to introduce you to the various methods (modes) of
transporting people and goods, which include the following:
 road
 rail
 air
 water
 pipelines

A good transportation system, together with the provision of other services such as
water, power and wastewater treatment, is fundamental to civilised society. Without
an adequate system of transporting people, animals and goods by land, water and air,
industry, commerce, art and culture cannot grow and flourish.

A prime example of this is the Roman Empire that had a vast network of well-
constructed roads stretching to the furthest corners of the lands they had conquered,
which in fact encompasses most of the known world at that time. These, together with
their fleet of ships, allowed for rapid movement of troops and goods as well as effective
administration and as a result, trade and commerce flourished.

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Effective and economical transportation of goods and people is essential in the
modern world. The economy and prosperity of any country is highly dependent on its
transportation system for rapidly conveying goods and people, both internally and for
importing and exporting goods to and from other countries.

Civil engineers are responsible for and carry out the planning, design, construction
and maintenance of elements of the transportation system such as freeways, roads,
streets, harbours, railways, canals, airports, pipelines and other conveyance systems.

The field of transportation engineering is very wide and there is a lot of opportunity for
people trained in the basic fundamentals of civil engineering. Transportation
engineering is a major component of civil engineering.

Many civil engineers are also involved in researching new methods and techniques
and the use of materials in order to provide improved facilities across the
transportation field for the benefit of humankind, society and the environment.

Transportation is rarely an end in itself, but a means to an end. With very few
exceptions, the function of a trip can be defined entirely by the events that come before
and after it. So, transport is often seen as being subsidiary to other sectors of the
economy, although it is vital to most of them.

Activity 1.1

1.1.1 Write an essay of about two pages on the necessity for an efficient transportation
system in civilised society.

1.1.2 What is the typical role of transportation engineers? Do a web search and
compile a list of tasks a transportation engineer does.

1.1.3 Do a web search and fill in the table below.

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 Transportation engineering
Concerned with
specialisation area
Pavement engineering

Traffic engineering

Railway engineering

Feedback

1.3 MODES (METHODS) OF TRANSPORT

The major modes of transport in developed countries are shown in figure 1.1:

Road

Rail

LAND

Pipelines

AIR
MODES Conveyor Conveyor belts
OF belt Cable systems

TRANSPORT
Sea

WATER Rivers

Canals

Figure 1.1: Modes of transport

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1.3.1 Road transport

[Link] Road networks in the RSA

The roads in South Africa are classified in six classification systems, based on their
functionality. The Technical Recommendation for Highways (TRH 26) shows that the
first three classes in the system consist of mobility roads and the second three classes
are used for access/activity roads or streets. Study the classification in table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Road classes

Number Function Description

Class 01 Principal arterial
Class 02 Mobility Major arterial
Class 03 Minor arterial
Class 04 Collector street
Class 05 Access/activity Local street
Class 06 Walkway
(Committee of Transport Officials 2012)

Moreover, the roads are also divided into two categories (refer to the TRH 26):
 urban – within cities and towns
 rural – outside cities and towns

Study this classification in table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Road categories according to classes

Rural classes Urban classes

R1 Rural principal arterial* U1 Urban principal arterial
R2 Rural major arterial* U2 Urban major arterial
R3 Rural minor arterial* U3 Urban minor arterial
R4 Rural collector road U4 Urban collector street
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 R5 Rural local road U5 Urban local street
R6 Rural walkway U6 Urban walkway

(Committee of Transport Officials 2012)

According to the TRH 4 (SA Department of Transport 1996), roads can be divided into
four categories for pavement design and management purposes as illustrated in table
1.3.

Table 1.3: Four categories for pavement management purposes

Class Description
Road Class A Interurban freeways, major interurban
rural roads
Road Class B Interurban collectors, major rural roads,
major industrial roads
Road Class C Lightly trafficked rural roads, strategic
roads
Road Class D Special pavements, access roads

(SA Department of Transport 1996)

The purpose of this classification is to relate pavement management, budgeting and

maintenance to the “importance” of the road in terms of its function and use. The
classification should in future be directly linked to the functional classification system
and the above classification therefore should not be used.

The South African road network comprises some 754 600 km (Statistics SA 2017) of
streets and roads. The following entities are responsible for the road network in South
Africa:

 South African Department of Transport (DoT): details on the department are

available at the following link: [Link]
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 South African National Roads Agency Ltd (SANRAL)
 the nine provinces and local authorities

SANRAL is an independent, statutory agency responsible for the design,

construction, management and maintenance of South Africa's national road network,
including toll and non-toll roads. The national road network is world-class and
provides excellent regional connectivity.

Roads statistics in South Africa are as follows:

 21 940 km of surfaced national toll and non-toll roads (3 120 km of these roads
are tolled and serviced by 27 mainline toll plazas. SANRAL manages 1 832 km
and the remaining 1 288 km of toll roads are managed, developed and
maintained by three private concessions on behalf of SANRAL.)
 46 800 km of surfaced provincial roads
 226 300 km of gravel provincial roads
 66 000 km of surfaced and unsurfaced metropolitan roads
 256 900 km of surfaced and unsurfaced municipal roads
 131 920 km of unclassified roads (predominantly access roads in rural
communities and roads in settlements on the urban periphery)

Activity 1.2

Refer back to table 1.2 and draw a neat labelled diagram to show the relationship
between road function (mobility and accessibility) and respective class.

Feedback

[Link] Road network maintenance

All roads need periodic maintenance after a certain period of time to keep them in a
serviceable condition. Maintenance is required due to damage caused by constant

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use, especially by heavy vehicles. The damage is mostly on the foundations, which at
times might need to be reconstructed (rehabilitated).

In recent years in South Africa, there has been a great increase in the transportation
of goods by road and generally a decrease in the amount transported by rail. This has
placed a greater strain on the road network.

The planning, construction and maintenance of different categories of road networks

in a country are the responsibility of certain government institutions including
 Department of Transport (DoT)
 SANRAL
 municipalities
NT CORPORATION
Look at some interesting road usage statistics of South African roads:
 Minibus taxis are responsible for 65% of the 2.5 billion annual passenger trips
in urban areas, as well as a high percentage of rural and intercity transport.
 Buses and trains account for 21% and 14%, respectively, of all public transport.
 According to the National Household Travel Survey (Statistics SA 2013), 22.9
to 28.5% of households in South Africa have access to a car. Car ownership in
South Africa remains in its early stages.

An efficient road network must provide for the mobility and safety of motor vehicles
and must be cost effective.

Activity 1.3

The hierarchy of roads in the network serve a continuously graded series of functions.
Discuss this statement with regard to the following roads:

 major roads
 minor roads

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Feedback
Consult the TRH 26.

1.3.2 Rail transport

Rail transport in South Africa dates back to 1862 when the first railway line was built
between Cape Town and Eersterivier. Since then the network has expanded to cover
the economic and industrial centres of the country. South Africa has an extensive rail
network – the tenth longest in the world – connecting with networks in the sub-Saharan
region.

State-owned Transnet Freight Rail is the largest railroad and heavy hauler in southern
Africa, with about 22 000 km of rail network, about 1 500 km of which are heavy-haul
lines. The company's rail infrastructure, which connects the ports with the rest of South
Africa, represents about 80% of Africa's total.

The South African Rail Commuter Corporation operates the Metrorail commuter
services in Cape Town, the Eastern Cape, Durban and greater Johannesburg and
Pretoria, focusing mainly on poorer South Africans.

Tourists and wealthy passengers can travel on the Blue Train, one of the world's most
famous luxury trains. The Shosholoza Meyl transports about four million passengers
a year between the country's major cities.

Services also connect to other southern African destinations in Zimbabwe,

Mozambique and Swaziland.

The Gautrain, an 80 km rapid rail network that connects Johannesburg, Pretoria and
the OR Tambo International Airport, eases congestion on the highway between
Johannesburg and Pretoria by offering commuters a safe and viable alternative to road
travel.

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The R25 billion project was a public-private partnership between the Gauteng
provincial government and Bombela Concession Company, a Canadian-French-South
African consortium. The Gautrain was estimated to have created about 33 000 jobs.

The Gautrain's 24 train sets of four rail cars each (96 rails cars in total) travels at 160
km/hour, 18 hours a day, together making around 135 000 passenger trips a day. The
Gautrain buses transport about 52 000 commuters to and from stations nearby various
destinations. There are 11 stations, three of which are underground. The underground
tunnel section is about 14 km long and up to 96 m below the surface in some places.
Learn more on this rail system from the following link: [Link]

Figure 1.2: The Gautrain is an 80 km commuter rail system in Gauteng

Activity 1.4
The Gautrain is an example of a light rail mass transit system, which operates between
Pretoria and Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa. The system has bus-exclusive
lanes in most of its routes around the CBD area. Go back to the link on the Gautrain
and answer the following questions:

1.4.1 List the three elements of the Gautrain transit system in the following table:

Fixed facilities
System controls
Flow entities

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1.4.2 Briefly discuss the fourth element (i.e. travel demand) of this system.

Feedback
Refer to 1.3.2.

Activity 1.5
Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of railway transport and truck
transport (highway transportation system) in relation to freight.

Feedback
Hint: discuss time, cost and safety.

1.3.3 Air transport

More than 50 airlines, making around 230 000 aircraft landings and carrying about 33
million passengers a year, move through South Africa's 10 principal airports. These
include three major international airports in

 Johannesburg
 Cape Town
 Durban

There are airports in smaller towns such as

 Port Elizabeth
 East London
 George
 Kimberley
 Upington
 Bloemfontein
 Pilanesberg
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Twenty-one air traffic control centres support operations that cover 145 licensed
airports with paved runways and more than 580 aerodromes with unpaved runways.

The semi-privatised Airports Company South Africa (ACSA) is responsible for

overseeing infrastructure expansion at the country's airports. Learn more about this
company at the following link: [Link]

Johannesburg's OR Tambo International Airport is Africa's busiest airport, with about

8.9 million departing passengers a year. It was named the continent's top-performing
airport by the Airports Council International in 2007.

Cape Town International, which serves approximately 3.8 million departing

passengers a year, was voted Africa's leading airport at the World Travel Awards for
seven consecutive years.

South African Airways, South Africa's national carrier, serves over 700 cities, including
20 destinations in Africa, and provides maintenance for many of the world's airlines.

Figure 1.3: OR Tambo International Airport – a major international airport in

Kempton Park, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng ([Link]/)

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Activity 1.6

Amend the diagram in figure 1.1 in this study unit to include the divisions of air
transport systems, including
• passenger and air freight transport
• international and domestic flights

Feedback
Refer to figure 1.1.

1.3.4 Water transport

Southern Africa has no rivers that are navigable by craft of any suitable size to
transport people or merchandise, nor are there any canals within the country.

Water transport plays an important part in the import and export of goods from and to
other countries as well as movement of goods along the coast. Major shipping lanes
pass along the South African coastline in the south Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Approximately 96% of the country's exports are conveyed by sea, and the seven
commercial ports are the conduits for trade between South Africa and its Southern
African partners as well as hubs for traffic to and from Europe, Asia, the Americas and
the east and west coasts of Africa.

The state-owned Transnet National Ports Authority manages the country's ports. The
following are South African ports:

 Richards Bay and Durban in KwaZulu-Natal

 East London and Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape
 Mossel Bay, Cape Town and Saldanha in the Western Cape

Durban is Africa's busiest port and the largest container facility in Southern Africa, and
Richard's Bay is the world's largest bulk coal terminal. Taken together, South Africa's

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ports handled 183 million tons of cargo in 2007 and major upgrades are under way to
increase handling capacity further.

An eighth commercial port, the Port of Ngqura, was developed off the coast of Port
Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape. Ngqura is the deepest container terminal in Africa. It is
a crucial part of Coega, one of South Africa's strategic industrial development zones.

Figure 1.4: Aerial view of Port of Felixstowe in the UK

1.3.5 Pipeline transport

The transportation of liquid fuels by pipeline is a major transportation undertaking in

South Africa, with nearly all long-distance pipelines being owned and operated by the
specialist pipeline division of the parastatal transportation organisation.

The pipeline network presently spans five provinces, namely KwaZulu-Natal, Free
State, North West, Mpumalanga and Gauteng. Current plans include a connecting
pipeline for gas from the gas fields at Moatize in Mozambique, Secunda and to
Richards Bay.

The products currently transported by pipeline are gas, crude oil, aviation turbine
fuel, diesel, alcohol and various grades of petrol.

The four main long-distance pipelines are

 the refined products pipeline, a 300 mm diameter multi-product pipeline which

transports from the coastal refineries to the interior refinery at Sasolburg
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  the crude line, a 400 mm diameter crude oil pipeline which conveys products
from the coast to the Reef storage and inland refinery
 the gas line, a 450 mm diameter pipeline which transports gas from Secunda
to KwaZulu-Natal
 the AVTUR (Aviation Turbine Fuel) pipeline, a dedicated 150 mm diameter
pipeline which transports Avtur from the refinery in Sasolburg to OR Tambo
International Airport

Another very important function of pipelines is to convey water from dams and other
sources to cities and towns and other areas where it is needed. Most regions with
large populations and manufacturing activities have extensive pipeline systems to
supply bulk water for reticulation to homes and factories. In Gauteng, Rand Water has
a pipeline system which draws water from the Vaal Dam and supplies purified water
to an extensive area.

Figure 1.5: Pipeline that transports fresh water between Perth and Kalgoorlie

Activity 1.7

1.7.1 Describe the pipeline mode of transport.

1.7.2 Do a web search and compile a list of major pipeline transport systems in South
Africa.

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Feedback

1.3.6 Urban transits

Urban transit is an extremely popular mode of transport. It comprises bulk transit

modes like
 buses
 taxis
 dial-a-ride services
 rail rapid transit modes

In 2010, South Africa operated its first Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in the major
metros. These developments are steps towards implementing the integrated
transportation system as defined in the White Paper of 1996, the Public Transport
Strategy of 2007 and the 2009 National Land Transport Act.

1.4 FUNDING OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

1.4.1 Sources of funds

The money to fund the implementation costs of new transport facilities under the
control of central, provincial and local government – and to maintain existing facilities
– comes from
 taxation
 loans
 private enterprise
 tolls on national roads

[Link] Taxation

Taxes are levied in the following ways:

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  income tax (private individuals’ earnings and company profits)
 licence fees on motor vehicles
 taxes on the sale of fuels (petrol, diesel, paraffin, etc.)
 excise on imported goods

[Link] Loans

Government is empowered to borrow money, especially for major capital works or

other needs.

[Link] Private enterprise

Due to the great demand for capital to fund the country's infrastructure (housing,
transport, postal services, telecommunications, etc.), the government has had to come
up with ways of getting private enterprises to assist with providing these facilities. This
is mostly done through privatisation of certain services so that they operate on
business lines and become more efficient and cost effective. This has been done with
varying measures of success with the Post Office, Telkom and the railways.

Roads, especially freeways, are very expensive to construct (R5 000 000 to
R10 000 000 per kilometre) and have a limited lifespan (20–30 years). Therefore the
Department of Transport implemented the toll-road system which operates according
to the "Build, Operate, Maintain and Transfer" (BOMT or just BOT) method.

How does the BOT system work?

The DoT, through SANRAL, calls for tenders from private enterprise. This is usually a
consortium of firms consisting of financiers (banks, insurance companies, pension
funds with surplus capital to invest), consulting engineers and contractors to submit
prices to build, operate and maintain a section of road and at the end of the concession
period to transfer the facility back to the state.

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In order to recoup (get back) the money spent on building, operating, maintaining and
rehabilitating the facility at the end of the concession period, the consortiums are
allowed to erect toll plazas and charge fees from the motoring public.

Activity 1.8

1.8.1 Briefly discuss the use of the e-toll system as a mechanism of funding for national
roads.
1.8.2 Describe the “Build, Operate, Maintain and Transfer” (BOMT) method of
providing roads in South Africa.
1.8.3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the BOMT method.

1.4.2 Allocation of funds

Each year every central government department as well as every provincial

department must draw up a detailed budget of expenditure for the following year and
submit it to the Minister of Finance for approval by the cabinet. If these budgets are
approved, the Department of Finance will transfer funds to the various authorities for
expenditure in accordance with their budget. These authorities are responsible for the
wise spending of and accounting for all monies spent.

The DoT, which includes SANRAL, is funded directly from central government and, of
course, from any other revenue such as fees from tolls.

Local government such as metropolitan councils and smaller municipalities are

expected to fund all their expenditure for infrastructure services and administration
costs from income generated within the local authority. This income is in the form of
charges for services rendered (supply of water, electricity) and local taxes such as
rates on properties.

1.5 ROAD AUTHORITIES AND ALLIED ORGANISATIONS

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Several stakeholders have different roles in the transportation field. We will discuss
the role of each in detail.

1.5.1 Department of Transport (DoT)

The national DoT is the government department, headed by the Minister of Transport,
responsible for the planning, financing and construction of the transport facilities of the
country. It also makes funds available for research and development of transport-
related facilities. Learn more about this department at the following link:
[Link] are four main agencies that work under the DoT:
 SANRAL is responsible for the national roads.
 SA Maritime Safety Authority (SAMSA) - Learn more about this agency at
the following link: [Link]
 Cross-Border Road Transport Agency (C-BRTA) – Learn more about this
agency at the following link: [Link]
 South African Civil Aviation Authority (SACAA) – Learn more about this
agency at the following link: [Link]

Activity 1.9

Do a web search and indicate the responsibilities allocated to SAMSA, C-BRTA and
SACAA.

1.5.2 Provincial government

Each province has a Department of Public Works, which is responsible for all
infrastructures including the construction and maintenance of provincial roads. Some
provinces may have a separate roads department.

Each provincial Department of Public Works has a section employing road engineers
and technicians to supervise the design, construction and maintenance of roads in

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their area. They may, however, employ the services of consulting engineers and
contractors for certain works.

1.5.3 Local government

Metropolitan councils and municipalities will usually have a roads branch to carry out
the design, construction and maintenance of roads and streets in the municipal area.
They may employ consulting engineers and contractors to carry out some of the works
from time to time.

Where new townships and suburbs are developed, the onus is on the developer to
provide all necessary facilities such as roads, stormwater drainage, water and
sewerage. The cost will be incorporated in the price of the stands sold to prospective
buyers. The developer’s designs and plans must be approved by the local authority.

1.5.4 Research organisations

The design and construction of roads is not a static process. Advancement in the
knowledge of the behaviour of traffic and methods to cope with the ever-increasing
demand for improved facilities related to roadway traffic is ongoing through research
at institutions worldwide.

Due to the increase in goods carried by heavy vehicles, research is ongoing to find
improved methods to design and construct roadway foundations (pavements).

South Africa is one of the leaders in the research into improved pavement design and
rehabilitation through research at certain of our universities and universities of
technology as well as through the Transport Division of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and the National Research Foundation (NRF).

1.6 UNIT 1: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

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1. Draw neat, labelled sketches to show the following:
a. typical layers of asphalt pavement structure
b. a section of ballasted railway track

2. Expand the chart in figure 1.1 to include the following divisions of rail transport:

o freight and passenger rail transport

o regional/commuter rail (also called suburban/rural railway transit)

 intercity rail
 high-speed rail (HSR)

o urban rail transits

 streetcars (tram, trolley, street railway)
 light rail (metro)
 rapid transit
 mono rail

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Airport Company of South Africa. [Link] [Accessed on

16/05/2020].

Committee of Transport Officials. 2012. South African road classification and access
management manual, TRH 26.
[Link]
pdf [Accessed on 15/05/2020].

Papacostas, CS & Prevedouros, P. 2009. Transportation engineering and planning.

3rd ed. New York: Pearson.

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Statistics SA. 2017. Statistical release P7162: Land Transport - Preliminary
[Link] [Accessed on
15/05/2020].

Statistics SA. 2013. Statistical release P0320. National Household Travel Survey.
[Link] [Accessed on
15/05/2020].

SA Department of Transport. 1996. Technical Recommendations for Highways (TRH

4). Structural design and flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads.
[Link] [Accessed on
16/05/2020]

Wikipedia. [n.d.]. Transportation engineering.

[Link] [Accessed on 15/05/2020].

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 STUDY UNIT 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

CONTENTS PAGE

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 26

2.2 INTRODUCTION 26
2.3 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS 28
2.3.1 Vehicle movement between centres 29
2.3.2 Hierarchies of movement and components 30
2.4 TRAFFIC VOLUME 31
2.4.1 Average daily traffic and annual average daily traffic 31
2.4.2 Variation of traffic volumes with time 32
2.4.3 Peak hour traffic 34
2.4.4 Directional distribution 36
2.4.5 Traffic composition 38
2.5 VOLUME SURVEYS 39
2.5.1 Manual count method 39
2.5.2 Automatic count methods 41
[Link] Pneumatic counter
[Link] Traffic engineering logger
2.6 TRAFFIC STREAM FLOW 44
2.6.1 Traffic stream variables 44
2.6.2 Measurement of speed 45
2.7 TRAFFIC FLOW RELATIONSHIPS 50
2.8 CAPACITY ANALYSIS 59
2.8.1 General characteristics 59
2.8.2 Application 59
2.8.3 Capacity as a design control 60
24
 [Link] Design service flow rate versus design volume
[Link] Basic capacity
[Link] Possible capacity
[Link] Practical capacity (design capacity)
2.8.4 Vehicle to capacity ratio 65
2.8.5 Level of service (LOS) 65
2.9 INTERRUPTED FLOW OF TRAFFIC 72
2.9.1 Conflicts at an at-grade intersection 72
2.9.2 Traffic signal components 73
2.9.3 Traffic lights 74
2.9.4 Control and detection equipment 76
2.9.5 Cabling 77
2.9.6 Traffic movements 78
2.9.7 Signal phases 78
2.9.8 Modes of control 80
2.9.9 Signal timings 82
2.10 UNIT 2: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 84
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 85

25
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 determine traffic volume measures and characteristics
 define traffic stream characteristics and the traffic flow relationship
 describe the basics of capacity and level of service analysis
 define fundamentals of traffic signals

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with understanding and
predicting the behaviour and movement of the traffic stream. It facilitates the planning
and geometric design of streets, highways and abutting lands, as well as traffic
operation of these areas. This is because their use is related to the safety,
convenience and economic transportation of people and goods, relative to the nature
and volume of the traffic which will be using the facility. Our focus in this unit will be on
road transport. The design of a highway or any part of it should be based on factual
data, including the data relating to traffic. All data should be considered jointly. The
following factors and others have an important influence on design:
 financing
 quality of foundations
 availability of materials
 cost of right-of-way

Traffic indicates the service for which the improvement is being made and directly
affects the geometric features of design such as

26
 width
 alignment
 grades

Below are several terms that you will come across often in traffic engineering. Study
these terms and their definitions.

Free driving: Following a lead vehicle with a time headway (THW) longer than 3.0
sec is considered to be a free-driving manoeuvre.

Uninterrupted flow: This is flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-

roadway interactions. For example, vehicles travelling on a national highway are
participating in uninterrupted flow.

Interrupted flow: This is flow regulated by an external means, such as a traffic signal.
Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-roadway
interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

Flow rate: Flow is one of the most common traffic parameters. It is the rate at which
vehicles pass a given point on the roadway and is normally given in terms of vehicles
per hour.

Design hourly volume (DHV): This is the number of vehicles that travel through a
segment of roadway during the design hour. The DHV is used for making roadway
structural and capacity design decisions because traffic volume varies by hour and
from day to day throughout the year.

Average daily traffic (ADT): This is the unit in which traffic volume is generally
expressed. It represents the total volume of traffic passing a point in a given period of
days, divided by the number of days.

27
Annual average daily traffic (AADT): This is a unit in which traffic volume is generally
expressed. It represents the total volume of traffic passing a point in a year, divided
by 365 days.

Peak hour factor (PHF): This is the total number of vehicles counted during the peak
hour divided by four times the total number of vehicles counted during the highest 15-
minute period of the peak hour.

Equivalent vehicle unit (EVU): The vehicle to capacity ratio is obtained by dividing
the number of passenger car units (PCUs) or equivalent vehicle units (EVUs) using
the road at a point in time by the capacity (say, 2 000 vehicles per hour).

Traffic density: This is the average number of vehicles that occupy one kilometre of
road space, expressed in vehicles per kilometre/lane.

Headway: This is the measurement of the distance or time between vehicles in a

transit system.

Activity 2.1

Refer to the definitions above and give the possible unit of headway.

Feedback

2.3 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

Traffic characteristics, which are important for the design of transportation facilities
(e.g. roads), include the following:
 vehicle movement between centres
 traffic volume
 directional distribution

28
  composition of traffic
 future projection of traffic demand
 speed of traffic stream
 traffic flow relationships

2.3.1 Vehicle movement between centres

The movement of vehicles between centres, which relates to the number of generated
trips, is a complex function depending on many factors such as
 the supply of and demand for goods in each centre
 available modes of transport between centres
 household income
 car ownership
 size (population) of the centre (community)

As far as traffic demand forecast is concerned, large-scale regional transportation

surveys will identify lines of travel desire, as illustrated in figure 2.1. The relative widths
indicate the relative amounts of travel desire. The sizes of the circles represent the
relative trip generation or trip attraction of each centre.

Figure 2.1: Lines of travel desire

29
2.3.2 Hierarchies of movement and components

Naturally roads cannot be provided to satisfy all the desire lines directly, so a network
of roads must be provided to serve the needs of the community in the most safe,
efficient, rapid, convenient, cost-effective and environmentally friendly way. The
hierarchy of roads is illustrated in figure 2.2.

INDIVIDUAL FARMS

Tertiary road VILLAGE

Secondary road

CITY
CITY
Primary road
TOWN

Figure 2.2: Hierarchy of roads

A complete functional design system provides a series of distinct travel movements.

The five recognisable stages in most trips are
 main movement
 transition
 distribution
 collection
 termination

Figure 2.3 shows a hypothetical trip using a freeway, where the movement of vehicles
is uninterrupted, high-speed flow. When approaching the turnoff to a destination,
vehicles reduce speed on the exit ramps, which act as a transition. The vehicles then
enter moderate-speed arterials (distributor facilities that bring them nearer to the

30
vicinity of their destination neighbourhoods). The vehicles finally enter local access
roads that provide direct approaches to individual residences or other terminal points.

TERMINAL

COLLECTIO N TERMINAL ACCESS

TRANSITION DISTRIBUTION

MAIN MOVEMENT

Figure 2.3: Travel movements

2.4 TRAFFIC VOLUME

Before considering any road scheme, a traffic survey of some kind should be carried
out to gather information on the nature and intensity of the traffic expected. This survey
provides data on which the proposed road layout can be based. If this information is
not obtained, the road might not be able to handle the volume of traffic.

2.4.1 Average daily traffic and annual average daily traffic

The average daily traffic (ADT) is the unit in which traffic volume is generally
expressed. It represents the total volume of traffic passing a point in a given period of
days, divided by the number of days as per the following formula:

Total volume of traffic

ADT =
Number of days

31
When the period over which the survey is performed is one year, it is referred to as
the annual average daily traffic (AADT) as per the following formula:

Total volume of traffic

AADT =
365 days

The ADT is not suitable for direct use in the geometric design of the road because it
does not indicate how the volume of traffic is distributed over the 24-hour period. The
ADT is important for purposes such as determining the total annual usage of the road
to justify the proposed expenditure and for designing the structural elements (i.e. the
pavement).

It is worth pointing out that the AADT is a more accurate traffic volume measure than
ADT. However, it is usually difficult to measure due to difficulties in continuous
measurements for 365 days. Different methods are available to measure AADT and
ADT, including manual measurements, traffic loops, tubes and fixed camera
surveillance.

2.4.2 Variation of traffic volumes with time

The pattern of traffic fluctuation depends on the class of the road facility. For example,
urban roads are characterised by peaks during the morning and afternoon time, whereas
peaking tends to disappear during the weekends. Rural roads tend to get less daily
peaks, but may experience heavy traffic volumes during weekend and holiday seasons.
Traffic volume at a section of the road fluctuates according to the time of the day, as
illustrated in figure 2.4, the day of the week and the season of the year.

32
 Figure 2.4: Typical hourly distribution of traffic on urban roads

In South Africa, our major peaks would occur at the start of the holiday seasons in
December and July and also over the Easter weekend when substantial increases in
traffic volume occur – especially on those routes carrying holiday traffic, as illustrated
in figure 2.5.

33
 Figure 2.5: Typical distribution of ADT on major route carrying holiday traffic

2.4.3 Peak hour traffic

For purposes of geometric design, it is necessary to express the traffic volume in terms
of a shorter period than a day. In nearly all cases the time period of one hour is used,
and therefore we use the term "design hourly volume" (DHV).

Since traffic patterns show great variation in hourly volumes throughout the day and
also throughout the year, it must be determined which of these should be used in
design. In the UK, for example, it is usually the maximum hour's flow during a seven-
days August traffic census. In South Africa on rural roads the DHV is assumed to be
the 30th highest hourly volume of the future year chosen for design – in other words,
the hourly volume exceeded only during 29 hours of that year.

Experience has shown that the DHV is usually between 12 and 18% of the AADT, and
a figure of 15% is normally adopted unless shown to be different by actual counting.
The ratio DHV:ADT or DHV:AADT is called the k-factor.

In urban areas an appropriate design hourly volume may be determined from a study
of traffic during the normal daily morning and afternoon peaks in flow. Usually the
afternoon peaks are the greater.

An example of the ADT versus time is shown in figure 2.6 which is obtained by plotting
the traffic survey data on a rural road. Accordingly, the k-factor is 15% at the 30th hour.

34
 Figure 2.6: Relation between peak hour and ADT volumes on rural roads

Traffic variations also occur during the peak hour. In other words, traffic volume peaks
may happen within the very first 15 minutes of the peak hour. The peak hour factor
(PHF) is an indication of the traffic volume distribution within the peak hour. PHF value
close to 1.0 indicates uniformity, whereas a value close to 0 indicates peaking during
the peak hour. The PHF is calculated as follows:

V
PHF =
4∗V
Example 2.1
Scenario
200 vehicles are counted during the peak 15-minute period of peak hour and the total
is 600 vehicles during the peak hour.
Question
Determine the PHF and comment on your answer.
Solution
35
 600
PHF = 4*200= 0.75

The traffic is uniform during the peak hour.

Example 2.2
Question
Recalculate the PHF if 200 vehicles were counted in the peak 5-minute interval
during the peak hour.
Solution
600
PHF= 12*200= 0.25

The traffic volume indicates peaked demand.

Activity 2.2

The table below shows data from a traffic count, using a pneumatic tube, on a
section of a road in Limpopo.

Time period Volume (vehicles)

7:00 – 7:15 400
7:15 – 7:30 650
7:30 – 7:45 750
7:45 – 8:00 625

2.2.1 Calculate the PHF and describe the type of flow.

2.2.2 Briefly discuss the pneumatic tube method.

Feedback
Refer to 2.5.2.

2.4.4 Directional distribution

36
For two-lane rural roads the design hourly volume is the total traffic in both directions
of travel. On roads with more than two lanes or on two-lane two-way roads with
important intersections or where additional lanes are to be provided later, additional
knowledge of hourly traffic volumes in each direction of travel is essential for design.

For the same ADT a multilane highway with a high percentage of traffic in one direction
may require more lanes than a road with the same ADT but with a lesser percentage.
During peak hours on most rural roads, 55% to 70% of the traffic is in one direction. A
directional distribution factor (D) between 50% and 70% is used to split the traffic
between the two directions of a roadway.

Example 2.3
Scenario
The ADT for an urban road is 18 000 vehicles per day. Assume a k-factor of 12% and
D of 60%.
Question
2.3.1 Determine the DHV in the design direction.
Solution
DHV = k*ADT
DHV = 0.15*18000 = 2 700 vehicles/h (for both directions)
DHV in the design direction = DHV*D
DHV in the design direction = 2 700*0.6 = 1 620 veh/h/direction

Question
2.3.2 Why does a road designer require the DHV per direction?
Solution
Because he/she can determine the number of lanes required in each direction.

Question
2.3.3 How is the DHV used to determine the required number of lanes in each
direction?
Solution
37
If DHV per direction is 1 620 veh/hour and lane capacity for a class of roads is 900
veh/h, then the number of lanes required is 1 620/900 = 1.8 lanes. Therefore a 4-lane
road is required (2 lanes per direction).

2.4.5 Traffic composition

Vehicles of different sizes and masses have different operating characteristics, which
must be considered in road design. Besides being heavier, trucks are generally slower
and occupy more roadway space and consequently have a greater traffic effect on the
road than do passenger cars. The overall effect of one truck on certain aspects of
traffic operation is thus equivalent to several passenger car units.

It is therefore practical to select a unit, called the equivalent vehicle unit (EVU), and to
express all traffic in terms of this unit by using appropriate multiplying factors.
(Generally, buses and other heavy vehicles may be equated to 3 EVUs if a passenger
car is 1 EVU.)

For classification purposes the following categories are generally adopted:

 Passenger cars – all passenger cars including light delivery vehicles

 Trucks – all buses, single-unit trucks and truck combinations except light
delivery trucks

Activity 2.3

2.3.1 Explain fully what is meant by the design hourly volume (DHV) and its function
in the road design process.

2.3.2 Describe fully what is meant by the following terms:

 Directional distribution of traffic
 Composition of traffic

38
Feedback
Refer to 2.3.

2.5 VOLUME SURVEYS

The type of volume survey required depends on the extent of the new construction or
improvement proposed and its location in relation to similar roads in the area.

In rural areas, for example in the case of a small scheme such as the reconstruction
(rehabilitation) of a short length of the existing alignment, the anticipated volume of
traffic along the new section could be determined safely by counting the traffic using
the existing road and allowing for the normal growth of traffic over the design period.
On the other hand, if the scheme involves an entirely new road of a higher standard
along a more direct route, then traffic is likely to be drawn from other roads (called
attracted traffic) in the area and the traffic survey must then include all these alternative
routes.

Even for some improvement works on existing roads in urban areas, the result can be
a considerable redistribution of the traffic pattern. In these circumstances, the survey
would normally take the form of an origin-and-destination survey (O – D).

Volume surveys, to be meaningful, should also include an assessment of the

composition of the traffic – in other words, the number of light vehicles and heavy
vehicles in the traffic flow.

The volume of traffic using a section of road can be measured by counting the vehicles
passing a fixed point. The count can be done manually, or it can be automated.

2.5.1 Manual count method

39
As its name implies, the manual method is carried out by people physically counting
the vehicles as they pass. In rural areas on low-volume roads this can be done by the
person doing the counting merely putting a stone in a tin every time a vehicle passes.

A better method is to fill in a specially prepared form to record the type of vehicle, for
example
 motorbike
 passenger car
 bus or heavy vehicle

Because of the labour involved, the period of counting is generally limited to a few
days, preferably over seven consecutive days. Since traffic flows vary from one month
to another, the count should be taken at the busiest time of the year or else the figure
should be adjusted to take this seasonal fluctuation into account.

Manual methods are often used in urban areas, especially at intersections where left
turn, right turn and straight through movements can be recorded. This information is
used to optimise the green, amber and red cycle times at signalised intersections and
to determine the need for and length of right and left turn slots in the roadway.

The advantages of manual methods are that they are easily carried out and can be
accurate, provided they are well planned. However, they can in some instances be
expensive if undertaken over long periods.

In urban areas where surveys are carried out for small-scale improvements, such as
upgrading an intersection or improving the traffic signal cycle time, a small team of
people (approximately two to four) would be required to count the through traffic as
well as the left and right turns. The types of vehicles can also be classified. A typical
survey of an intersection is shown in figure 2.7.

40
 Figure 2.7: Typical survey of a four-leg at-grade intersection

2.5.2 Automatic count methods

[Link] Pneumatic counter

The most commonly used automatic method is a pneumatic detector which consists
of thick-walled rubber tubing fixed to the road surface, at right angles to the centreline
of the road, connected to a counting device placed on the verge. The passage of a
vehicle over the tube transmits a pressure pulse through the tube, which operates an
electrical contact on a diaphragm switch in the counting device. The setup of a
pneumatic counter is shown in figure 2.8.

Counter

Pneumatic tube

Figure 2.8: Pneumatic counter

41
Every time a vehicle passes over the tube, each set of wheels on an axle will actuate
the counter, so in actual fact it really counts the number of axles rather than the number
of vehicles. It is therefore necessary to have some idea of the traffic composition, i.e.
the number of axles per vehicle, in order to work out the actual number of vehicles.

The simplest types of automatic recording equipment merely add the input signals and
have to be read at predetermined intervals. Others incorporate a clock mechanism
and print out the number of axles over a time period – for example, every 15 minutes
or hourly – and also the accumulative totals automatically.

To effectively analyse the results and arrive at a reasonable figure of the traffic volume,
knowledge of the traffic composition – in other words, the number of vehicles with
more than two axles – is required. Correction factors, based on statistical methods,
can be applied to obtain reasonably accurate figures.

Advantages of the automatic method are that little labour is required and
measurements can be made for long periods.

Disadvantages include the following:

 Counters do not classify the vehicles in different groups and therefore the
results are generally supplemented by a sample manual count of vehicle
types.
 Errors can be incurred with multi-axle vehicles.
 Light vehicles may fail to register.
 It may be difficult to find suitable sites for the equipment to prevent wilful and
deliberate damage.

[Link] Traffic engineering logger

Electronic measuring devices based on electromagnetic instruments are now more

common and are used on major routes. The traffic engineering logger (TEL) is one
such device. Pairs of inductive loops are inserted in the road surface in each traffic
42
lane and connected to the TEL placed at the side of the road on the verge. The layout
of inductive loops for one traffic lane is shown in figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Layout of inductive loops for one traffic lane

Each pair of loops is connected via an inductive loop detector to a lane

microprocessor, which accepts the data for that particular lane. A central
microcomputer services the lane microprocessors in turn, and periodically transfers
valid data to the recorder in blocks of a constant size. A timer in the central
microcomputer is used to establish a set of arrival and departure times which
describes the passage of each vehicle over the loops. A vehicle analogue classifier
(VAC) is used to classify the vehicle as one of four types:
 motorbike
 passenger car
 light delivery van or heavy vehicle

Processing of the data involves three stages:

 identifying straddlers (single vehicles which straddle and simultaneously trigger the
loops in adjacent lanes)
 converting the sets of arrival and departure times to real arrival times, speeds,
accelerations, vehicle lengths and time headways for individual vehicles
 using the data for establishing traffic engineering characteristics for the location
being studied

43
2.6 TRAFFIC STREAM FLOW

Roads experience concurrent use by streams of vehicles, which results in traffic

conditions ranging from free flow (i.e. few vehicles occupy the road) to a highly
congested condition (i.e. the road is jammed with slow-moving vehicles).

Traffic flow can be divided into two main types:

 uninterrupted flows
 interrupted flows

Uninterrupted flow is controlled by vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-roadway

interactions, for example the flow is a stream of vehicles travelling on the N3 highway.
Interrupted flow is regulated by an external means, such as a traffic signal. Under
interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-roadway
interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow. An example of interrupted
flow is the traffic streams at any at-grade intersection (e.g. the intersection of Nelson
Mandela Drive and Stanza Bopape Street in Tshwane).

2.6.1 Traffic stream variables

The traffic stream variables include

 density
 spacing
 headway
 flow
 speed

Density, sometimes referred to as concentration, is the ratio of the number of vehicles

to the length of the road they occupy. Density is measured in vehicle per unit length of
the road (e.g. 100 veh/km).

44
Spacing is measured as the distance between the front of a leading vehicle and the
front of a following vehicle in a traffic stream. The relationship between density and
average spacing is given as follows:
Spacing = 1/Density (spacing is the reciprocal of the density)

Headway is the time difference between vehicles on a road section and it relates to
the vehicle spacing, determined as the spacing divided by traffic stream speed. It is
measured in unit time per vehicle (e.g. 10 sec/veh).

Traffic flow (q), sometimes referred to as volume, is the number of vehicles passing a
section of road during a period of time and is measured in vehicle per unit time (e.g.
50 veh/h). The relationship between headway and flow is given as follows:

Headway = 1/q (headway is the reciprocal of traffic flow).

The speed of individual vehicles in a traffic stream varies and therefore the average
or mean speed needs to be determined.

2.6.2 Measurement of speed

Because the vehicles travelling on a road do not all travel at a constant speed, there
are a number of different mathematical methods of determining what might be the
average speed of the vehicles travelling in the same direction.

Two of these methods of determining the average speed of a number of vehicles are
based on either time or space. The difference between the two can be illustrated by
considering a set of vehicles spaced a uniform distance apart along an infinite length
of road and all moving at the same speed, V1, together with a second set of vehicles
superimposed on the first and also spaced uniformly but moving at a constant speed,
V2.

45
If speed measurements are made on all vehicles within a fixed length (L) of road at a
particular instant in time, then the average speed or space mean speed (Vs) is given
by
mV1 + nV2
Vs =
m+n

where there are m vehicles moving at speed V1 and n vehicles at speed V2 within this
length at any given time.

Now suppose that instead of measuring the speed of all vehicles within the fixed length
L, measurements are made on all vehicles passing a fixed point during a time interval,
t. There will be mt*V1/L vehicles in this time moving at speed V1 and nt*V2/L vehicles
moving at speed V2. Therefore, the average speed or time mean speed VT is given by
mt ∗ V nt ∗ V
V L + V L
V =
mt ∗ V nt ∗ V
L + L
m*V12 +n*V22
VT =
m*V1 + n* V2

Example 2.4
Scenario

The following data is made available to you regarding a traffic stream on a section of
road:
m = 100 veh, n = 50 veh, V1 = 60 km/h and V2 = 90 km/h

Question
Determine the space mean speed and time mean speed.

Solution

46
 mV1  nV2 100(60)  50(90)
Vs    70 km / h
mn 100  50

mV12  nV22 100(60) 2  50(90) 2

VT    73 km / h
mV1  nV2 100(60 )  50(90)

In all practical cases of steady flow conditions involving vehicles travelling at different
speeds, VT will exceed VS, since the faster moving vehicles which pass the measuring
point during a fixed time interval will stretch over a greater length of road than the
slower moving vehicles and therefore will give additional weight to the mean speed
measurement.

In all of the methods of speed measurement we have mentioned, the speeds of

successive vehicles passing a fixed point are obtained, and therefore this averages
out to give VT.

If, however, the speeds of a number of vehicles are determined from a pair of aerial
photographs taken a fixed time interval apart, then these will give the mean value VS.
Distinction between the two methods of measurement is therefore important,
particularly where before-and-after studies are involved.

Example 2.5
Scenario

The table below shows measured data on speeds of five vehicles and corresponding
densities on sections of a multilane freeway.

Question
Determine the space mean speed and the time mean speed for the data.

Speed (km/h) 64.2 74.1 80.3 90.1 100.6

Density (veh/km) 85 75 55 41 20

47
Solution

m*V m*V2
Density (veh/km) Speed V (km/h)
(veh/h)
85 64.2 5457.00 350339.40
75 74.1 5557.50 411810.75
55 80.3 4416.50 354644.95
41 90.1 3694.10 332838.41
20 100.6 2012.00 202407.20
276 21137.10 1652040.71

Space mean speed

The formula to calculate the space mean speed is as follows:
(85 ∗ 64.2) + (75 ∗ 74.1) + (55 ∗ 80.3) + (41 ∗ 90.1) + (20 ∗ 100.6)
Vs =
85 + 75 + 55 + 41 + 20

.
Vs = = 76.58 Km/h

Time mean speed

The formula to calculate the time mean speed is as follows:

(85 ∗ 64.2 ) + (75 ∗ 74.1 ) + (55 ∗ 80.3 ) + (41 ∗ 90.1 ) + (20 ∗ 100.6 )
Vt =
(85 ∗ 64.2) + (75 ∗ 74.1) + (55 ∗ 80.3) + (41 ∗ 90.1) + (20 ∗ 100.6)

.
Vt = .
= 78.16 km/h

Activity 2.4

Scenario

48
Given the following measurements on the southbound carriageway of a section of a
six-lane freeway (i.e. three lanes in each direction), the traffic engineer determined the
space mean and time mean speeds as 95.9 km/h and 99.1 km/h, respectively.

Question
Double-check the calculations.

Feedback
Refer to example 2.5.

Number of Average speed

vehicles
Outer lane 49 64
Middle lane 259 97
Inner lane 106 108

Activity 2.5

Scenario

The table below shows data of the time it takes for a group of cars travelling between
A and B that are 250 m apart.

Time (sec) from A to

Number of vehicles Distance from A to B (m)
B
9.8 30
10.2 67
250
10.8 145
11.8 165

49
 10.7 250
11 316
10 336
9 430

Do the necessary calculations to demonstrate that the space mean speed and the
time mean speed for this road section are 88.25 and 88.93 km/h, respectively.

Feedback
Refer to example 2.5.

2.7 TRAFFIC FLOW RELATIONSHIPS

The stream variables speed, density and flow (volume) are interrelated and are used
to describe the flow in a section of the road. The fundamental relationship between
these variables is
q = uk

Figure 2.10 shows the relationship between speed and volume. (Volume is defined
as the number of vehicles per hour.)

50
 120
A

100 B
Ave running speed (km /h)

80

60

40
C
20

D
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Vehicles /lane/hour

Figure 2.10: Influence of traffic volume on speed

From this figure we can identify the following very basic features relating to traffic
movement :
- The portion AB as shown in figure 2.10, called the zone of normal conditions,
represents the situation where free driving occurs.

- If a single vehicle, for example, travels along a traffic lane, the driver is free to
travel at the design speed and he/she is subjected only to speed limit
restrictions. This situation is represented at the upper left end of the figure at
approximately 110 km/h.

- As the number of vehicles in the lane increases, the driver's freedom to select
speed is restricted by the other vehicles, resulting in a progressive reduction in
speed.

- The higher the standard of geometric design, the freer the driving conditions and
the flatter the curve AB as shown in figure 2.10.
51
 - The portion DC in figure 2.10 is called the zone of forced conditions. The
average speeds in this zone are much lower and the vehicles move under
conditions of forced driving. A decrease in speed under these conditions is
associated with a decrease in traffic flow, and the shape of the curve depends
on the interaction between vehicles. Because the concentration is very high,
vehicles are affected by those in front; the curve DC is relatively independent
of the standard of geometrical design.

- The portion BC in figure 2.10 is called the zone of unstable conditions. In this
zone flows are very high, but the driving conditions are very unstable. This
means that it is possible for vehicles to be moving freely and then, under the
influence of some restricting factor, the flow volume will decrease substantially
and may even stop. Within this zone traffic conditions seldom remain sufficiently
stable to obtain reliable survey figures during measurement of traffic flows,
which is why the ultimate capacity (E) is not chosen for design, but rather some
point about B.

Density, the number of vehicles per length of roadway, increases as vehicles crowd
closer and closer together. As figure 2.11 shows, this increased crowding takes place
when speed decreases and drivers can comfortably follow closer behind other
vehicles. The solid line is an indication of what densities are possible for a given speed.

52
 Figure 2.11: Average speeds related to vehicle densities

Traffic volumes also vary with density from points of zero flow to a maximum flow at a
certain density. The points of zero flow represent either no vehicles at all or so many
vehicles on the roadway that flow is jammed to a stop. The maximum flow is at the
peak of the hyperbolic-shaped curve shown in figure 2.12. The dashed line depicts
drop in flow as the capacity of the roadway is exceeded and the corresponding rise in
density as the vehicles are jammed together.

53
 Figure 2.12: Relationship between volume and density

Interference with traffic flow causes

 speeds to be reduced
 vehicles to travel closer together
 density to increase

Interference, on the other hand, may be caused by

 weather conditions
 cross traffic
 a disabled vehicle
 other marginal conditions

As one or more of these conditions cause more interference, the volume within certain
limits can still be maintained but with
 further reduction in speed
 closer vehicle spacing
 greater density

54
When interference becomes so great that despite closer vehicle spacing and greater
density the average speed drops below that necessary to maintain stable flow, there
is a rapid decrease in speed and traffic flow, and severe congestion sets in.

Figure 2.13 shows the relationships between speed and flow (q - u). It explains the
traffic congestion in relation to the speed and traffic flow.

Figure 2.13: Relationship between volume and speed

If the three graphs are compared as in figure 2.14, direct relationships can be obtained
between the three variables of volume, speed and density of traffic.

55
Figure 2.14: Relationship between volume, speed and density

56
When traffic on a highway encounters interference that limits or reduces the roadway
capacity in a single area, the result is a bottleneck. If the flow of vehicles entering this
bottleneck does not exceed its capacity, flow remains stable and no problems arise.
However, when the upstream section carries more vehicles than the bottleneck can
accommodate, the familiar breakdown of traffic results – with speeds reduced to
crawling and a queue of vehicles accumulating until incoming flow again falls below
the outflow capacity. To avoid bottleneck situations, care must be taken to design a
roadway with consistent volume-carrying capacity. The level of service concept
discussed later is a valuable aid in obtaining this consistency.

An intersection is often an unavoidable bottleneck. The capacity on the roadway

section approaching the intersection usually exceeds the intersection capacity. This
reduction becomes acute when stop signs or traffic signals control the intersection. At
a traffic signal, vehicles arriving during the red phase encounter a zero-capacity
bottleneck. These vehicles form a queue until the green phase when the restraint is
removed, and the queue is discharged. If the incoming volume is too high, not all the
vehicles in the queue can be discharged during the green phase and there is a
continual build-up of the queue.

Arrivals at the intersection are somewhat predictable in urban areas where the
approaching vehicles are divided into platoons by upstream traffic signals. In suburban
or rural locations, vehicle arrivals are often random. This randomness must be
recognised in the design of adequate cycle times, turn lane storage lengths and
approach capacity.

At all bottlenecks where the traffic must slow down or stop, each vehicle and its
occupants suffer certain delays. Delay results in time loss (hence monetary loss) to
the vehicle’s occupants, increased fuel consumption and additional air pollution.

57
Example 2.6
Scenario
Time headways and spacing have been measured for a single lane of a freeway using
measuring devices installed at a point next to a toll plaza. The averages during a one-
hour period for the time headway and spacing were 2.1 sec/veh and 65 m/veh,
respectively.

Questions
2.6.1 Determine the average speed during the measurement period.
2.6.2 Calculate q as the reciprocal of headway time, q = 1/ 2.1 veh/sec
2.6.3 Calculate k as the reciprocal of the spacing, k = 1/ 65 veh/m

Solutions
Use the fundamental relationship q = uk
(1/ 2.1) = u (1/65)
u = 30.95 m/sec (111.43 km/h)

Activity 2.6

2.6.1 State how the three variables of traffic flow (volume, speed and density) are
measured. With the aid of diagrams, explain the following interrelationships between
these three variables:
 average speed and density
 volume and density
 traffic volumes on speed

2.6.2 Describe what is meant by congestion and how it can be measured.

Feedback
Refer to 2.7.

58
2.8 CAPACITY ANALYSIS

2.8.1 General characteristics

The term "capacity" is used to express the maximum hourly rate at which people (in
the case of pedestrian facilities) or vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a
point or uniform section of a lane or a roadway during a given time period under
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. In the generic sense the term includes
broader relations between highway characteristics and conditions, traffic composition
and flow patterns, and the relative degree of congestion at various traffic volumes
throughout the range – from very light volumes to those equalling the capacity of the
facility as defined above. We therefore discuss the topic in the generic sense.

Capacity is the ability of the road to carry traffic under given circumstances. It is defined
as the maximum number of vehicles which can reasonably expect to pass a given point
per hour. A publication called Highway capacity manual (National Research Council
2000), which is based on data collected throughout the USA, distinguishes between the
following:

2.8.2 Application

Highway capacity information serves three general purposes:

 It is used in transportation planning studies to assess the adequacy or

sufficiency of existing highway networks to service current traffic and to
estimate the time in the future when traffic growth may exceed the capacity,
resulting in an unacceptable level of congestion.

 Information on highway capacity is of vital concern in designing highways. A

knowledge of highway capacity is essential so that a planned highway meets
the requirements of traffic, both in selecting the highway type and in determining
59
 dimensional needs such as the number of lanes and minimum lengths for
weaving sections.

 Highway capacity information is utilised in traffic operation analysis for many

purposes, but especially for isolating bottleneck locations (either existing or
potential) and preparing estimates of operational improvements that may be
expected to result from prospective traffic control measures or from spot
alterations in the highway geometry.

The degree of exactness varies in the capacity data required for these uses. For traffic
operation analyses in which the success of minor improvements may be measured in
terms of a few vehicles per hour, a high degree of precision is desirable. For highway
design a much lower level of precision is enough because the traffic data is frequently
estimated for a period 10 to 20 years in the future and involves approximations not
only of traffic volumes, but also of factors such as traffic composition and movement
patterns.

The discussion here is intended to provide sufficient details to ensure a reasonable

balance between the standards for the highway being designed and the estimated
future traffic – so that the future operating conditions will not fall below an acceptable
level.

Activity 2.7

Define the term “capacity”. State fully the three general purposes which highway
capacity information serves.

Feedback
Refer to 2.8.3.

2.8.3 Capacity as a design control

60
[Link] Design service flow rate versus design volume

Design volume is the volume of traffic estimated to use a certain type of facility during
the design year, which is usually a year 10 to 20 years ahead. Design volume is a
product of the planning process. We discussed the design hourly volume (DHV) earlier
in this study unit.

Design service flow rate is the maximum hourly flow rate of traffic that a projected
highway of designed dimensions would be able to serve without the degree of
congestion falling below a pre-selected level as described below.

The objective in highway design is to create a highway of appropriate type with

dimensional values and alignment characteristics so that the resulting design service
flow rate is at least as great as the traffic flow rate during the peak 15-minute period
of the design hour, but not so great that it is an extravagance or waste. Where this
objective is achieved, a well-balanced, economical highway system will result.

Activity 2.8

Describe the difference between the terms “design volume” and “design service flow
rate”.

Feedback
Refer to 2.8.3.

[Link] Basic capacity

Freeways, under ideal design and traffic conditions, have a capacity of 2 000
passenger cars per lane per hour. Two-lane highways serving traffic in both directions
have a capacity of 2 800 passenger cars per hour in both directions. Ideal conditions
include uninterrupted flow, no marginal interference from vehicles or pedestrians, no

61
commercial vehicles, 3,7 m lanes, adequate shoulders, high design speed and no
sight restrictions to overtaking and passing.

The basic capacity of a road is the maximum number of passenger car units (PCUs) that
can pass a given point per hour under the most ideal roadway and traffic conditions. This
can be achieved only in the following ideal conditions:
 two 3,7 m wide lanes in each direction
 all vehicles moving at the same speed
 practically no commercial vehicles (trucks and buses)
 no geometric restrictions like inadequate sight distances
 design speed of 120 km/h on multilane highways
 design speed of 100 km/h on two-lane two-way highways
 level terrain

For example, a freeway with four lanes or more may meet the above criteria and a
suggested value of 2 000 PCUs per lane per hour may be achieved on this type of
facility.

[Link] Possible capacity

When roadway and traffic conditions are ideal, the possible capacity is the same as
the basic capacity. However, since conditions are rarely ideal, the possible capacity is
defined as the maximum number of PCUs that can pass a given point during one hour
under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

[Link] Practical capacity (design capacity)

This is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point during one hour
under specified conditions without increasing the traffic density (the number of vehicles
per kilometre at any instant) to such an extent that undue accumulation, delay, danger
and other limitations are created.

62
The following values recommended in the Highway capacity manual can be used as
a guide:

 practical capacity for two-way road with two lanes – 900 veh/h/lane
 practical capacity for two-way road with three lanes – 1 500 veh/h/lane
(based on operating speeds of 70–80 km/h)

The factors affecting capacity are

 the prevailing road conditions
 the prevailing traffic conditions

Road conditions
Table 2.1 shows the different road conditions and their descriptions.

Table 2.1: Road conditions

Condition Description
Lane width Lane widths of 3,7 m are accepted as being the minimum
necessary for heavy traffic volumes.
Shoulders Inadequate shoulder width decreases the effective width
of the road and also means that emergency stops must
be made on the carriageway, thus reducing capacity.
Side obstructions Vertical obstructions such as poles, retaining walls and
bridge abutments within 1,75 m from the road edge also
reduce the effective width. This is because drivers
perceive these as potential hazards and tend to slow
down or keep a greater distance from the edge of the
lane.
Geometric Long, steep gradients, for example, result in
features inadequate sight distance and therefore reduced
capacity.

63
 Intersections The capacity of certain rural and suburban roads, and
the majority of urban streets, is influenced by the traffic
restriction imposed by closely spaced at-grade
intersections.

Activity 2.9

Explain the difference between the following capacity terms:

 basic capacity of a road
 possible capacity
 design capacity

Feedback
Refer to 2.8.3.

Traffic conditions

Unlike the physical features of the road which are fixed and have definite, measurable
effects on traffic flows, the prevailing traffic conditions vary from one hour to another.
In addition to the road conditions mentioned above, traffic flows at any given time
depend on the following:
 speeds of vehicles
 composition of the traffic
 how the vehicles interact

As the concentration of vehicles on a given road tends towards zero, the flow must
also tend towards zero. On the other hand, when the concentration is very high,
vehicles travelling in a given direction are in a saturated condition – representing an
almost impossible operating condition so that the flow again tends towards zero. At

64
some concentration value between the two extremes, the flow is a maximum value,
which can be described as the ultimate capacity of the road.

2.8.4 Vehicle to capacity ratio

A concept called level of service is used to explain the physical effects of the above
(see the Highway capacity manual):
[Link]

The vehicle to capacity ratio is obtained by dividing the number of passenger car units
(PCUs) or equivalent vehicle units (EVUs) using the road at a point in time by the capacity
(say, 2 000 vehicles per hour). This ratio (a number between 0 and 1) gives a measure
of the congestion on the road.

These characteristics can be represented as a graph as shown in figure 2.15.

120
Average running speed (km /h)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Vehicle to capacity ratio (V/C)

Figure 2.15: Vehicle to capacity ratio

2.8.5 Level of service (LOS)

65
Although speed is a major indication of service to drivers, freedom to manoeuvre within
the traffic stream and proximity to other vehicles are equally important. These other
qualities are related to the density of the traffic stream. Furthermore, density increases
throughout the range of flows from zero to full capacity, resulting in a measure of
effectiveness that is sensitive to flow throughout the range of useful values. By far the
most commonly used measures of LOS are operating speed for uninterrupted flow
and amount of delay for interrupted flow. The validity of these measures is shown
by the following generalised descriptions of traffic characteristics for a roadway section
as depicted in figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16: Level of service

66
The term "level of service" is used to describe operations where the actual volumes
are below the capacity of a given highway. It is a general term that describes the
operating conditions that a driver will experience while travelling on a particular street
or highway. In addition to the physical characteristics of the highway, the traffic volume
or presence of other vehicles affects LOS. Since roadway conditions are fixed, LOS
on any particular highway varies primarily with volume. Measurable items of LOS
include frequency of stops, operating speed, travel time, traffic density and vehicle
operating costs.

Capacity has little meaning when traffic demand is low, since there is no direct
constraint on the amount of traffic using the highway. The major controls on drivers
are inherent roadway characteristics, since other traffic causes little interference with
their movements. Horizontal and vertical curvature, location and magnitude of fixed
traffic interruptions (usually traffic signals), speed limits and personal preference
control the speed at which the highway is travelled. There is little or no restriction in
manoeuvrability due to the presence of other vehicles and drivers can maintain their
desired speeds with little or no delay. This condition is frequently called "free flow" or
level of service A. Traffic density is low.

Level of service B is in the zone of stable flow, with operating speeds starting to be
restricted somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to
select their speed and lane of operation. Reductions in speed are not unreasonable,
with a low probability that traffic flow will be restricted. This LOS has been associated
with service volumes used in the design of rural highways.

Level of service C is still in the zone of stable flow, but speeds and manoeuvrability
are more closely controlled by the higher volumes. Most of the drivers are restricted in
their freedom to select their own speed, change lanes, or pass. A relatively satisfactory
operating speed is still obtained, with service volumes perhaps suitable for urban
design practice.

67
Level of service D relates to unstable flow, with tolerable operating speeds being
maintained, though considerably affected by changes in operating conditions.
Fluctuations in volume and temporary restrictions to flow may cause substantial drops
in operating speed. Drivers have little freedom to manoeuvre, and comfort and
convenience are low, but conditions can be tolerated for short periods of time.

Level of service E cannot be described by speed alone, but represents operations at

even lower operating speeds than in level D, with volumes at or near the capacity of
the highway. At capacity, speeds are typically, but not always, about 50 kph. Flow is
unstable, and there may be short stoppages.

Level of service F describes forced-flow operation at low speeds, where volumes are
below capacity. These conditions usually result from queues of vehicles backing up
from a restriction downstream. The section under study will be serving as a storage
area during parts or all of the peak hour. Speeds are reduced substantially, and
stoppages may occur for short or long periods of time because of the downstream
congestion. In extreme conditions, both speed and volume can drop to zero. Densities
exceed 40 vehicles per lane per km.

Activity 2.10

Do a web search and look for a schematic representation of LOS.

Feedback

The point at which traffic conditions have lowered the LOS to a minimum that is still
acceptable is determined by the engineer. The maximum volume or volume to
capacity ratio considered acceptable will vary with each type of route, its prevailing
roadway characteristics and the average length of trips made on the facility – longer
trips warrant higher levels of service.

68
Operating conditions within a roadway section are seldom uniform. These conditions
tend to vary with the ratio of traffic volume to capacity, which itself is subject to
fluctuations in time and place. For example, traffic may enter a freeway in platoons
from a ramp, so that the LOS will drop while the platoon is entering and then rise until
the next group of entering vehicles appears. Alternatively, the presence of a slow-
moving vehicle in the traffic stream may be similar to a capacity bottleneck that is
shifting its location. Obviously, special incidents, such as stalled vehicles or
maintenance work in progress, will cause temporary and fluctuating traffic stream
conditions.

For these reasons, density is a parameter used to define levels of service for basic
freeway sections. The densities used to define levels of service A to D for basic
freeway sections are listed in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Levels of service and densities

Level of service Maximum density

(LOS) (PCU/km/lane)
A 6
B 10
C 15
D 20

The densities used for LOS E are listed in table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Free-flow speed

Free-flow Maximum density
speed (PCU/km/lane)
(km/h) Four-lane Six- or more
freeways lane freeways
120 39 43
69
 100 41 45
90 45 49

There are two reasons why it is necessary to estimate the capacity of both existing
and proposed highways:

1. In designing street and highway improvements, a capacity analysis indicates

the ability of the improvement to carry the expected traffic under satisfactory
operating conditions.
2. In evaluating existing street and highway networks, the capacity needs to be
estimated to determine inadequacies and priority of needs.

However, capacity is not the sole criterion used by engineers in their efforts to provide
the public with an adequate highway system. Other criteria include
 safety
 economics
 directness of routing
 public policy
 level of service
 land-use considerations
 environmental elements

Refer to the figure in example 2.7 for images indicating the LOS A to F.

Note that streets, roads, highways and freeways are generally classified by the
number of lanes in both directions.

Example 2.7

Question

70
2.7.1 On the speed flow curve on page 112, determine the LOS if the average
passenger car speed is 105 km/h and flow rate is 1 200 pc/h/ln. Study the illustration
in the graph in the figure below.




Solution

The LOS found is C.

2.7.2 Calculate the density in pc/km/lane (tip: fundamental equation of traffic flow)
Flow rate
Density =
Passenger car speed

(Density = (1 200/105) = 11.43 pc/km)/ln

Activity 2.11

71
List the traffic characteristics that would influence the design of a road.

Feedback
Refer to 2.9.

2.9 INTERRUPTED FLOW OF TRAFFIC

Traffic interruption is the term used to denote conditions where a stream of traffic
flowing under certain conditions (e.g. speed and density) meets another stream
flowing under some other condition.

The most common interruption of traffic flow is found at at-grade intersections where
the road space is shared by several traffic streams. The traffic stream conflicts are
resolved by separating them in time (e.g. the use of traffic signal control).

2.9.1 Conflicts at an at-grade intersection

Just as the intersection is a point of decision, it is also a point where there are a number
of possible conflicts. The movement of one vehicle can conflict with the movements of
other vehicles in the same stream, the cross streams, the opposing stream and
pedestrians in cross-walks. An engineering analysis of an intersection is essentially a
study of all aspects of the conflict problem. Good intersection design results from
minimising the magnitude and characteristics of conflicts and simplifying driver route
selection decisions. There are three types of conflict:
 crossing
 merging
 diverging

The diagram in figure 2.17 illustrates these conflicts at a four-leg intersection with two-
way traffic.

72
 Figure 2.17: Conflict points at four-leg intersection

An analysis of an intersection will show which of the possible conflicts are significant.
The significance of a conflict depends on the type of conflict, the number of vehicles
in each of the conflicting streams, the time spacing of the vehicular arrivals at the
conflict point and the speeds of the vehicles in the streams. The relative speed of the
conflicting vehicle streams is another factor affecting the significance of a conflict. Two
vehicles approaching an intersection have a speed relationship to each other known
as relative speed. This is defined as the difference in their velocity vectors. There are
two benefits of providing for low relative speed. Firstly, events unfold more slowly,
allowing more judgement time and, secondly, in the case of an impact, the total relative
energy to be absorbed is less and damage is less. In addition, when relative speed is
low, the average motorist will accept a smaller time-gap space between successive
vehicles to complete his/her move. This condition increases roadway capacity.

Activity 2.12

Draw a neat sketch to show conflict points at a three-leg intersection.

Feedback

2.9.2 Traffic signal components

73
Light signals to control road traffic, giving (road) traffic signals their proper name,
consist of prescribed arrangements of red, yellow and green lights that are illuminated
cyclically to successively stop and give right of way to streams of traffic, both vehicular
and pedestrian. They are installed typically at road junctions, pedestrian crossings and
other locations where conflicting traffic movements occur, and on freeway ramps and
toll booths to meter a traffic stream moving in one direction. Each application has its
own design and operation requirements and these requirements will vary, sometimes
significantly, from site to site.

A traffic signal consists of the following main components:

 signal lights and poles
 the control and lamp switching – the "controller"
 detection equipment for vehicle actuation (optional)
 pedestrian push-buttons (optional)
 electric cabling between the controller and the lights
 mains electricity power supply
 communications or pilot cables for linking controllers in a coordinated system or for
supervisory control from a control centre (optional)

Another feature which is important for the proper functioning of a traffic signal is the
road layout and the channelisation of traffic into lanes.

Signal lights are the means of communicating with the driver. The indications they give
must therefore be clear and understandable at a distance that will enable the driver to
take appropriate action.

2.9.3 Traffic lights

A single signal light, consisting of a lamp unit and coloured lens, is called an aspect.

An aspect may have a red, yellow or green lens. For general vehicular traffic
movements, each aspect will be a full circular disc. For directional vehicular traffic
74
movements such as turning to the right, a symbolic mask in the shape of an arrow is
used with the appropriate red, green and yellow aspects. These are called symbolic
aspects. The red aspect will always be a disc (except when a "Left Turn On Red After
Stop" (LTORAS) indication is provided, in which case a flashing red arrow will be
displayed in addition to the red disc). Where it is necessary to separately signal
pedestrian movements, symbolic red and green aspects should be used to depict the
standing and walking pedestrian, respectively.

In the normal, or "cyclic", operation of signals, the aspects are illuminated one after
another in a specific order. An illuminated aspect is said to give an "indication", which
has a meaning appropriate to the colour and type of the aspect and whether it is steady
or flashing. With a steady indication, the light is illuminated continuously for a
predetermined interval. Red arrow, green arrow and the red man aspects may give a
flashing indication in which the light flashes at a rate of between one and two flashes
per second. Under specific circumstances, laid down in the Manual, the red disc and
yellow disc aspects may be used to give flashing indications. Under no circumstances
may a flashing green disc indication be displayed.

In designing signal installations it is convenient to think of logical groups of signal

aspects, called signal groups. The following are each separately identifiable signal
groups:

 a red disc aspect, a yellow disc aspect and a green disc aspect
 a red disc aspect, a yellow disc aspect and one or two green arrow aspects that
are used only to give a steady indication
 a yellow arrow aspect and a green arrow aspect, the latter being used only to give
a flashing green arrow indication
 a red standing man aspect and a green walking man aspect

The first three are types of vehicular signal group and the last one is a pedestrian
signal group. Either of the first two may be referred to as the main signal group, so
called because they signal the main vehicular traffic movements from the approach.
75
There must always be one main signal group for every approach.

2.9.4 Control and detection equipment

The signal lights are controlled and switched on and off by a special piece of electrical
apparatus called the local controller (because it is local to the junction) or, more
commonly, simply the controller. It is normal to have a controller for each signalised
junction, although one controller may sometimes be used to control the lights at two
junctions that are close together, if it is practicable and economical to do so – for
instance, at a diamond interchange. The controller is housed in a cabinet which, if it is
not too big, may be fixed to a pole; otherwise it will be mounted on the ground.

Sometimes, particularly at older installations, a second small cabinet is provided to

house the mains electricity supply board that powers the signal lights and controller,
but this is becoming less common.

The installation may include special equipment to sense the passage or presence of
vehicles. This most often consists of one or more detector units, housed in the
controller cabinet, which are connected to wire loops in the road. (This type of detector
works on the principle of electrical induction and is called an inductive loop detector.)
To register demands for right of way by pedestrians, pedestrian push-buttons will be
provided. (Other types of vehicle detectors are available but not in South Africa at the
time of publishing.)

A controller must be capable of performing the following basic functions:

 Control the sequence of light indications.
 Time the interval that each signal indication is displayed.
 Switch each signal light on and off as required.
 Monitor the signal indications being displayed at any one time and prevent the
display of right-of-way indications for conflicting movements that could result in an
accident occurring and to prevent minimum safety intervals being violated.
76
Other functions that may be carried out by the controller include the following:

 Register demands for right of way by vehicles or pedestrians through electrical

inputs from a vehicle-detector unit or a pedestrian push-button, and adjust the
sequence and/or timing of phases accordingly.
 Provide alternative sequences for the occurrence of phases, according to a number
of different predetermined plans held in the controller and, likewise, to provide
alternative timing intervals for each signal indication.
 Provide a programme for implementing the different plans, as described in the last
point, according to a timetable run from a master clock in the controller.
 Keep the occurrence of signal indications exactly the same relative to a real-time
base cycle and relative to other controllers in a coordinated system in order to
promote progressive movement of vehicle platoons from one junction or crossing
to the next.
 Accept telemetric signals from other controllers or computers to perform a variety
of functions, including any of the above, and to provide reply messages if required
for monitoring purposes.

2.9.5 Cabling

There are four distinct types of electrical cabling involved with traffic signal installation:
 The mains power supply to the installation: The part up to the distribution board
usually belongs to the supply authority, and the traffic or road authority is
responsible for the part from that point to the controller.
 Mains voltage cables connecting the lights to the controller and switching devices:
These are usually multicore cables.
 Low-voltage cables connecting inductive loop detectors to the detector units
housed in the controller cabinet: Similar connections are provided for pedestrian
push-buttons.
 In linked systems, low-voltage pilot or telephone-type cables connecting to other
controllers or a central control computer: Telecom cables are sometimes used for
77
 this; control signals can also be superimposed on mains voltage cables – for
instance, street lighting cables on the same phase.

2.9.6 Traffic movements

Four types of traffic movement may occur at a traffic signal control site, depending on
what is physically possible and legally permitted:
 vehicles travelling straight on
 vehicles turning left
 vehicles turning right
 pedestrians crossing the road

These may occur in a number of combinations, and not all will necessarily be present
at a road junction, for instance on one-way streets, or at pedestrian crossings.

In addition to physical limitations on the direction of movement that may be possible,

there may be legal restrictions imposed by regulatory signs, such as the prohibition of
vehicles turning right from a particular approach. Also, at a complex junction there may
be movements that are not straight on or at right angles to the direction of the approach
and there may be more than four approaches to a junction.

Signal control sites as discussed in this section may broadly be classified into
 road junctions ("junction")
 mid-block pedestrian crossings ("crossing")

Before starting any investigation, it is always a good idea to sketch a plan of the site,
showing the lane markings and indicating each possible traffic movement with an
arrow in the appropriate direction on each road approach and pedestrian crossing
place.

2.9.7 Signal phases

78
A signal phase is the sequence of signal indications applicable to a particular traffic
movement or combination of movements on an approach or crossing place that always
receives identical indications. The "phase green" is the green indication that gives right
of way for that phase.

Most commonly, for vehicular traffic, right of way is indicated by a green disc aspect.
This is called the main phase green for that approach and it allows any movement of
pedestrian and vehicular traffic that is legal and possible to take place. It would include,
if applicable, turning movements, but traffic turning right would of course have to give
right of way to any traffic coming from the opposite direction and pedestrians crossing
in parallel. If only one or two directional traffic movements are permitted from the
approach, the main phase right of way may be signalled by one or two steady green
arrows, pointing in the appropriate direction, in place of a green disc aspect, but this
is subject to any permitted right-turn movement being unopposed. Any vehicular
movement given right of way by a flashing green arrow (which must be additional to,
and separate from, the main phase) constitutes a separate phase.

Such a phase will invariably be unopposed, or protected, with no conflicting vehicular

or pedestrian movement having right of way at the same time. These phases are
described by reference to the movement to which they give right of way – for instance,
a "right-turn phase" describes a phase that includes a separate flashing right-turn
green arrow indication. Although the movements they signal are protected from
conflicting movements, these phase greens may occur at the same time as other, non-
conflicting phase greens. An example would be a right-turn flashing green arrow that
runs at the same time as the main phase on the same approach, termed "parallel
phases".

If pedestrian signal aspects are provided separately from the vehicular aspects, the
green pedestrian indication is called a pedestrian phase green and gives right of way
to pedestrians. A pedestrian phase may apply to one, two or more pedestrian
movements, depending on the phasing pattern at the junction. The pedestrian phase
green may be parallel to another, non-conflicting vehicular phase green or it may occur
79
on its own, when it is called an exclusive pedestrian phase. In the latter case it is usual
for all the pedestrian movements at a junction to be given right of way simultaneously.
This typically happens at a mid-block pedestrian crossing but is less common at road
junctions. The pedestrian phase is usually operated parallel to the main vehicular
phase in the same direction. In this case, the rule of the road gives priority to
pedestrians overturning vehicles.

Every signal phase is associated with a physical signal group.

2.9.8 Modes of control

There are a number of different methods for controlling the sequence of appearance
(or sometimes the non-appearance) of phases and the duration of the phase green.
These are the most common:

 Fixed time control: The sequence and duration of each phase are the same in
each cycle.
 Vehicle-actuated control: The appearance and (in the case of vehicular phases)
the duration of each phase depend on demands input from vehicle detectors and
pedestrian push-buttons.
 Coordinated control: The appearance and duration of each phase are related to
the operation of other signals which together comprise a coordinated system.
There are many variations of these three basic modes, depending on the physical
capabilities of the equipment and how it is set up. Provision is usually made for
manual control as well – where advancing from one stage to the next is carried out
manually by a traffic officer.

In fixed time control, the sequence and duration of each phase indication is
predetermined and can only be changed by changing the controller settings. Different
timing plans can, however, be operated at different times of the day with suitable
controllers.

80
In the case of vehicle-actuated control, not all phases need to be demand dependent.
A common variation is for the major road phase to be fixed time and the side road
phase to be actuated. This is called semi-vehicle-actuated control. There are,
however, other variations to vehicle-actuated control, but these are less common.
These include having the appearance of a phase green fixed and only the duration
dependent on vehicle-actuated demand. Conversely, the appearance of a phase
green may be demand dependent and its duration, if and when it does appear, fixed.

Coordinated control provides for the coordination of adjacent signals to allow the
progressive movement of platoons of vehicles through a series of signals by way of
green waves. This may be achieved using fixed time control or another variation of
semi-vehicle-actuated control which operates on a fixed cycle time with a
predetermined permissive period, or "window", during which the side road green is
allowed to run. This can be coordinated by physically linking signals, with a pilot cable,
to a master controller or computer that provides the coordinating pulses or control
messages. Alternatively, signals may be coordinated by running the controllers
synchronously, without the need for the connecting cables, using what is called a time-
based coordination unit.

While the main objective of computer control is coordination, there are also other
benefits – notably in the ability to monitor the condition and status of the signals and
remote equipment, and to receive traffic data.

The modes mentioned so far are all cyclical. This means that they depend on
sequences of signal indications to successively give right of way to, and stop, traffic.

A complete sequence of indications is called a cycle. The duration of a cycle, or the

cycle time, may be constant – as in fixed time control, or the background cycle for
coordinated semi-vehicle-actuated or system control – or it may be variable from one
cycle to the next – as in full vehicle-actuated control.

81
There is, however, a non-cyclical mode, where all the vehicular signal faces at a
control site show a flashing red indication, which is equivalent to a STOP sign (and
sometimes flashing yellow indications on the major road). In this unit, we will not
discuss the use and operation of the flashing mode.

It is possible for different modes to be operated at different times at a signal control

site. For example, at a road junction that is part of a system, the following modes may
be operated:
 system control, when online to the computer
 vehicle-actuated control, when not online under system control
 flashing mode, as fallback in local fault conditions

2.9.9 Signal timings

The concept of signal timings is best described as intervals during which phase green
indications are successively given for each stream of traffic, followed by a terminating
yellow indication, which is in turn followed by an all-red interval. At all other times, red
indications will be displayed on the relevant signal group.

The yellow indication interval plus the all-red interval form the intergreen or change
interval and this is the safety period between the end of one phase of green indication
and the start of another phase of green indication that gives right of way to any traffic
stream that conflicts with the preceding one. The yellow indication follows immediately
after the ending of phase green. During the all-red interval, the stream of traffic losing
right of way and the stream of traffic about to gain right of way both face a red
indication.

The sum of all the phase green intervals and intergreen intervals equals the cycle time.
The proportion of the cycle time allocated to each phase, i.e. the phase green plus
yellow plus all-red intervals, is the "split" and may be expressed as a percentage. A
typical sequence for a two-phase signal is shown in figure 2.18. This clearly illustrates
the yellow and all-red intervals which comprise the intergreens.
82
 Figure 2.18: Example of signal intervals for typical two-phase traffic signal

The split for Phase A is 100 * 34/60 = 57% and for Phase B it is 100 * 26/60 = 43%.

In fixed time operation the green intervals are fixed at predetermined values.

In vehicle-actuated control, as normally found in South Africa, the vehicular green

intervals may vary and at least three values have to be specified for each actuated
phase:
 minimum green
 extension interval
 maximum green

The minimum green is the shortest time for which a phase green indication is displayed
once it appears. It is a fixed interval calculated to allow all vehicles that have stopped
between the detector loop and the stop line to set off and clear the junction before the
onset of the red. There is also a safety implication in this value and the recommended
minimum green interval is usually not less than 7 seconds.

83
For the green indication to be displayed beyond the specified minimum green, there
should be a demand registered by a vehicle or vehicles over and above that of those
clearing the junction during the minimum green. This is usually accomplished using a
detector to provide an "extension" to prolong the green as long as there is a demand.
When a point is reached where there is no further demand, the green times out after
a predetermined interval, called the extension interval. There are various methods of
using vehicle actuations to extend the green beyond the minimum.

The maximum green is a present interval beyond which the phase green will not run,
even if it receives successive extensions. It usually runs from the instant a demand is
made for a conflicting stage.

Activity 2.13

Do a web search and write short notes on the following:

 fixed timing signals
 demand-actuated signals
 signal coordination

2.10 UNIT 2: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. The speed was calculated for 5 individual vehicles traversing a road segment as
reported in the table below (Note: The speeds were measured over 45,7 m distance).

Vehicle No. 1 2 3 4 5
U (km/h) 39.3 30.4 24.5 27.7 23

a. Calculate the space mean speed and the time mean speed.

84
 b. Assuming a flow rate (q) of 1 500 veh/h on the roadway, calculate the density
(k) and the spacing (s) (Hint: the variable “u” in the q = uk relates to the space
mean speed).

2. The peak hour volumes at two different highways were counted and found to be
equal. The PHFs were 0.9 for the first highway and 0.6 for the second. Describe the
difference between the two highways if time interval (t) = 5 minutes.

3. Given (q = 53.05 k – 0.43 k2), where q is the flow rate and k is the concentration:

a. Calculate the relationships s- u, u-k, and h-u.

b. Determine the maximum flow (qmax), jamming density (kj), and free flow speed
(uf).

4. Explain the following signal-related issues:

a. Signalisation stripes
b. Start-up lost time

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Garber, NJ & Hoel, LA. 2019. Traffic and highway engineering, enhanced edition. 5th
ed. Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

National Research Council. 2000. Highway capacity manual. Washington DC.

Papacostas, CS & Prevedouros, P. 2009. Transportation engineering and planning.

3rd ed. New York: Pearson.

Wikibooks. [n.d.]. Fundamentals of transportation/traffic flow.

[Link]
[Accessed on 15/05/2020].

85
 STUDY UNIT 3

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

CONTENTS PAGE

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

3.2 INTRODUCTION 143

3.3 THE NEED FOR TRANSPORT PLANNING 144

3.4 TRAFFIC SURVEYS 145

3.5 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION SURVEYS (O – D SURVEYS) 145

3.5.1 Roadside interview 146

3.5.2 Prepaid postcards 147
3.5.3 Coloured tags on vehicles 147
3.5.4 Registration plate surveys 147
3.5.5 Selective interview 147

3.6 OUTLINES OF THE TRANSPORT PLANNING PROCESS 148

3.6.1 Transportation surveys 149

[Link] Survey area
[Link] Existing traffic patterns
[Link] Existing transport facilities
[Link] Planning and land use
3.6.2 Analysis and model building 152
[Link] Trip generation 153
[Link] Trip distribution 161
[Link] Modal split 166
[Link] Traffic assignment 171

3.7 UNIT 3: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 171

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 174

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3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 explain the nature and extent of traffic surveys
 explain origin and destination studies
 describe the transportation planning process
 define the purpose of travel
 describe the travel demand forecasting steps
 apply the trip generation model, trip distribution model and modal choice on
a small study area
 explain the purpose of the traffic assignment model

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Transport planning is not just a part of the planning of towns, cities and regions – it is
a very important part. The planning of all land uses, employment, education and
shopping must be related to transport facilities, although transport planning should not
be allowed to dictate land-use planning. The problems of efficient and cost-effective
transportation are always likely to conflict with environmental planning, and the needs
of the environment should often take precedence.

Transportation planning attempts to predict travel patterns in different areas with

different transport systems by applying general mathematical relationships to the
travel behaviour of individuals whose particular travel patterns follow no fixed
mathematical rule. It therefore cannot claim to be an exact science.

It is general practice in transportation planning to consider only journeys that involve

the use of mechanised means of transport.

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Mathematical methods can, however, be very useful tools for the qualitative
assessment of the transportation requirements of a particular community, town or
region.

The objective of this study unit is to introduce you to some of the basics of
transportation planning and related surveys. We will also explain the travel demand
forecast model.

3.3 THE NEED FOR TRANSPORT PLANNING

Problems which transport planning attends to and attempts to find solutions for are
 inadequate public transport
 traffic congestion
 growth and development in and around cities
 changes in land use

There are many variable factors that influence the provision of transport facilities for a
town, city or region such as the following:
 economic growth
 population growth
 population density
 land use
 existing transport facilities

To carry out effective transport planning, it is necessary to gather information on the

existing situation in the region, town or city and to use this information, together with
forecasts of projected growth factors in mathematical models, to plan suitable cost-
effective facilities for the future.

For road transport facilities, surveys of the existing traffic patterns and volumes are
necessary.

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3.4 TRAFFIC SURVEYS

In many instances it is enough if the survey is confined to a study of traffic volumes.

At other times, however, these volume studies have to be supplemented by
information about
 vehicle speeds
 journey times
 delay studies at intersections
 parking studies
 pedestrian movements
 various aspects of vehicle performance

In major metropolitan areas or regions, such as the Pretoria–Witwatersrand–

Vereeniging (PWV) area in Gauteng, the Cape Peninsula and Durban–Westville,
extensive transportation studies need to be carried out. They need to include all modes
of transport in order to plan the transportation needs of the community effectively.

Similarly, the Department of Transport also carries out countrywide transportation and
traffic studies on a global scale in order to assess traffic growth rates on major routes.

We discussed traffic survey methods, including manual methods and automated

methods, in study unit 2.

3.5 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION SURVEYS (O – D SURVEYS)

The major purpose of the O – D survey is to obtain information on existing travel

practice and patterns so that efficient transportation of people and goods can be
planned and provided.

The details required from this type of study include the following:

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  where people begin and end their trips (origin and destination)
 how they travel – by private car, public transport, truck, etc.
 when they travel – the time of day the trips are made
 why they travel – for work, shopping, recreation, etc.
 where they park

The O – D survey obtains information on the place of origin and destination of each
journey and the location of any intended intermediate stops within the survey area.
The origin of the journey is, in this instance, the last fixed point of call before entering
the area covered by the survey, and the destination is the next point of call after leaving
the area.

Survey stations must be established on all the main roads entering and leaving the
area concerned. These survey stations are established on what we call screen lines
surrounding the study area.

There are a number of basic methods of obtaining the required information.

3.5.1 Roadside interview

Vehicles are stopped and drivers are questioned about the origin and destination of
their journey and the location of proposed intermediate stops along the way. This is
entered on a card, also noting the time of day, the direction of travel, the type of vehicle
and the number of passengers. When the traffic flow is heavy, some kind of sampling
procedure is used to avoid long delays.

Roadside interviews must be well planned in advance of the time when they are carried
out. The public must be informed through the press and other means well in advance
so that they are aware of what is happening. The survey site should be well chosen
so that the vehicles being stopped for the interview can get off the travelled way and
not obstruct the other traffic. The survey areas must be well signposted so that the

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traffic is warned well in advance as to what is happening. The survey should be carried
out swiftly and in such a way that there is minimum disruption of traffic.

3.5.2 Prepaid postcards

To reduce the delay in the previous method, each driver is handed a prepaid postcard,
suitably numbered to indicate the survey station and the approximate time of day, as
they enter the survey area. On this postcard the driver is requested to answer
questions similar to those asked by the interviewer in the roadside interview and to
return the card by post. In practice this method often results in a poor response.

3.5.3 Coloured tags on vehicles

At the incoming survey station a tag of distinctive colour is stuck on the windscreen of
the vehicle, a different colour and shape being used at each point. Observers at the
outgoing survey stations note the colour and shape of the tag on each vehicle leaving
the area. These can be used with the aid of a computer to determine entry and exit
points (and times) from specified zones.

3.5.4 Registration plate surveys

Registration numbers of vehicles can be noted, the addresses of the owners obtained
through the registering authorities and prepaid postcards mailed to them. The main
disadvantage of this method is the amount of effort required and correlation and
analysis of data involved.

3.5.5 Selective interview

A random sample of a population is interviewed, either at home or at their place of

employment, to obtain information concerning details of all journeys made.

Activity 3.1
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3.1.1 Name the four essential elements of a traffic survey to be used in the
transportation planning process.
3.1.2 What methods are used to collect data relating to origins and destinations of
journeys?

Feedback
Refer to 3.5 and 3.6.

3.6 OUTLINES OF THE TRANSPORT PLANNING PROCESS

The world population is growing rapidly, and this is accompanied by a high demand in
transportation facilities. This requires traffic demand forecasting in order to aid the
transportation planning process.

There are three distinct phases to the transport planning process:

 transportation survey, analysis and model-building phase
 forecasting phase
 evaluation phase

The survey, analysis and model-building phase is carried out to determine the
following:
 What is the existing travel demand?
 How do the existing transport facilities satisfy this demand?

The forecasting phase uses the relationships established in the first phase to make
estimates of the future travel demand. To do this, information is required on population
growth and distribution, proposed transport facilities, land use, etc.

The evaluation phase assesses the results of the two previous phases to see whether
they satisfy defined social, economic and operational objectives. More than one set of
policies and transport investments may meet these objectives to a greater or lesser
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extent. Therefore it is common practice to test a series of different alternatives in
determining the preferred plan.

3.6.1 Transportation surveys

The following are the essential elements of a traffic survey:

 definition of the survey area (zoning)
 inventory of existing traffic patterns
 inventory of existing transport facilities
 inventory of existing planning parameters

[Link] Survey area

The survey area is defined and then, to describe the origins and destinations of trips,
it is subdivided into traffic zones – usually on a land-use basis.

The usual categories of land use are

 low-density residential (one dwelling per stand)
 high-density residential (apartment blocks)
 commercial (business and shopping)
 light industrial
 heavy industrial

The study area is usually divided into zones, which are areas of homogeneous land
use such as residential, business (like the CBD) and industrial. Refer to figure 3.1 for
this illustration.

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 Figure 3.1: Survey area boundary and centroids

[Link] Existing traffic patterns

Data needs to be collected about the origins and destinations of journeys. This is done
by means of the following methods:
 registration number-plate surveys
 roadside interviews

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  prepaid postcard questionnaires
 household interviews
 interviews with public transport users

[Link] Existing transport facilities

An extensive survey of the existing transport facilities such as rail and road is carried
out, as illustrated in table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Survey of transport facilities

Transport Survey
facility
Rail Goods and passenger services
Road Capacities of freeways, arterial roads and streets
Traffic volumes on existing facilities
Public transport facilities such as buses and bus routes
Taxi and car/minibus pools
Commercial vehicle use for delivery of goods, etc.
Parking facilities
Traffic entering the study area from outside

These surveys are carried out in order to have an accurate picture of the conditions
as they exist at the present time.

[Link] Planning and land use

A planning and land-use inventory is necessary to provide information on the

relationship between land use and journey behaviour. For each traffic district or zone,
information is collected on the type and intensity of land use, usually measured in

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terms of floor area together with population and employment statistics. Wherever
possible, the information on population includes details of household incomes, as this
is an important determinant of trip generation and mode (method) of transport.

Activity 3.2
Name the five categories of land use to divide a survey area into zones to determine
origins and destinations for a traffic study.

3.6.2 Analysis and model building

The main objective of a transport model is to predict the number of trips that will take
place by the different modes of transport, to predict the origins and destinations of
these trips and to decide the route which will be chosen between origin and
destination.

The transport model, also called the travel demand forecast model, is conventionally
divided into four sequential main stages as illustrated in table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2: Demand forecasting models

1 Trip generation The decision to make a journey (How many trips?)

2 Trip distribution The choice of destination (To where?)
3 Mode choice The choice of travel mode (Which mode?)
4 Trip assignment The choice of route or path (Which route?)

These four stages are generally treated separately, although in the real world they are
all interlinked.

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[Link] Trip generation

The objective of the trip generation model is to forecast the number of person-trips
that will begin from or end in each travel zone within a time period (Papacostas &
Prevedouros 2010).

A trip is defined as a one-way journey from one point to another for a specific purpose,
such as home to work. Each trip must have an origin and a destination. At each end
there will be an associated purpose, for instance “from home – origin” or “to work –
destination”.

The origins (or where trips start) are referred to as trip generations, and destinations
(where trips end) are known as trip attractions. Refer to figure 3.2 which shows the
trip production by any zone (i) within the study area and the attraction of these trips by
various zones (j).

Figure 3.2: Trip production and attraction by various zones

Table 3.3 shows the general three classifications applied to define trips.

Table 3.3: Trip classes

Trip class Description

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 Work and wage-earning related trips, one to work and one home
Work trip per employee per day. These are generally concentrated into
definite time periods.
Includes personal business such as shopping, school activities,
Business trip visits to the doctor, etc. These trips usually take place during
normal business hours.
Social, entertainment, recreation, etc. These are usually random
Pleasure trip
in time.

Trip generation is an examination of the relationships between the number of trips

made and certain quantifiable parameters such as the following:
 income
 residential population density
 car ownership per household
 accessibility to public transport
 rateable value of property
 distance from centre
 household size

It is worth noting that 80% of all trips begin or end at home. These are known as home-
based trips.

Table 3.4 illustrates the effect of income on the number of trips per person, and table
3.5 depicts the influence of car ownership.

Table 3.4: Influence of income on person trips

Person trips per dwelling per day

Purpose
Upper income Lower income
Work 3 2,5

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 School 1,5 1
Shopping 2,5 0,5
Pleasure 3,5 0,5
Total 10,5 4,5

Table 3.5: Influence of car ownership on person trips

Cars per household Person trips per day

0 2,4
1 5,9
2 10,7
3+ 14,0

Table 3.6 illustrates the effect of land use on person trips.

Table 3.6: Influence of land use on person trips

Percentage of person trips

Land use
Work Business Pleasure
Residential to residential 9,5 17 18
Residential to employment 24
Residential to activity (*) - 18 10
Employment to employment 3,5 - -
Totals 37 35 28

(*) e.g. shopping area, sports facility

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According to Papacostas and Prevedouros (2010), the commonly used trip-generation
mathematical formulations include regression models, simple trip rate and cross-
classification models.

Regression models
These statistical equations are generated for a certain area. The variables of the
equation vary between different models; however, common parameters include
population, number of housing units, employment and number of vehicles. See an
example of a regression model below.

Pi = 0.3X1i +0.2 X2i + 0.9 X3i

Aj = 60 + 0.67 X4j

Where:
Pi = Trip produced by zone i
Aj = Trips attracted by zone j
X1i, X2i and X3i = Total population, number of housing units and number of vehicles,
respectively
X4j = Total employment in zone j

The trip production and attractions can be calculated if information on variable X1, X2,
X3 and X4 are available. This information is usually obtained using surveys. It is worth
pointing out that regression equations have to be calibrated, a process considered to
be cumbersome, before they can be used for certain areas.

Simple trip-rate method

The method entails the use of average trip generation rate within a region, for example
a rate of 2.5 trips per and area of one square km of residential area. Similar rates can
be generated for public buildings, services, etc.

Pi = Σ Rk * Xk
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Where:
Pi= Total trip productions in zone i
Rk = Trip production per unit of the kth land-use type
Xk = Number of units of the kth land-use type

Example 3.1

Scenario

The table below shows survey data on a zone designated as ZA13 which is 4 km2 in
area and has a mixed land use. The trip generation rates for each land-use type are
generated from previous studies.

Question
Use the simple trip rate method to determine the total number of trips generated by
ZA13.

ZA13 land uses (m2)

Residential blocks Factories Retailers

28 x 106 8 x 106 4 x 106

Trip generation rates

Residentia Manufacturin
Land use Retail and services
l g
Trip production rate
8.9 0.3 1.4
(Person-trip per 1 000 m2)

Note: These rates will vary between countries and cities.

Solution
Area Trip generation
Land use Person trips
(m2) rate
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 Residential blocks 28 x 106 8.9 28 x 106 * (8.9/1 000) = 249 200
Factories 8 x 106 0.3 8 x 106 * (1.1/1 000) = 2 400
Retail 4 x 106 1.4 4 x 106 * (3.4/1 000) = 5 600
Pi = Σ Rk * Xk 257 200

The total number of trips generated by ZA13 is 257 200 person trips per day.

Cross-classification models

This method is also called category analysis. It is like the simple trip rate method but
applies multiple rates. For example, variable trip rates can be used based on the
number of persons per household, car ownership (i.e. number of vehicles per each
family), residential density etc. Study an example of home-based non-work trip rates
in table 3.7.

Table 3.7: Example of total home-based non-work trip rates (Oahu Metropolitan
Planning Organization)

No. of vehicle per Persons per hh

Area type
hh 1 2 or 3 4 5+
0 0.57 2.07 4.57 6.95
Urban: high density 1 1.45 3.02 5.52 7.90
2+ 1.82 3.39 5.89 8.27
0 0.97 2.54 5.04 7.42
Suburban: medium
1 1.92 3.49 5.99 8.37
density
2+ 2.29 3.86 6.36 8.74
0 0.54 1.94 4.44 6.82
Rural: low density 1 1.32 2.89 5.39 7.77
2+ 1.69 3.26 5.76 8.14
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hh = Household

Study the mathematical form of the cross-classification model in the equation below:
P = ∑ N.R

Where:
P = Total production
N = Number of households (hh)
R = Production rate (trip/hh/day)

Example 3.2
Scenario
Data given in the table below shows the survey data for an urban zone.
Question
Determine the total number of person trips generated by this zone.

Vehicles Number of persons per

per household
household 1 2 or 3 4 >5
0 110 200 155 20
1 275 400 200 50
>2 165 100 55 0

Solution

Number of persons per household

Veh/hh
1 2, 3 4 >5

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 110 x (0.57) 200 x (2.07) 155 x (4.57) 20 x (6.95)
0
= 62.7 = 414 = 708.4 = 139
275 x (1.45) 400 x (3.02) 200 x (5.52) 50 x (7.90)
1
= 398.8 = 1 208 = 1 104 = 395
165 x (1.82) 100 x (3.39) 55 x (5.89)
>2 0
= 300.3 = 339 = 324

Ʃ N*R 761 1961 2136 534

Note: Values between round brackets are read off table 3.1

Thus, the total number of person trips generated = 761 + 1 961 + 2 136 + 534
= 5 392 trips per day.

Activity 3.3

Define what is meant by a “trip” in the context of transportation studies.

Activity 3.4
Scenario
The following table indicates the expected household composition in the year 2025 for
a zone named ZIL1. The values between the parentheses, (-), are the rates given as
trips/household/day.

Vehicle per Number of persons per household

household 1 2 3 or 4 ≥5
0 100 (0.57) 200 (2.07) 150 (4.57) 30 (7.0)
1 400 (1.45) 900 (3.02) 210 (5.52) 50 (7.9)
≥2 75 (1.82) 150 (3.4) 60 (5.9) 10 (8.3)

T3.4.1 Use the cross-classification model to estimate the total number of trips
produced by the zone ZIL1.

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3.4.2 What would be your next step in the travel demand-forecasting process?

[Link] Trip distribution

Trip distribution is concerned with the number of trips (Qi-j) interchange between two
zones. Naturally, trips generated at a zone are attracted at another zone. Attractions
may include
 workplaces
 schools
 shops
 sports grounds

The following factors influence the attractions:

 nature of employment
 floor space per employee
 size, position and nature of shopping centres
 distance to travel to destination

Figure 3.3 shows that trips produced by zone i are attracted by zones j and k. In
theory, zone j and zone k are competing to attract the trips produced by zone i. A zone
will attract a number of trips based on its attractiveness.

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 Figure 3.3: Trip distribution

The most used model is the gravity model, which calculates the trips generated at
one node and attracted to another node based on required travel time between two
nodes and the attractiveness factor. See the classical form of the gravity model given
below:
Aj
x
Di-j
Ti-j = 𝑇
∑x=1 Ax (D )x
i-x

Where:
Ti = Trips produced by zone i
Aj = Attraction factor at node j
Ax = Attraction factor at any other zone within the study area
(Di- j)x = Travel time between zones i and j

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The actual travel times between zones, (Di- j)x, are modified into travel time factors
(Fi-j), which are a function of the type of trip. The Fi-j are proportional to the inverse of
the actual travel time between zones.

Fi, j  1/ (Di- j)x

Refer to typical Fi-j values as illustrated in table 3.8 below:

Table 3.8: Typical travel time factors

Travel time Travel time factors (F i -j)

(min) Work Shopping
8 1,21 1,5
12 0,86 0,68
20 0,53 0,25

The generalised equation can then be written as

Aj Fi-j
Ti-j = Ti
∑j Aj Fi-j

Example 3.3
Scenario
A residential area R generates 800 shopping trips per day. Shoppers travel by car to
the two centres A and B. Centre A has 50 employees and is 12 minutes from R. Centre
B has 20 employees and is 20 minutes from R. A new freeway will reduce the travel
time to B to 8 minutes as illustrated in the figure below.

Question

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How many shoppers can be expected to be drawn away from A to rather shop at B?

Solution
Aj Fi-j
Ti-j = Ti
∑j Aj Fi-j

Trip generated by zone R (TR) = 800 trips per day

Attraction factor for zone A (AA) = 50
Attraction factor for zone B (AB) = 20
Travel time factors obtained from table 3.8
FR-A = 0.68
FR-B - before freeway = 0.25
FR-B - after freeway = 1.5

50*0.68
Trips between R and A (TR-A) – before freeway = 800* 50*0.68 + 20*0.25 = 697 trips/day

Thus, trips between R and B (TR-B) – before freeway = 800 – 697 = 103 trips/day

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 50*0.68
Trips between R and A (TR-A) – after freeway = 800* 50*0.68 + 20*1.5 = 425 trips/day

Thus, trips between R and B (TR-B) – after freeway = 800 – 425 = 375 trips/day

Therefore, shopping centre (A) lost 800 – 425 = 272 trips/day

Activity 3.5

3.5.1 What is the difference between “trip generation” and “trip attraction”?

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3.5.2 A study area comprises four zones, named Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4. The trip
productions for Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are 1 000, 0, 2 100 and 0 trip/day, respectively. The
time factors (Fi-j) matrix is given the table below:

ij 1 2 3 4
1 40x10-3 10x10-3 4.4x10-3 2.5x10-3
2 10x10-3 40x10-3 10x10-3 4.4x10-3
3 4.4x10-3 10x10-3 40x10-3 10x10-3
4 2.5x10-3 4.4x10-3 10x10-3 40x10-3

Question
a. Use the gravity model to estimate the target year interchanges (Ti-j) and the total trip
attraction by each mode.
b. Draw a neat labelled sketch to show the trip distribution for the study area
concerned.

[Link] Modal split

The modal split, also called modal choice, is the third step in the demand forecast
model. Having estimated the trip interchange (Ti-j) between two zones, the modal split
is applied to divide the number of trips among transport modes (e.g. private car or
public transport). Figure 3.4 shows a schematic representation of the modal split.

Figure 3.4: Modal split

The modal choice is concerned mainly with the following:

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  trip maker behaviour including vehicle availability, income, family structure, etc.
in relation to mode selection
 trip characteristics such as distance, purpose, time of the day, travel
companion, etc.
 travel mode characteristics including in-vehicle travel time (IVTT), out-of-
vehicle travel time (OVTT) and safety; the OVTT includes access time, waiting
time and transfer time

Activity 3.6
Scenario
Tebogo is intending to use the Gautrain from Hatfield station in Pretoria to OR Tambo
international airport. The following table shows the details of the trip:

Description Time (min)

Access from main entrance to platform 4
Waiting to embark the Gautrain 13
Train trip from Hatfield to complete stop at OR Tambo 48
Disembark the Gautrain and exit the OR Tambo station 3

Question
Estimate the IVTT and OVTT for Tebogo’s trip.

From a transportation modelling point of view, the various modes of transport can be
categorised as shown in table 3.9 below:

Table 3.9: Transport categories used for transportation modelling

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 Transport class
Paratransit
Private transport Public transport
transport
Car driver Bus passenger Van pools
Car passenger Train passenger Car pools
Cyclist (motor/pedal) Taxi passenger Employer transport
Pedestrian - Hire car

The factors influencing the modal split (mode choice), where trip decisions have to be
made, include the following:
 travel time
 travel cost: divided into perceived cost (fuel, bus fare, etc.) and generalised
cost (depreciation, insurance, etc.)
 convenience
 comfort
 car ownership
 availability

Car ownership and public transport

Passenger cars refer to motor vehicles other than two-wheelers, intended for the
carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more than nine people (including the
driver).

If all people could be persuaded to travel by public transport (train, underground or

bus), our cities would be relatively free from congestion. However, private car
ownership is high in South Africa and indeed in most affluent cities of the world. Once
a person owns a car, he/she becomes determined to use it and will do so, despite the
high cost of operating, insurance, parking, etc., even though public transport may be
more practical and cheaper. If the choice is there, a person will use his/her own car,
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even if public transport is available right at his/her doorstep at home and deposits
him/her in front of his/her place of work.

The equation below shows the logit model which is widely used to estimate the modal
split.
eui
P (K) =
∑m eum

Where:
P(K) = Number of trips by travel mode (K)
Ui = Utility function for a travel mode

The utility function is usually a regression equation in the following form:

Uk = ak - 0.025 Taccess - 0.032 Twait - 0.015 IVTT - 0.002 C

Where:
Uk = Utility value of mode K
ak = Adjustment factor
Taccess = Access time (include time into and out of station)
Twait = Waiting time for the respective mode of transport
IVTT = In-vehicle travel time
C = Cost of travel

It is worth pointing out that the factors of the equations as well as the parameters
change depending on the country and the city.

Number of trips by mode (K) = P (K) * Ti-j

Example 3.4
Scenario

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The table below shows the parameters required to estimate the utility value of three
modes of transport operating between two zones in Johannesburg.

ak Taccess Twait IVTT Trip cost

Private car 0.00 4 0 17 65
Metro bus -0.10 7 16 35 11
Taxi -0.15 7 12 27 15

Assume the utility function as follows:

Uk = ak - 0.035 Taccess - 0.042 Twait - 0.016 IVTT - 0.003 C
Questions
3.4.1 Estimate the utility value for each mode of transport.
3.4.2 Assume 4 000 trips/day between the two zones (i.e. estimated using the gravity
model) and estimate the modal split for the three modes of transport.

Solution

UPC = 0 - 0.035*4 – 0.042*0 - 0.016*17 – 0.003*65 = - 0.61

UMb = - 0.1 – 0.035*7 – 0.042*16 – 0.016*35 – 0.003*11 = -1.61
UTaxi = - 0.2 – 0.035*7 – 0.042*12 – 0.016*27 – 0.003*15 = -1.43

According to the logit model

.
e
P (PC) = . . .
𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
P(PC) = 0.55

.
e
P (Mb) = . . .
𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒
P(Mb) = 0.20

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 .
e
P (Taxi) = . . .
𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒

P(Taxi) = 0.25

Note: P(PC) + P(Mb) + P(Taxi) = 1.0

Trips by car = 4 000 * 0.55 = 2 200 trips per day

Trips by Metro bus = 4 000* 0.2 = 800 trips per day
Trips by taxi = 4 000* 0.25 = 1 000 trips per day

The logit model can be used to study the effect of adjusting various parameters for a
travel mode. For example, we can study the effect of reducing IVTT (e.g. provision of
bus-exclusive lane) on the trip shared by Metro bus. Moreover, authorities may think
to reduce the fare, reduce waiting time or increase the car travel cost, so as to promote
public transport.

[Link] Traffic assignment

The purpose is to predict travel route among available routes between two nodes. This
is the step where trips estimated at the modal split stage are assigned onto the
network. The approach used is called the minimum path trip assignment method. The
application of trip assignment methods is beyond the scope of this study guide and will
be discussed at higher NQF levels.

Activity 3.7

Draw a simple flow chart to illustrate the travel demand forecast modelling process.

3.7 UNIT 3: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

3.7.1 Scenario 1

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The following tables provide the data for three residential zones. The parameters
considered are household income level, size and car ownership.

Estimate the daily work trips for each zone.

Target
Zone (X1) (X2) (X3) year No. of
hh
(I) 2 0 500
(I) 2 1 400
1
(I) 3 1 300
(II) 2 2 50
(I) 2 1 500
(II) 2 1 200
2
(I) 3 2 300
(I) 3 0 400
(II) 1 1 200
(II) 2 2 400
3
(II) 3 2 300
(II) 4 2 200

X1 = Household (hh) income level

X2 = hh size
X3 = Car ownership per hh

Work trips rates (trips per person)

(X3)
(X1) (X2)
0 1 2
≤2 0.2 0.2 0.4
(I)
3 0.1 0.1 0.3

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 ≥4 0.1 0.1 0.3
≤2 0.3 0.3 0.5
(II) 3 0.2 0.2 0.4
≥4 0.2 0.2 0.5

3.7.2 Scenario 2
In a travel demand-forecast study the following data for two zones, A and B, has been
established.
Use the gravity model to determine all the Ti - j

Zone Production Attractiveness

A 1 500 0
B 2 500 2

Travel time factors (Fi-j)

A B
A 0.04700 0.01259
B 0.01259 0.04700
3.7.3 Scenario 3

The expected number of trips generated between two zones (i) and (j) is Ti-j = 7 000
person -trips/day. The calibrated utility equation and the service attributes of three
travel modes are given below:

Uk = ak – 0.025x1 – 0.032x2 – 0.015x3 – 0.0015x4

Access Waiting Trip time

Fare (x4)
Attribute time (x1) time (x2) (x3) ak
(R)
(minutes) (minutes) (minutes)
Private car 5 0 15 10 0.00
Bus 10 15 30 20 -0.10

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 Light rail 10 10 25 15 -0.06

a. Apply the logit model to estimate the market share (i.e. P (K)* Ti-j) of the three
modes.
b. Name the factors that, in your view, make people change their mode of travel.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Papacostas, CS & Prevedouros, P. 2009. Transportation engineering and planning.

3rd ed. New York: Pearson.

Wikibooks. [n.d.]. Fundamentals of transportation/choice modeling.

[Link]
[Accessed on 24/05/2020].

Wikibooks. [n.d.]. Fundamentals of transportation/destination choice.

[Link]
[Accessed on 24/05/2020].

Wikibooks. [n.d.]. Fundamentals of transportation/route choice.

[Link]
[Accessed on 24/05/2020].

Wikibooks. [n.d.]. Fundamentals of transportation/trip generation.

[Link]
[Accessed on 24/05/2020].

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 STUDY UNIT 4

HIGHWAY LOCATION

CONTENTS PAGE

4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 23

4.2 INTRODUCTION 23
4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING ROUTE LOCATION 24
4.3.1 Topography 24
4.3.2 Geology 25
4.3.3 Land use 25
4.3.4 Traffic 26
4.4 PRINCIPLES OF ROUTE LOCATION 27
4.4.1 Directness or road route 28
4.4.2 Safety 29
4.4.3 Economy 29
4.4.4 Planning 30
4.4.5 Environment 31
4.4.6 Vertical alignment considerations 31
4.4.7 Horizontal alignment considerations 31
4.5 ROUTE LOCATION IN RURAL AREAS 32
4.6 INVESTIGATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT 34
4.6.1 Reconnaissance survey 34
4.6.2 Preliminary survey 35
4.6.3 Final location survey 36
4.7 LOCATION OF STREETS AND ROADS IN URBAN AREAS 37
4.8.1 Historical development of towns and cities 37
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4.7.2 Current urban road planning strategy 40
4.7.3 Routes through built-up areas 40
4.7.4 Parking 42
4.7.5 Existing transportation systems 42
4.7.6 Goods offloading 43
4.7.7 Environmental considerations 43
4.8 NEW TOWNSHIP DEVELOPMENT 43
4.9 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 43
4.9.1 Existing geological information 44
4.9.2 Generalised soil maps 44
4.9.3 General problems 44
4.9.4 Drainage 45
4.9.5 Existing road/rail maintenance records 45
4.9.6 Construction materials 46
[Link] Roads
[Link] Railways
[Link] Concrete structures
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 47

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4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 define factors relating to route location
 explain principles of route location
 identify route location in rural areas
 identify location of streets and roads in urban areas
 describe investigations to be carried out
 define new township development

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Route location is the process of finding a suitably feasible and cost-effective route for
a new infrastructural facility like a road or railway line. In flat, open and sparsely
populated regions this may be a relatively simple operation. However, in mountainous
or built-up areas it becomes much more complex.

Locating the route for a new road or railway line requires a thorough knowledge of the
geometric and other requirements of the facility.

The location of a road and its design elements are influenced to a considerable degree
by the topography, physical features and land use of the area. These are positive
design controls, and information regarding them is essential.

Although most of this study unit deals with the location of suitable routes for roads, the
same basic principles will apply to railway lines and other facilities. The objective of
this study unit is to introduce you to the criteria and methods employed by the various
bodies responsible for providing transportation facilities, in finding suitable routes for
new roads, railway lines and pipelines.

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4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING ROUTE LOCATION

4.3.1 Topography

The topography along the line of the proposed route is a major factor in determining
the physical location of a rural road, and generally affects the alignment, gradients,
sight distance, cross-sections and other design elements. Hills, valleys, steep slopes,
rivers and lakes often impose limitations on location and design.

Where the land is flat, topography in itself may have little, if any, effect on location;
however, it may cause difficulties in some design elements such as drainage or grade
separations. On the other hand, in rugged terrain, the highway location and certain
features of design may be almost completely governed by the topography.

If steep grades limit speeds and impose restrictive passing sight distances, this may
greatly reduce the capacity of a two-lane highway and reduce the running speed of
traffic, whereas their effect on wider highways is much less. The nature of the terrain
sometimes determines the type of highway to be built. For instance, a two-lane
highway that is adequate in flat terrain might require the addition of a third or climbing
lane in rugged terrain to accommodate trucks on upgrades so that they would not
impede other vehicles.

To provide sight distances adequate for passing frequently enough on a sufficient

portion of a two-lane highway may be so expensive that it would be better to provide
a four-lane highway on which stopping sight distance only is required.

Topographic conditions also may affect the cross-sectional arrangement of divided

highways. In some instances, a facility on a single roadbed may be appropriate; in
others it may be more suitable to locate the highway with two separate roadbeds, in
other words, one-way pavements designed on distinct but related alignments and
profiles.

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Because topography and land use have such a great effect on the geometry of a road,
information regarding these features should be obtained in the early stages of planning
and design. Aerial surveys generally speed up the collection of data. Topographic
maps of suitable scale, showing all relevant features, form the necessary base for
location and design. Maps to scales of 1:50 000 are suitable for location studies and
preliminary design. Maps of 1:10 000 or even 1:5 000 are most useful for the more
important roads and for those situated in rugged topography or in populous areas.
Final drawings are usually to a scale of 1:2 000 or 1:1 000. Local areas requiring more
detail such as bridge sites may require plans to a scale of 1:100 or 1:200. Information
regarding topography, land and building values, physical features and plans for future
development, together with traffic data form the major design controls.

4.3.2 Geology

The geology of the region may have a significant influence on the choice of the final
location of the route due to its influence on the nature of the subgrade and also on the
availability of road construction materials.

The geometry of a road may also be affected by the geology of the terrain covered.
Certain soils or groundwater and other subsurface conditions may not allow a
depressed section or may require an elevated structure instead of an embankment.

Climatic conditions may resolve the choice of locating a highway on one or the other
side of a valley or ridge. Climatic, soil or drainage conditions may make it necessary
to raise the profile above adjacent ground.

4.3.3 Land use

Main roads in rural areas are generally designed for high speeds, and thus require a
higher order of alignment, longer sight distances and greater lateral clearances than
do similar highways near cities.

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Human-made features may have as much effect on location and design as does
topography. Land uses, such as agricultural, industrial, commercial, residential, or
recreational, have an influence on design. Land development for residential,
commercial, or industrial purposes may call for designs which provide for lower
speeds, more turning movements, frequent intersections and possibly pedestrians,
parking and mass transit.

Special design adjustments may be required for large trucks, particularly at

intersections, driveways and terminal facilities in industrial and commercial areas. In
developed areas there is less choice of location than in open rural areas and route
terminal controls may be more rigid.

Where commercial traffic is prohibited, some of the geometrics can differ from those
of a similar highway designed to accommodate mixed traffic. Aesthetics and
recreational roadside development on recreational routes, such as highways through
parks, are usually carefully considered.

4.3.4 Traffic

Availability of materials, quality of foundations, cost of land, financing and other factors
have an important influence on the design, but traffic indicates the service for which
the facility is being provided and directly affects the geometric features of design such
as
 width
 alignment
 grades
 climbing lanes

Traffic data for a road or section of road is generally available. Data is collected by the
road authorities such as the National Roads Agency, provincial administrations and
municipalities.

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Route location methods used for road and rail routes are essentially the same,
although the grades must be very much flatter for railways (maximum approximately
2%) than for roads (maximum 4% to 7% depending on the type of road).

Locating the route for a road along a new alignment is usually done on topographic
maps of a suitable scale (1:50 000; 1:10 000). Usually a number of alternatives are
considered, the relative costs calculated and the best alternative chosen. A line
representing the centreline of a chosen route is drawn on the map, the ground levels
are interpolated from the contours along this line and a longitudinal section is drawn.
A suitable vertical alignment is fitted and earthworks and other quantities are
calculated to arrive at an estimated cost for that route. A similar exercise is carried out
for each alternative. The various alternatives are then evaluated and the most suitable
one is chosen as the final scheme.

Where there are no maps or surveys of the area, the route must be located and flagged
in the field using basic survey instruments such as an Abney level or theodolite.

As you can see, route location is very much an iterative process requiring a large
degree of engineering judgement.

Activity 4.1

Briefly describe how the following factors may influence the location of a route for a
road or railway:
a. Topography
b. Geology
c. Land use
d. Traffic

4.4 PRINCIPLES OF ROUTE LOCATION

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The basic principle for locating roads is that roadway elements such as curvature and
grade must blend with each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow
of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety standards.
The highway should also cause minimal disruption to historical and archaeological
sites and to other land-use activities. Environmental impact studies are therefore
required in most cases before a highway location is finally agreed on.

The route location process involves four phases:

 office study of existing information
 reconnaissance survey
 preliminary location survey
 final location survey

The following factors need to be taken into account:

 topography, geology, climate and traffic volumes
 land use and zoning patterns
 location of recreational, historical and archaeological sites
 effects of air, noise and water pollution
 costs such as for construction and land purchase

Some of the elements of route location given below may contradict one another. In
practice the route selected is the one which represents the best compromised solution.

4.4.1 Directness or road route

The road should be as direct as possible. The following are examples of elements that
will influence this principle:
 favourable sites for river crossings
 possibility of landslides and other geotechnical problems in hilly areas
 avoid deep cuttings and extensive tunnel construction (unless these lead to overall
cost savings, e.g. significantly shorter travel time)

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 locate along the edges of properties as far as possible
 avoid unnecessary destruction of forests and agriculture
 avoid built-up areas, cemeteries, churches, hospitals, schools and playgrounds in
cases of highways
 locate the best position for interchanges and intersections
 availability of in situ pavement materials
 avoid marshes and other low-lying areas subject to flooding

Once the needs of all other factors have been satisfied, the best location, as far as
capital cost is concerned, is generally the one which results in minimum total amount
of earthworks.

Note, however, that a road with very long straights (tangent sections) between curves,
especially in flat country areas, can be very boring to the driver. Horizontal curves
should be introduced at intervals of between 5 and 10 km.

4.4.2 Safety

This calls for sound geometric design principles, for example:

 Avoid sudden changes in sight distance.
 Keep gradients and curvature to a minimum.
 Do not have two roads intersecting near a bend or on top of a hill.
 Avoid at-grade intersections (level crossings) with railways.
 Adhere to geometric standards laid down to govern width, super-elevations,
sight distances and shoulders.
 Introduce transition speed zones where necessary.

4.4.3 Economy

In assessing the economic viability of any scheme it is not only the capital cost which
must be evaluated, but also the user costs (vehicle operating costs, road maintenance

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costs and time) over the lifetime of the facility (20 to 50 years). This is often referred
to as life cycle costing. Economic viability is determined by internal rate of return or
cost-benefit analysis.

When assessing the economic viability of projects, it is important for the design to
allow traffic to move at maximum speed (design speed) and minimum cost. For
instance, long, steep gradients having no additional climbing lanes for slow-moving
heavy vehicles reduce the capacity of the road. Although initial capital layout is lower,
it will lead to high traffic costs – making it uneconomical compared to roads with higher
capital layout.

The following costs must be taken into account:

 road user costs
 operating costs
 construction costs
 maintenance costs
 safety costs
 environmental costs

4.4.4 Planning

Planning should be performed within the framework of the total organisation of motor
transport, in other words, there must be coordination between authorities (national,
provincial, local and of course the community itself). Strategic requirements must also
be taken into account.

Land use, centres of development and the general framework of the road system
should be considered in planning a new facility.

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4.4.5 Environment

Civil engineers, especially road engineers, are often criticised for causing damage to
the environment. This is especially so in the design and construction of roads. Some
damage to the environment is unavoidable; however, it is vitally important to keep the
long-term effects to a minimum. Construction scars should be kept to a minimum by
revegetation of damaged areas. Natural slopes and vegetation should be preserved
as far as possible.

4.4.6 Vertical alignment considerations

A smooth grade line with gradual changes consistent with the type or class of road
and the nature of the terrain should be the aim, rather than a grade line with short
lengths of grade and numerous breaks.

This is very important on steep grades in hilly or mountainous conditions where it is

better to maintain a constant grade and reduce earthworks by introducing more
horizontal curves.

A feature of poor vertical alignment which should be avoided at all costs is the “hidden
dip” – these generally occur on straight sections (tangents) when the road passes
through areas of naturally rolling topography. This contributes to accidents occurring
during passing manoeuvres due to lack of sight distance.

At-grade intersections located on steep grades should be avoided. Alternatively, the

grade of the through road should be flattened in the vicinity of the intersection.

4.4.7 Horizontal alignment considerations

The route should be as direct as possible but should be consistent with the general
topography through which it passes. A flowing line that conforms to the natural

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contours is preferable to one with long straights (tangents) which slashes through the
countryside with deep cuts and high fills.

Curves of minimum radius allowed by the design speed criteria should be avoided –
especially at the end of a long tangent.

Activity 4.2

State the seven principles of route location and give the elements which will influence
each of these principles.

4.5 ROUTE LOCATION IN RURAL AREAS

In general, the approach to selecting the route for a long road in a rural area may follow
the procedure outlined below in figure 4.1.

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 Figure 4.1: Schematic of route layout

Figure 4.1 explained:

 Fix end terminals.
 Define region.
 This region is searched and a number of broad bands are selected within
which further searching will be concentrated, leading to the selection of
specific corridors.
 Select corridors A, B and C (1–1,5 km wide).
 Compare corridors to find the best route. Search this area and locate within
it one or more different alignments containing minor geometric differences.

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  These alignments are compared and a final selection suitable for design
purposes is made.

Activity 4.3

4.3.1 Describe fully the procedure of route location for roads/railways in rural areas.
4.3.2 Provide a chart to show the respective steps.

4.6 INVESTIGATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT

To aid in the decision-making process, the following typical approach was developed
to gather information about the area being evaluated:
 reconnaissance survey
 preliminary survey
 final location survey

4.6.1 Reconnaissance survey

The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more
possible routes. Good reconnaissance can be the greatest single money-saving action
in planning and constructing a new road.

Existing maps and aerial photos are the primary tools. Good progress has been made
in field of photogrammetry, and techniques have been developed for calculating
earthwork quantities from aerial photos with the aid of computer programs that
generate digital terrain models.

Reconnaissance begins with a “paper study” of the region. Terminals of the road and
intermediate points through which it must pass form the primary control points.

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Marshy areas and favourable sites for bridges, interchanges and grade separation
structures (flyovers) are potential fixed points in the location. Crossing points under
high-tension overhead electricity cables must also be considered.

Although the above information can be obtained from maps and photos, it is usually
necessary to go on a field reconnaissance to gain information regarding unusual
topographic features and subsurface conditions. The existence of buried services such
as pipelines, electricity cables, etc. which may need to be relocated or protected must
be identified and marked on the maps or plans.

Cost analyses are made of the alternative route and best general route selected. The
results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report.

4.6.2 Preliminary survey

The purpose is to collect all physical information which may affect the alignment. So,
within the established route area, the shape of the ground, limits of catchment areas,
positions and invert levels of streams and ditches and the position of large trees,
bridges, existing roads, power lines, pipelines and buildings are determined. These
are then translated into plans and profiles which assist in determining a preliminary
alignment and preparing an approximate cost estimate.

This can be achieved either by aerial or ground surveys. Because the cost of an aerial
survey does not increase in direct relationship to the area covered, it is likely to be
more suitable and economical than a ground survey in cases of long roads. It has the
further advantage that it can be carried out without the landowners’ knowledge, thus
avoiding controversy at an early stage in the planning when the precise route is still
uncertain.

The first step is to carry out a baseline traverse. This is usually done by a surveyor
along the general line of the proposed route. The traverse pegs (numbered steel pegs
set in concrete) are placed at convenient intervals (about 200 m apart) and are
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coordinated and levelled. If an aerial survey is to be carried out, stones are packed in
lines forming a cross with the traverse peg in the middle and whitewashed to make it
more visible from the air and to show up clearly on the aerial photograph. If an aerial
survey is not required, a tache survey is carried out on a strip that is 100–200 m wide
on either side of the route.

From this information or from the photogrammetry the contour strip map showing all
details is produced.

The selection of the final horizontal and vertical alignment depends mainly on the
geometric design standards adopted and the earthwork quantities.

Activity 4.4

State the three main activities comprising the first phase of location surveys in urban
areas.

4.6.3 Final location survey

This survey serves the dual purpose of definitely fixing the centreline, while significant
physical data necessary for the preparation of working drawings are collected at the
same time. The following are the general features of this survey. (Some of these
requirements may have already been met during previous surveys and need not be
repeated.)

 Pegging (staking) the centreline – this is done with reference to the preliminary
traverse. Chainage pegs are usually placed every 20 or 50 m along the
centreline and at all intersection points of straights (Pis) and tangent points
(BCs and ECs), and the chainage (distance along the centreline) carried
forward continuously through curves.

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  Centreline levelling – profile levels are taken along the centreline at each station
(chainage peg) and at all intermediate points where there is any significant
change in slope. The centreline pegs must be referenced by placing reference
pegs (benchmarks) at every 0,5 km.

 Cross-sections at right angles to the centreline at each chainage station – these

should extend right across the road reserve.

 Property lines – accurate position of property corners, fences and buildings

must be shown. Names of property owners affected should be shown on the
plans.

 Intersecting roads – directions, profiles and cross-sections of existing road

which will be intersected should be shown for some distance on both sides of
the centreline so that the intersection can be properly designed.

 Ditches and streams – streambed profiles are taken for some distance on both
sides of the centreline of the road.

 Special site surveys – these include special surveys for bridges and
intersections.

Activity 4.5

State five important controlling factors that influence the final location of an urban
roadway.

4.7 LOCATION OF STREETS AND ROADS IN URBAN AREAS

4.7.1 Historical development of towns and cities

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In most instances the layout of the streets in cities and towns took place before the
invention of the motor vehicle. In those days the main forms of transport were the
horse-drawn carriages and carts and the ox wagon for heavy goods.

During the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century most of
the cities and larger towns throughout the world were linked by railways which then
catered for the majority of the long-distance conveyance of both people and goods.

The original layout of the villages and towns that were started, established or
developed during that period almost invariably followed a rectilinear pattern of streets.
Central Johannesburg and many other cities and towns throughout the world have a
similar layout.

This was the pattern in many parts of the world where rapid development took place
due to colonisation, including typical examples such as South Africa and the United
States of America. Study the illustration in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Typical initial town layout on grid pattern

From the initial grid layout roads radiated out to link with other villages and towns.
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With the rapid growth due to industrial development, improved transportation and
population increase, towns and cities soon expanded beyond the original central area.
Very often this expansion took place along the main roads leading out of town which
then became the main arterials for commuter traffic as well as intercity/town traffic
leading into the city centre. The original development subsequently expanded (usually
vertically) to become the central business district (CBD) of the town or city as illustrated
in figure 4.3.

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 Figure 4.3: Expansion beyond original central area

Figure 4.3 highlights a number of problems that have become evident with this kind
of layout and these can be summarised as follows:
 All traffic wanting to get from one side of town to the other must pass through the
CBD. This includes intercity traffic that did not want to stop in this centre.
 Railway lines, rivers and streams also restrict movement of traffic across their path.
 The city centre becomes very congested and parking is inadequate.
 Arterials leading into and out of town, which often cannot be widened because of
development along the route, become very congested.

4.7.2 Current urban road planning strategy

The current strategy applied to the layout of road transportation corridors is based on
a rectangular grid pattern of freeways spaced at 5 km to 8 km intervals with arterial
streets at 2 km to 3 km apart, as shown in figure 4.4. In the blocks created,
neighbourhood development takes place. The advantages of this layout are that by
limiting the access from neighbourhoods, through-traffic is discouraged – leading to
greater safety in the residential areas.

4.7.3 Routes through built-up areas

Traffic flow through built-up areas is usually improved firstly by increasing the capacity
at intersections through more efficient and coordinated signalisation, improved
geometry and the provision of turning roadways.

The next stage is to widen the roadway between intersections but this generally
requires the expropriation of properties adjacent to the road.

You can see from figure 4.3 that although we can improve the major routes through
the town, the layout is still radial and through-traffic still has to pass through the already
congested CBD.
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The only relief is to provide new high-speed, high-capacity facilities (i.e. freeways) in
both the north-south and east-west directions as illustrated in figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Grid layout of major roads in urban areas

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Locating routes in built-up areas presents special problems and is generally much
more difficult. The major factor affecting the choice of a route is the cost of land,
buildings and other improvements. A further factor is the reaction of the community,
which is usually very negative.

Location surveys in urban areas are usually carried out in two phases:
 combination of reconnaissance and preliminary survey
 final location survey

The final location survey is similar to a highway location survey in a rural area, except
it is usually more difficult to carry out due to obstructions, sighting problems and traffic
on roads.

The combination of the reconnaissance and preliminary survey is primarily an office-

based study with the aid of existing maps and plans. It involves
 determining the expected traffic load
 selecting the type of road and number of lanes
 analysing and comparing alternative locations by making cost estimates

There are certain important controlling factors which influence the final location of an
urban roadway.

4.7.4 Parking

Parking problems and traffic congestion may be alleviated if a new major route can be
located as close as possible to existing or potential parking areas.

4.7.5 Existing transportation systems

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New facilities must be integrated with the existing road system for optimum usage.
Equally important are other transportation media like railways and harbours which may
benefit from the new route.

4.7.6 Goods offloading

Loading zones close to commercial development and shops must be provided as well
as safe stopping places for passenger-carrying vehicles.

4.7.7 Environmental considerations

Well-planned streets and roads in an urban situation must blend in with the
environment. Careful attention must be paid to stormwater runoff, its containment and
its treatment.

Activity 4.6

4.6.1 What factors make route locations for transport facilities more difficult in urban
areas than in rural areas?
4.6.2 Provide examples of these difficulties.

4.8 NEW TOWNSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Town planning is concerned with the present and future town needs of the business,
industrial, residential and recreational elements. The road designer is actively
participating in town planning when locating a new facility and must sometimes be
prepared to put “non-engineering” needs first where necessary. Land use (i.e.
residential, industrial etc.) as well as future developments are important factors to be
taken into account.

4.9 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Geotechnical survey includes three elements, namely preliminary, field and office
work. Since the road structure is built on the surface of the ground (or below the
surface in cuttings) from the natural materials (soils, gravels and rocks) which occur in
the vicinity, some of which may be processed, it is essential to investigate the nature
of the in situ materials along the route thoroughly in order to determine their suitability
for road-building purposes.

4.9.1 Existing geological information

All-natural soils and gravels are derived from the weathering of rocks. It is therefore
important when starting to plan the route of a road or railway to have a thorough
knowledge of the geology through which it passes. A civil engineer must have an
extensive working knowledge of geology and soil mechanics.

A great deal of information can be obtained from the following sources:

 databank – CSIR (records of previous soil investigation in the area – if any)
 geological reports (published in geological and other journals)
 geological maps
 aerial photography

4.9.2 Generalised soil maps

Generalised soil maps based on surface investigations should be produced at an early

stage in the planning.

4.9.3 General problems

General problems which may be encountered along the route can be identified from a
knowledge of the geology and soils along the route, such as the following:
 heaving clay (volume changes associated with change in moisture content)

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  collapsing soils (loosely packed, open-grain structure soils, with a high void
ratio)
 sinkholes and dolines in dolomitic areas
 marshes
 landslides/rock falls
 rock

4.9.4 Drainage

A very important aspect in the route location process is to locate suitable crossing
points at streams and rivers and to locate areas where subsurface water may infiltrate
the road pavement structure and cause problems.

Activity 4.7

4.7.1 Describe briefly what drainage aspects could influence the alignment of a route.

4.7 2 When starting to plan a route it is important to have knowledge of the geology
and soils in the area through which it passes. State four sources of this information
before any field investigations are carried out.

4.7.3 What typical geotechnical problems might be encountered along the route?

4.7.4 Name one or more locations in South Africa where such problems exist (Note:
provide web link evidence).

4.9.5 Existing road/rail maintenance records

Maintenance records from road or rail authorities can often be used to great advantage
in assessing the performance of materials under service conditions.

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4.9.6 Construction materials

The final location of the route can often be influenced by the availability of road-building
materials. Generally, the materials required will be as follows:

[Link] Roads
 base (good natural gravels or crushed rock)
 subbase/shoulders (good natural gravels or material suitable for stabilisation with
lime, cement, bitumen or similar)
 selected subgrade (suitable natural soils)
 earthworks (suitable natural soils)
 gravel wearing course for unsurfaced roads

[Link] Railways

 formation (good natural soils or gravels)

 ballast

[Link] Concrete structures

 coarse aggregate
 fine aggregate

Activity 4.8

4.8.1 State the three investigations to be carried out to aid the decision-making

process in route location in rural areas.

4.8.2 State what materials would be required for the construction of a road and a

railway.

4.8.3 Do a web search and draw neat sketches to show the typical pavement

structure and found.

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

O’Flaherty, CA. 1976. Highways: highway engineering. Vol 2. 2nd ed. London: Edward
Arnold.

O’Flaherty, CA. 2002. Highways: the location, design, construction and maintenance
of pavements. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Wright, PH & Dixon, KK. 2004. Highway engineering. 7th ed. New Jersey: Wiley.

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 STUDY UNIT 5

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

CONTENTS PAGE

5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 168

5.2 INTRODUCTION 168
5.2.1 Definitions 169
5.2.2 South African geometric design guidelines 172
5.2.3 Traffic measures 172
5.3 CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS 173
5.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 179
5.4.1 Circular curves 179
5.4.2 Chainages 180
5.4.3 Coordinates 181
5.4.4 Deflection angle 183
5.4.5 Templates 185
5.4.6 Successive curves 187
5.4.7 Calculation of chainages and coordinates 189
[Link] Join calculations
[Link] Polar calculations
5.4.8 Transition curves 196
5.4.9 Superelevation of curves 198
5.4.10 Superelevation development 201
5.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 211
5.5.1 Curvature 212
5.5.2 Calculation of gradients 212

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 5.5.3 Fundamentals of simple parabolic curves 213
5.5.4 Climbing lanes 219
5.6 SIGHT DISTANCE 220
5.6.1 Stopping sight distance 220
5.6.2 Passing sight distance 221
5.6.3 Sight distance over vertical curves 225
5.7 INTERSECTIONS 228
5.7.1 Types of intersections 228
5.7.2 At-grade intersections 229
5.7.3 Grade-separated intersections 230
5.8 UNIT 5: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 231
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 239

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5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Having studied this and other relevant chapters in conjunction with TRH 17, you should
have a knowledge of and be able to answer questions and do calculations relating to
aspects of geometric design including the ability to
 define the basic criteria such as vehicle, driver, road and sight distance
 determine the horizontal alignment element for geometric design
 determine the vertical alignment element for geometric design
 determine the cross-sectional elements
 differentiate at-grade intersections and grade-separated intersections
(interchanges)

5.2 INTRODUCTION

What is geometric design of roads? Geometric design is the establishment of a three-

dimensional physical location of road by determining the horizontal and vertical
alignment of the centreline, cross-section dimensions (i.e. transverse alignment) and
travel lane configurations of the road.

The geometry of a road is made up of

 the horizontal alignment which comprises straight/tangent sections and
circular curves
 the vertical alignment composed of parabolic curves (i.e. sag or crest
curves) and grade lines (straight sections)
 the cross-section elements, also called traverse alignment (e.g. lane
configurations, crown and shoulders)
 the intersections, including at-grade (time separation of intersecting traffic)
and grade-separated intersections (space separation)

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The design of these elements is governed by many factors. However, the principal
factors include traffic volume and mix, design speed, design vehicle and
topography.

The main focus of this study unit is to introduce you to the fundamental factors that
form the basis of sound geometric design of the various elements of a road which will
lead to a facility that is as safe to the motorists, pedestrians, other road users as well
as property owners adjacent to the facility, within the constraints of cost effectiveness.

5.2.1 Definitions
Design speed: This is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified highway section when conditions are favourable. In other words, it is based
on the ability of the average driver to operate their vehicle safely at that speed with
confidence under ideal weather and traffic conditions. The selection of the design
speed depends on the road class (i.e. rural, urban, access, collector, arterial or
freeway) and topography (i.e. flat/level, rolling or mountainous).

Design vehicle: In general, this is the largest vehicle that is expected to use the
roadway facility in significant numbers during the design period. Vehicles of various
sizes are grouped into classes as illustrated in TRH 17, table 2.2.1 on page 7. The
dimensions of the design vehicle influence the geometric features of a roadway,
including, for instance, lane width, vertical and horizontal clearances of an underpass
and turning characteristics. SANRAL Geometric Design Guidelines suggest the
following:

 Buses and other heavy vehicles should be used as the design vehicle for cross-
section elements.
 Passenger cars should be used as the design vehicle for the horizontal and vertical
alignment.
 Semi-trailers should be used for major intersections along arterial roads or within
commercial areas.

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Road class: This is a way of grouping roads that facilitates their design, numbering,
jurisdiction and administration. Two broad systems are used to classify roads:
 The functional classification system categorises roads in a way that determines
their engineering characteristics and intended service (e.g. traffic volume, travel
distance and design speed).
 The administrative classification system relates to the jurisdiction aspects of a
road.

Read TRH 26, pages (i) to (v) and memorise the different names of road classes.

Road cross-sections: These consist of a roadway surface of a defined width that

includes the lanes, shoulders and ditches which are adjacent to an elevated roadway
and are designed to accommodate drainage from the roadway and properties.

Terrain class: For the purpose of road geometric design, terrain is divided into
flat/level, rolling and mountainous. Try to find out the main differences between these
terrain classes. Stick to these terrain classes and avoid any other descriptions such
as steep, hilly, relatively flat.

Superelevation rate (e): This is the slope at which a circular curve cross-section is
banked or tilted. The tilting is required so that the combined action of vehicle mass
and road surface lateral friction counteract the centrifugal force, which is generated
when a vehicle travels along a circular path.

Minimum curve radius: In TRH 17, the minimum radius is defined as “a limiting value
for a given design speed and is determined from the maximum rate of superelevation
and the maximum allowable side friction factor”.

Maximum superelevation (e max): This is the maximum acceptable superelevation

rate for a particular class of road. It depends on climatic conditions, type of terrain and

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type of development. In South Africa, the SANRAL Geometric Design Guidelines
suggest the following:
 Rural road use e max range of 8-10%.
 High-speed urban roads use e max range of 6-8%.
 Minor urban roads use e max range of 4-6%.

Applied superelevation: This is the actual superelevation rate used at a circular

curve section of a roadway. Applied superelevation rate can be equal to but should
not exceed the e max.

Crown run-off length: This is the tangent/straight distance required for accomplishing
the transition from a normal crown to a zero per cent (e.g. right lane/s of a left-hand
circular curve).

Superelevation run-off length: This is the distance required to make the transition
from a zero per cent (e.g. left lane/s of right-hand circular curve) to a fully
superelevated section.

Critical length of the grade: This is the length of the grade which causes the speed
of a truck to be reduced by 20 km/h. Refer to TRH 17, section 4.3.2.

Joins or bearing distance: Join is the calculation to determine the true direction and
horizontal distance of lines between two coordinated points.

Polar: A polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which

each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle
from a reference direction.

Driver’s perception-reaction time: This is the time between perceiving a road

situation and acting with an initial response (taken as 1.5 and 2.5 seconds for urban
and rural roads, respectively).

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Sight distance: The length of a road visible ahead to the driver.

Activity 5.1

5.1.1 Define operation speed.

5.1.2 What level of service would usually be chosen for the design of a new road?
5.1.3 Name and describe the three categories of rural roads. (Hint: refer to TRH 26.)

5.2.2 South African geometric design guidelines

The following are the geometric design standards/guidelines mostly used in South
Africa and other parts of the world:
 SANRAL Geometric Design Guidelines
 Geometric Design of Rural Roads – Technical Recommendations for
Highways 17 (TRH 17)
 Guidelines for the Geometric Design of Urban Arterial Roads – Urban
Transport Guidelines 1 (UTG1)
 Design standards/specifications developed by various local governments
(Department of Public Works)
 A policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets - American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Most of the work in this unit will be based on TRH 17. Familiarise yourself with the
contents of these guidelines.

5.2.3 Traffic measures

In study unit 2 we defined the 30th highest hourly volume as the criterion for
establishing the design traffic volume of a rural road. We also indicated that as a rough
guideline 15% (called k factor) of the average daily traffic (ADT) could be used. Refer
to TRH 17, table 1.5 (a) and (b). The k factor allows you to select values between 0,1
(10%) and 0,25 (25%) of the ADT.
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Activity 5.2

What would the estimated average daily traffic (ADT) in rolling terrain at a level of
service D be if the proportion of the ADT in the design hour is 14% on the following
roads? (Hint: check the relevant table in TRH 17.)

a. A two-lane two-way rural road

b. A four-lane freeway

5.3 CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

Cross-section elements are sometimes referred to as traverse alignment. A typical

cross-section of a four-lane divided rural road is presented in TRH 17, figure 5.1 on
page 43.

Activity 5.3
Read the relevant TRH 17 sections and write short descriptions of the various cross-
section elements of a roadway using the table below.

Road cross-section Short description

element
Two-lane two-way road
Three-lane road
Four-lane road
Divided roads
Pavement crown
Pavement crossfall
Kerb configurations
Shoulders
Median

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 Guardrails
Safety barriers
Longitudinal drain
Shoulder break point
Side slope
Road reserve

Figure 5.1 illustrates the concepts of camber (sometimes referred to as normal

camber) and cross-fall. Camber and crossfall are found in straight sections of roadway
and must not be confused with superelevation, which applies to horizontal curves.

Figure 5.1: Pavement camber and cross-fall

Example 5.1 (Road cross-section level calculations)

The term “batter” refers to the slope of the cut or fill and is usually denoted by the
vertical to horizontal ratio, thus 1:x (e.g. 1:4) as illustrated in figure 5.2.

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 1

x=4

Figure 5.2: Cut and fill slope

Often it is necessary to calculate accurately the distance from the centreline to the
point where the cut or fill slope cuts the natural ground line. Consider the cross-section
of a two-lane, two-way road having a surfaced width of 7,4 m and unsurfaced
shoulders 1,8 m wide at a point where it is inside cut. The surfacing has a normal
camber of 2% and the shoulders have a slope of 4%. The finished road level on
centreline at a is 24,312. The ground level at M is 24,812 at 15,400 m from the
centreline. The ground level at N is 22,412 at 13,6 m from the centreline. The side
drain has a depth of 0,4 m below the shoulder breakpoint at c. The batter slope from
the shoulder breakpoint to the bottom of the drain is 1:4.

Figure 5.3: Level calculations

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We now want to calculate the dimensions R and S, which are the distances from the
centreline where the batter slopes intersect the ground line.

If we refer to figure 5.3 and take the centreline of the road as the Y axis (positive
upward) and the X axis (positive to the right), we have a graph.

B
A
q

(-X) X

Figure 5.4: Coordinates to determine road surface levels

Consider the equation to a straight-line y = px + q as shown in figure 5.4

Where:

p = Slope of the line

q = y value where the line intercepts (crosses) the Y axis

If we have a straight line AB and we know the x and y values of A and B, we can
determine the slope p and project the line to get the y value of the intercept q with the
Y axis.

We can apply this same basic principle to solving the above problem.

Consider the natural ground line in figure 5.3 as the line defined by the points M and
N.

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 24,812
22,412
15,400 13,600

M
N

22,412  24,812
The slope of the line from M to N is  0,082759
15,400  13,600

By simple proportion the level of the point where the natural ground line intersects the
centreline of the road, thus the Y axis, is
24,812 + (-0,082759 * 15,400) = 23,238

The equation for the natural ground line MN is therefore y = -0,82759 x + 23,538

If we project the line jh in figure 5.3 at the same slope to intersect the centreline at K
and consider the following:
The level at g is 24,312 - 0,02 * 3,7 = 24,238 m

The level at h is 24,238 - 0,04 * 1,800 = 24,166 m

The level at K is therefore 24,166 + 5,500/2,500 = 26,366 m

The equation to the line Kj is therefore y = - 0,400 x + 26,366 m

Similarly, if we consider the projection of the line fe that crosses the centreline at L,
then we can determine the equation as follows:

The level at b is the same as at g – i.e. 24,238 m

The level at c is the same as at h – i.e. 24,166 m
The level at d and at e will be 24,166 - 0,400 = 23,766 m
The horizontal distance between c and d is 4 * 0,4 = 1,600 m

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The point e is therefore 3,700 + 1,800 + 1,600 + 0,800 = 7,900 from the centreline.

The level at L will be 23,766 - 7,900 / 3,2 = 21,297 m

Hence the equation to the line fL is y = 0,312500 x + 21,297

The natural ground line MN intersects the batter slope Kj at j and therefore the
equations of these two lines are equal (have the same y value) at the point j, hence
-0,82759 x + 23,538 = - 0,400 x + 26,366
therefore

0,317241 x = 2,82800

x = 8,914 m, which is the dimension S in figure 5.3

We can also obtain the level of j by substituting this value of x into one of the equations.
In this case we will use the equation for the centreline.

y = -0,082759 * 8,914 + 23,538 = 22,800 m

Similarly, to get the dimension R and the level at f, the ground line and the line fL can
be equated.

-0,082759 x + 23,538 = - 0,312500 x + 21,297

-0,229741 = 2,24100

x = - 9,754 m, which is the dimension R in figure 5.3.

The level at f can be found by substituting this value for x in one of the equations.

Y = - 0,082759 * (- 9,754) + 23,538

= 0,807 + 23,538
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= 24,354 m

5.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Road horizontal alignment is composed of curved sections (i.e. circular curves) and
straight sections (sometimes called tangents).

5.4.1 Circular curves

Circular curves are often used as part of the horizontal alignment of roads and railway
tracks. Figure 5.5 shows a diagrammatic representation of a circular curve:

Figure 5.5: Elements of circular curves

The following formulae relate to circular curves:

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 
Tangent length (T)= R tan
2
𝐑 
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞 (𝐚𝐫𝐜)𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐋) =
𝟏𝟖𝟎
∆
𝐂𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐝 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡(𝐁𝐂 − 𝐄𝐂) = 𝟐 𝐑 𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝟐

𝐌𝐢𝐝 𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝐌) = 𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬
𝟐

𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 (𝐄) = 𝐑 𝐒𝐞𝐜 − 𝟏
𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟗, 𝟓𝟖
𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 ∗ (𝐃𝐜) = =
𝐑(𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧) 𝐑(𝐝𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐬)

The degree of curvature (D,) is the central angle, which subtends a 100 m arc of the
curve.

5.4.2 Chainages

It is necessary to have some form of reference in relation to the cumulative distance

along the centreline of the road.

As with general survey work, in engineering work the unit of measurement for road
design is a metre. This was not always the case in South Africa because before 1970
all measurements for engineering works were in imperial units (English feet and
inches). To add to the confusion, cadastral surveys were in Cape feet (1 Cape foot =
1,033 English foot).

Traditionally the distance along the centreline of a road or railway was referred to as
the "chainage". This stems from an earlier English unit of measure called the "chain"
because before flexible measuring tapes as we know them today, a chain of standard
length (66 English feet) was used. Later a unit of 100 feet was adopted for the "chain"
for road and rail surveys.

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However, since metrication there have been a number of names used as an alternative
to the word "chainage" – such as "meterage" if the distance is given in metres or
"kilometrage" if given in kilometres. Another one is "stake value". Some textbooks also
use the term “stations”.

For the purposes of this module, we will use the term "chainage" and its abbreviation
"Ch".

The chainage (Ch) of a point on the centreline is expressed in metres to three decimal
places of a metre, for example, 36 428,319; the station form would be 36+458,319.

5.4.3 Coordinates

Generally, in most countries, the survey of roads and their position is fixed according
to the same survey systems used for cadastral and other surveys adopted for the
whole country. In South Africa the Gauss conform system based on the odd-numbered
lines of longitude is used (i.e. the LO System; refer to the surveying module -
Surveying: Theory and Practical, SUR1501).

Once the route has been agreed on, it can then be fixed using one of the following
techniques:
 by physically placing pegs, flags or other markers in the ground at the points of
intersection (PI) of the straights (tangents) and coordinating them by survey

 by marking the route centreline as a series of straights (tangents) on suitable

survey plans (maps) and scaling the coordinates of the points of intersections
(PI); the coordinates can then be marked on the ground

Example 5.2
Scenario

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Given circular curve radii (R) = 305 m, point of intersection chainage (PIch) = 873,280
m, beginning of curve chainage (BCch) = 639,246 m and end of curve chainage (ECch)
= 1038,491 m.

5.2.1 Determine the curve data, including tangent length (T), central angle (Δ), curve
length (L), external distance (E), mid ordinate (M), chord length and degree of
curvature (D).

Tangent length “T” = PIch – ECch

T = 873,28 – 639,246 = 234,034 m
T = R*tan(Δ/2),
Δ = 2*tan-1 (234,034/305)
Δ = 74.99982⁰ (74⁰ 59’ 59,38’’)
Length of the curve “L” = ПRΔ/180
L = = 399,243 m (also equal to chainage difference between ECch and BCch)

5.2.2 Do the calculations to determine E, M, C and E.

E = R*[sec(Δ/2) – 1]
M = R*[1- cos (Δ/2)]
C = 2 R*sin (Δ/2)
D = 5729,57795/R (D is the angle subtended by an arc length of 100 feet)

5.2.3 Also find the angle subtended by an arc length of 100 m.

Activity 5.4
Scenario
A 600 m radius left-hand curve on a two-lane, two-way curved road has a deflection
angle () of 24 16' 24". A peg on the centreline on the straight approaching the curve
is 800 m from the PI, with a chainage of 6 231,213.

Questions
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5.4.1 Calculate the chainages of the BC and the EC.

5.4.2 Refer to TRH 17 and determine the superelevation rate and the minimum
superelevation development (runoff) length for an 80 km/h design speed for a surfaced
width of 7,4 m having a normal camber of 2%.

5.4.4 Deflection angle

Deflection angle is the angle between the tangent at BC (i.e. BC – PI) and the
extension of the line between BC and any point on the circular curve (e.g. BC- a1);
refer to figure 5.6. The deflection angle for the full length of the circular curve (the
offset angle to the EC) is equal to (Δ/2).

Figure 5.6: Deflection angle

The deflection angle at any point is calculated as follows:

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

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 𝐿𝑖 ∗ ∆
δ=
2∗𝐿
Where:
Li = Arc length
Δ = Central angle
L = Circular curve length

Example 5.3
Scenario
Given the following circular curve details:  = 67o 02' 10", T = 264,935, L = 468,000
m, BC Ch = 574,685 and EC Ch = 1 042,685.
Question
Determine the deflection angles at chainages 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000 and 1042,685.

Solution

Chainage Arc length (Li) δ⁰

(BC) 574,685 0
600 25,315 1o 48' 47"
700 125,315 8o 58' 30"
800 225.315 16o 8' 13" (*)
900 325.315 23o 17' 56"
1000 425.315 30o 27' 39.5"
1 042,685 (EC) 468.000 33o 31' 05" (**)

Sample of calculations (*):

225.315 ∗ (67⁰ 02′ 10)

𝛿 =
2 ∗ 468
𝛿 = 16⁰ 08' 13"

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Note (**): you might have noticed that the deflection angle corresponding to EC equals
(Δ/2).

5.4.5 Templates

Templates are the turning characteristics of the design vehicle using a facility such as
a
 street intersection
 parking lot or garage
 taxi rank
 goods yard
 container terminal

These characteristics (dimensions of the vehicle itself as well as its turning radii) are
usually important when facilities have to be designed for slow-moving traffic.

Templates drawn out to appropriate scales on transparent film, matching those of the
construction drawings, are a very useful aid to ensure that traffic movements will be
carried out effectively. These transparent templates showing the wheel paths of the
design vehicle (drawn to the same scale as the plan of the project) can be placed over
the design plan. Refer to TRH 17 to learn more about templates and equations
governing their design. However, in TRH 17, the formula for a rigid chassis vehicle is
incorrectly presented. The sketch in figure 5.7 below shows the corrected version.

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Figure 5.7: Templates (TRH 17)

Activity 5.5

Calculate the inner rear track radius and outer front radius of the following vehicles
for the following parameters:

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Design vehicle Lane width (m) Curb radius (m)
Passenger car 3,5 6,0
Single-unit truck 3,8 11,0
Semi-trailer (WB50) 4,0 12,0

5.4.6 Successive curves

Successive curves are unfavourable but avoidable in many instances, and therefore they
deserve consideration when developing the horizontal alignment for road design. Refer
to TRH 17 and learn about the various combinations of circular curves that might be
encountered in a road horizontal alignment. Apart from simple circular curves, these
combinations include
 broken-back curves
 compound curves
 reverse curves with tangent
 reverse curves without tangent

Figure 5.8 shows simple curve combinations.

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

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 Figure 5.8: Types of circular curves

Activity 5.6

Fully define the following:

a. reverse curves
b. broken back curves
c. compound curves
d. shoulder sight distance

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5.4.7 Calculation of chainages and coordinates

To calculate the chainages on a curve of a road, you will use the following two
methods:
 join calculation
 polar calculation
Refer to section 5.2.1 (Definitions) in this study unit for the definition of these
methods.

Generally, the horizontal alignment of a road is based on the centreline of the road or
the median in the case of a dual-carriageway road. The centreline of a road is generally
a series of straight sections (tangents) with curves introduced where the straights
change direction. The point of intersection of two tangents (straights) is usually called
the PI.

A list can now be compiled of the coordinates of the PIs and the radii of the
corresponding horizontal curves (these elements uniquely determine the centreline of
a road) as shown in table 5.1 below.

Table 5.1: PI coordinates

PI No Y (m) X (m) Radius (m)

0 - 18 312,454 + 33 489,623 0
1 - 22 406,315 + 35 203,148 400
2 - 27 569,718 + 34 316, 202 530
3 - 33 478,128 + 35 504,694 650
4 - 41 708,414 + 35 215,304 480
5 - 45 132,414 + 37 309,816 0

The chainages of a road must run consecutively from the beginning of the project to
the end along the centreline.
TRE2601 -- Study unit 5
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[Link] Join calculations

The first step when using this method for calculating chainages is to take out the joins
between the points of intersection (PIs.) Use the direction measurement conversion
given in figure 5.9 and complete the join calculations as set out below.

Note that the directions are measured clockwise from 0º South axis. To obtain the
direction and distance, complete the join calculations set out below by using the
direction measurement conversion given in table 5.1.

1. Take 𝑌1 − 𝑌0 coordinates and 𝑋1 − 𝑋0 coordinates to obtain the difference in Y’s

and X’s called ∆Y and ∆X, respectively.
Formula one (1): 𝑌1 − 𝑌0 = ∆𝑌 ; Formula two (2): 𝑋1 − 𝑋0 = ∆𝑋
∆ ∆
2. Take arc tangent = (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝛼) = ∆ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∆

3. Identify the quadrant with the correspondent ∆𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑋 signs as illustrated in table
5.2:

Table 5.2: Quadrants – identification and directions

Signs
Quadrants Directions Distances
∆𝑌 ∆𝑋

+ + 1 =𝛼 (∆ 𝑌)² + (∆ 𝑥)²

+ - 2  = 180 - 𝛼 (∆ 𝑌)² + (∆ 𝑥)²

- - 3  = 180 + 𝛼 (∆ 𝑌)² + (∆ 𝑥)²

- + 4  = 360 - 𝛼 (∆ 𝑌)² + (∆ 𝑥)²

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

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Figure 5.9: Direction measurement convention

Join PI 0 to PI 1
Y X
PI O -18 312,454 + 33 489,623 α1 = 67⁰17′16″
PI 1 -22 406,315 + 35 203,148 1 = 292⁰ 42′ 44″

Q4 dy = - 4093.861 dx = 1713.525 d1 = 4438.002 m

∆𝑌 = 4083.861
(𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑛 α1) =
∆𝑋 = 1713.525

α1 = 67⁰17′16″
The angle is situated in quadrant 4, therefore the direction will be calculated as follows:
360⁰-67⁰17′16″=292⁰ 42′ 44

Join PI 1 to PI 2
Y X
PI 1 - 22 406,315 + 35 203,148 α2 = 80⁰ 15′ 11″
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PI 2 - 27 569,718 + 34 316, 202 2 = 260′⁰ 15′ 11″

Q3 dy = -5163.403 dx = -886.946 d2 = 5239.027 m

Join PI 2 to PI 3
Y X
PI 2 - 27 569,718 + 34 316, 202 α3 = 78⁰ 37′ 36″
PI 3 - 33 478,128 + 33 504,694 3 = 281⁰ 22′ 24″

Q4 dy = - 5908.410 dx = 1188.492 d3 = 6026.759

m
Join PI 3 to PI 4
Y X
PI 3 - 33 478,128 + 33 504,694 α4 = 87⁰ 59′ 10″
PI 4 - 41 708,414 + 36 215,304 5239.027

Q=3 dy = - 8230.286 dx = - 289.390 d4 = 8235.372 m

Join PI 4 to PI 5
Y X
PI 4 - 41 708,414 + 36 215,304 α5 = 58⁰ 32′ 43
PI 5 - 45 132.414 + 37 309,816 5 =3 01⁰ 27′ 17″

Q=4 dy = -3424.000 dx = 2094.512 d5 = 4013.821 m

4. The next step is to calculate the deflection angles () between the tangents
(straights) from the join directions.

1 = 2 − 1 = (𝑃𝐼 1  𝑃𝐼 2) − (𝑃𝐼 𝑂 ~ 𝑃𝐼 1) = 292⁰ 42′ 44″ − 260⁰ 15′ 11″

= 𝟑𝟐⁰ 𝟐𝟕′ 𝟑𝟑″
2 = 3 − 2 = (𝑃𝐼 2  𝑃𝐼 3) − (𝑃𝐼 1 ~ 𝑃𝐼 2) = 281⁰ 22′ 24″ − 260⁰ 15′ 11″
= 𝟐𝟏⁰ 𝟎𝟕′ 𝟏𝟑″

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 3 = 4 − 3 = (𝑃𝐼 3  𝑃𝐼 4) − (𝑃𝐼 2 ~ 𝑃𝐼 3) = 281⁰ 22′ 24″ − 267⁰ 59′ 10″
= 𝟏𝟑⁰ 𝟐𝟑′ 𝟏𝟒″
4 = 5 − 4 = ( 𝑃𝐼 4  𝑃𝐼 5) − (𝑃𝐼 3 ~ 𝑃𝐼 4) = 301⁰ 27′ 17″ − 267⁰ 59′ 10″
= 𝟑𝟑⁰ 𝟐𝟖′ 𝟎𝟕″

5. The next step is to calculate the tangent lengths and curve (arc) lengths of the
curves.

Tangent lengths:
∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 400 ∗ tan(16.22955⁰) = 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝒎
2
∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 530 ∗ tan(10.56015⁰) = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟖𝟎𝟓 𝒎
2
∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 650 ∗ tan(6.69360⁰) = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝒎
2
∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 555 ∗ tan(16.73427⁰) = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝒎
2
Curve lengths:
π∗R ∗∆ 𝛑 ∗ 𝟒𝟎𝟎 ∗ 32 27 33
L = = = 𝟐𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝐦
180 180
π∗R ∗∆ 𝛑 ∗ 𝟓𝟑𝟎 ∗ 21⁰ 07′ 13″
L = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝐦
180 180
π∗R ∗∆ 𝛑 ∗ 𝟔𝟓𝟎 ∗ 13⁰ 23′ 14″
L = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟑 𝐦
180 180
π∗R ∗∆ 𝛑 ∗ 𝟓𝟓𝟓 ∗ 33⁰ 28′ 07″
L = = = 𝟐𝟖𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝐦
180 180

6. Calculating chainages
It now remains to calculate the chainages (Ch) of the BCs, MPs and ECs of each
curve.

Assume that the chainage of PI 0 = 0.000 m

Ch PI 0 = 0.000

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Add (d1 - T1) + (4 438.002- 116.435)
Ch BC 1 = 4 321.567
Add L1/2 + (226.608/2)
Ch MP 1 = 4 434.871
Add L1/2 + (226.608/2)
Ch EC 1 = 4 548.175
Add (d2-T1-T2) + (5 239.027-116.435- 98.805)
Ch BC 2 = 9 571.962
Add L2/2 + (195.368/2)
Ch MP 2 = 9 669.646
Add L2/2 + (195.368/2)
Ch EC 2 = 9 767.330
Add (d3-T2-T3) + (6 026.759- 98.805- 76.284)
Ch BC 3 = 15 619.000
Add L3/2 + (151.873/2)
Ch MP 3 = 15 694.9365
Add L3/2 + (151.873/2)
Ch EC 3 = 15 770.873
Add (d4- T3-T4) + (8 235.372-76.284- 144.320)
Ch BC 4 = 23 785.641
Add L4 /2 + (280.386/2)
Ch MP 3 = 23 925.834
Add L4/2 + (280.386/2)
Ch EC 4 = 24 066.027
Add (d5-T4) + (4 013.821-144.320)
Ch PI 5 = 27 935.528

The coordinates of the BCs, MPs and ECs can then be calculated using polar
calculations. The direction and distance from a point of known coordinates are
required.

[Link] Polar calculations

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5
University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
This another method used in calculating chainages and this is how you go about using
it:
PI 0 to BC 1
ϴ = 292⁰42′44′′
𝐷 = 4 321.567 𝑚
dy = d ∗ sinϴ = 4 321.567 ∗ sin(292⁰42′44′′) = −3986.454
dx = d ∗ cos ϴ == 4 321.567 ∗ cos(292⁰42′44′′) = 1 668.569
Y X
PI 0 -18 312.454 33 489.623
Add dy -3 986.454 dx 1 668.569
BC 1 -22 298.908 35 158.192
PI 1 to EC 1
ϴ = 260⁰ 15′11′′
𝐷 = 116.435 𝑚
dy = d ∗ sinϴ = 116.435 ∗ sin(260⁰ 15′11′′) = −114.754
dx = d ∗ cos ϴ = 116.435 ∗ cos(260⁰ 15′11′′) = −19.712
Y X
PI 1 -22 406.315 35 203.148
Add dy -114.754 dx -19.712
BC 1 -22 521.069 35 183.436
BC 1 to MP 1
ϴ = 284⁰35′51′′
𝐷 = 112.925 𝑚
dy = d ∗ sinϴ = 112.925 ∗ sin(284⁰35′51′′) = −109.280
dx = d ∗ cos ϴ = 112.925 ∗ cos(284⁰35′51′′) = 28.460
Y X
BC 1 -22 298.908 35 158.192
Add dy -109.280 dx 28.460
MP 1 22 408.188 35
186.652

Activity 5.7
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Information illustrated in the table below relates to the horizontal alignment on the
centreline of a road.

Y X Curve radius (m)

Ch 12 312,416 + 22 994,316 + 31 049,864 -
PI 7 + 22 501,726 + 31 008,582 500
PI 8 + 22 053,752 + 31 359,158 ?
PI 9 + 21 551,367 + 31 394,360 -

5.7.1 Calculate the radius required for curve 8 that will give a distance along
the tangent (straight) between EC 7 and BC 8 of 140,082 m.

5.7.2 Calculate the chainages and coordinates of the BCs and ECs of the
curves.

5.4.8 Transition curves

A vehicle approaching a circular curve does not follow the geometrics of the centreline
of the road, but follows a path as shown in figure 5.10.

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 Figure 5.10: Typical vehicle path travelling along circular curve

It is sometimes necessary to insert a transition section to ease its path into the circular
curve. Figure 5.11 shows the position of a transition curve as part of the horizontal
alignment.

Figure 5.11: Position of transition curves in road horizontal alignment

A transition curve may be considered as a curve whose radius decreases from infinity
() to the same radius as the central circular portion of the curve over its length according
to a certain formula. The formula governing the shape of a transition curve is usually a
spiral but may also be a lemniscate or cubic parabola. Transition curves are used on
almost all railway tracks except on very slow lines. The respective transition curve
formula and length calculations are beyond the scope of this study guide.

Figure 5.12 illustrates the layout of a circular curve with transitions.

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 Figure 5.12: A circular curve with transitions on the approach and leave

5.4.9 Superelevation of curves

On single-carriageway roads the superelevation is affected by rotating the road,

towards the curve centre, about the centreline, inside edge or outside edge. In most
cases the road is revolved about the centreline to achieve the desired superelevation.

You may be wondering why a superelevation is applied on a circular curve. Well, the
short answer is: To counteract the centripetal force generated due to the movement
of a vehicle on a circular path.

NB: To answer this question in more detail, do a literature search to get more
information.
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Figure 5.13 shows a schematic representation of applying centreline rotation to roads
that have different travel lane configurations.

Normal crossfall or Full superelevation

reverse camber

Normal camber

(a) Single-carriageway road

(b) Dual carriageway – both carriageways are rotated about the median centreline

(c) Dual carriageway – each carriageway is rotated about its centreline

Figure 5.13: Travel lane configuration and superelevation

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As far as superelevation of dual carriageway roads is considered, a third scenario can
be applied. Each carriageway can be rotated about its inner edge or inner curb line as
shown in figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14: Rotate each carriageway about inner edge or inner curb line

Refer to TRH 17 to learn about the equation that governs the movement of a vehicle
on a circular curve, the concept of minimum radii and side friction factor (also called
sideways force coefficient).

Example 5.4
Scenario
A vehicle is travelling along a circular curve of radii R = 250 m at the legal speed limit of
80 km/h. The coefficient of side friction can be estimated using the TRH 17 formula.

Questions
5.4.1 Calculate the required superelevation.

e + fs = v2/ g.R
Where:
e = Superelevation
fs = Side friction factor
v = Vehicle speed
R = Curve radii
g = Gravitational factor (9.81 m/sec2)

5.4.2 Calculate the side friction factor fs = 0.19 – V/1600

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fs = 0.19 - (80 / 1600), fs = 0.14

e + 0.14 = (80/3.6)2 / (250*9.81)

e = 0.201 - 0.14
e = 0.061 (6.1%)

5.4.3 Check TRH 17 tables to find out if the given radii (250 m) meet the minimum radius
specifications.

Activity 5.8

5.8.1 The following table gives horizontal curves of varying radii. Complete the table by
filling in the required superelevation rates for the stated design speeds obtained
from figure 3.5.2 in TR H17.

Design speed
Radius (m)
50 60 75 100 120
400
1 200
1 500
2 100
4 000
6 000

5.8.2 Calculate the minimum radius for a horizontal curve on an 80 km/h design speed
road, if the superelevation is 5,2% and the side friction factor between the tyre
and the road surface is 0,3.

5.4.10 Superelevation development

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A camber is designed for a straight/tangent section of the road, whereas a curved
section is superelevated. The transition from a straight section to a curved section and
vice versa must be maintained without driver discomfort or speed reduction.

For a given design speed, the change from crown to curve superelevation is achieved
over a particular road length. These lengths are called crown runoff (also called runout
length in American literature) and runoff; refer to the definition section. This change
can also be accommodated over a transition curve length in case the design speed is
relatively high and sharp circular curve is designed.

Figure 5.15 may help to clarify the concept of superelevation runoff on two-lane, two-
way roads:
FULL SUPERELEVATION

R
FF

U
N
O

-O
N-

1/
3

3 FF
1/
RU

L
L

2/
3

3
2/

L
BC
EC

Plan view

Figure 5.15: Superelevation without transition

Where there is no transition curve, one-third of the superelevation runoff is applied on

the curve and the remaining two-thirds are spread over the tangent (straight). Refer to
figure 3.5.3 (a) in TRH 17 for the details of the superelevation development diagram.

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The superelevation development diagram is slightly different in shape between the left-
hand curve and right-hand curve, refer to figure 5.16.

RIGHT EDGE

CENTRE LINE

LEFT EDGE

BEGINNING OF CURVE END OF CURVE

Left-hand curve

LEFT EDGE

CENTRE LINE

RIGHT EDGE

BEGINNING OF CURVE END OF CURVE

Right-hand curve

Figure 5.16: Superelevation development diagram into and out of a

simple circular curve

If transition curves are used in the approach and leave of a circular curve, the
change from crown section to a fully superelevated curve should be
accomplished before the circular curve (approach) and after the circular curve
(leave). This means that the entire circular curve is superelevated, starting at
BC and ending at EC – as shown in figure 5.17. You can see the shape of the
superelevation development diagram of an alignment including transition
curves in TRH 17.

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 FULL SUPERELEVATION

ETC ETC

BTC BTC

Plan view

Figure 5.17: Superelevation with transition

Based on the above discussion on superelevation development, think of the difficulties

that may arise as a result of successive curves in road alignment. Refer to figure 5.8.

Example 5.5 (Calculation of superelevation runoff)

Refer also to figures 3.5.3(a) and 3.5.3(b) in TRH 17.

The objective is to calculate the edge of pavement levels relative to the centreline
levels so that the superelevation runoff can be set out accurately. These calculations
depend on the principle of simple proportion, for instance:

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 f
b

a c g
e
In the above right-angled triangles the following ratios apply:

de/bc = ae/ac and fg / bc = ag / ag

Figure 5.18 represents a section of road on either side of the BC of a circular curve
without transition on a straight grade.

Figure 5.18: Section on superelevation runoff

The finished road levels on the centreline at points X and Y are as given.
X: Ch 1 400,000 Elevation 39,240 Y: Ch 1 800,000 Elevation = 36,830

Other details are the following:

 Design speed of the road = 100 km/h
 Radius of the curve = 100 m
 The chainage of the BC is at Ch 1683, 920
 Normal camber is 2,000%
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  The surfaced width is 7,4 m (two lanes of 3,7 m, symmetrical about the
centreline)

Design superelevation rates can be read off the graph given in TRH 17, figure 3.5.2.
Bear in mind that this diagram applies to rural roads which generally have a high running
speed and therefore a maximum superelevation rate of e = 0.1 (or 10%). For urban roads
refer to UTG 1 (figures 9.1 and 9.2) giving maximum superelevation rates of e = 0,6
(6%) and 0,8 (8%).

The superelevation runoff length must be determined by calculation or a suitable

length chosen according to the circumstances or topography, provided that it is not
shorter than the minimum given in TRH 17 table 3.5.3(b). The objective now is to
calculate the centreline and edge of pavement levels at intervals along the road.

Relative slope factor

The relative slope factor is just the relationship between the longitudinal slope of the
edge of the pavement and the centreline of the roadway, expressed as a ratio (e.g. 1:
140).

Example 5.6
Scenario
A two-lane, two-way road has a 3,7 m wide lane and a 3,0 m wide surfaced shoulder
in each direction. A simple horizontal curve in the road has a degree of curvature Dc
of 13° and intersection angle of 55°25’. The BC is located at chainage 2+450 and
normal camber is 2,5%. The design speed of the road is 112 km/h. The finished road
levels at Ch 1+900 and Ch 3+400 are 221 m and 186 m, respectively, and the gradient
is uniform between these points.
Questions
5.6.1 Calculate the minimum radius required for the horizontal curve.
5.6.2 Determine the length of the curve and the chainage of the EC.
5.6.3 Compute the design superelevation “e” value.
5.6.4 Determine the minimum length of the crown runoff.
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 5.6.5 Calculate the minimum length of the superelevation development.
5.6.6 Draw a fully labelled superelevation diagram for the whole curve.
5.6.7 Determine the centreline elevations and elevations along the edge of the
road on the LHS and the RHS at all key points on the diagram.

Solution

5.6.1 Calculate the minimum radius required for the horizontal curve.
.
— Dc =
.
— R = = 440.737 m

5.6.2 Determine the length of the curve and the chainage of the EC.
∆
— L =
. ∗ ∗ .
— L = = 426.282 m
— EC Ch = 2 450.0 + 426.282 = 2 876.282

5.6.3 Determine the design superelevation “e” value.

— e + fs =

— fs = 0.19 − = 0.12

— e = − fs

— e = ( . )
− 0.12 = 0.10411

— e = 10.411 % (greater than e max)

5.6.4 Determine the minimum length of the crown runoff Lc.

— Lc =
. ∗ . ∗ ∗
— Lc = = 22.94 m

Determine the minimum length of the superelevation development.

. ∗ . ∗ ∗
— L = = 95.531 m

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(Note: 95,531 m is greater than the minimum recommended by TRH 17)

5.6.5 Draw a fully labelled superelevation diagram including the approach, circular
curve and the leave.

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TRE2601 -- Study unit 5
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5.6.6 Determine the centreline elevations and elevations along the edge of the road
on the LHS and the RHS at all key points on the diagram.
( . . )
— Slope = = − = −0.02333 = −2.333%

Outer Inner
Height Centreline
Point Chainage edge edge
offset elevation
elevation elevation

1 900.000 221.000

NC 2 363.375 0.168 210.020 210.188 210.020

AD 2 386.315 0.168 209.653 209.653 209.485

entrance
Curve

CF 2 409.255 0.168 209.285 209.117 208.950

BC 2 450.000 0.465 208.632 208.167 207.702

FS 2 481.842 0.698 208.121 207.424 206.726

FS 2 844.440 0.698 199.661 198.963 198.266

EC 2 876.282 0.465 198.685 198.220 197.755

Curve
exit

CF 2 917.027 0.168 197.437 197.269 197.102

AD 2 939.967 0.168 196.734 196.734 196.567

NC 2 962.907 0.168 196.031 196.199 196.031

3 400.000 186.000

Activity 5.9
Scenario
A right-hand curve on a two-lane, two-way road has its BC at Ch 1420 and its EC at
Ch 1680. The superelevation rate is 0,06 m/m and the superelevation development
(runoff) length is 60 m. The centreline of the road is on a straight grade of 2,400000%
and the level at Ch 1300 is 17,23. The road has a normal camber of 2,00%.

Questions
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5.9.1 Calculate the levels on the centreline and on the left and right edges every 20
m between Ch 1300 and Ch 1760 if the width of surfacing is 7,4 m and the
pavement surface is rotated about the centreline. Draw a sketch of the
superelevation development (runoff) at both the BC and the EC.

5.9.2 Repeat the exercise for a left-hand curve using the same information and data
as above.

5.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The vertical alignment is made up of a series of tangent sections intersecting at points

of vertical intersection (PVIs) with parabolic vertical curves (VCs) introduced at each
PVI.

The vertical alignment is determined on the longitudinal section plans on which the
interpolated or surveyed ground levels have been plotted. Based on the directions of
the intersecting grades, two types of curves can be used – crest curves and sag curves
as illustrated in figure 5.19.

Figure 5.19: Crest and sag curves

A vertical curve is used where two gradients intersect on the longitudinal profile of the
road, and depending on the gradients concerned, it will either be a crest (summit) or
a sag (valley) curve. A simple parabolic curve is usually employed.

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5.5.1 Curvature

The vertical alignment of a road is usually determined on the finished road level along
the staked centreline for two-lane, two-way roads and four-lane undivided roads. On
dual-carriageway roads with a median the vertical alignment of each carriageway may
be determined separately along the centreline of that carriageway or in some
instances along the inner edge of the inner carriageway – depending on the
topography.

5.5.2 Calculation of gradients

The gradient of a road is the slope of the road at a point relative to the imaginary
horizontal line intercepting the gradient, usually expressed as a percentage. The next
example explains the determination of gradient values when chainages and elevations
are given for points on the grade line.

Example 5.7
Scenario
The following data is for a crest curve illustrated in figure 5.20.

Figure 5.20: Crest curve

Question

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Determine the grade of the uphill and downhill sections.

Solution
To calculate the gradient of the road between the first PVI and the second PVI in figure
5.20, the difference between the elevations is divided by the distance between them;
obtained by subtracting the nearer chainage from the further one – as shown below:

G1 = [(25,900 -16,300)/ (900 -450)]*100 = +2.122%

G2 = [(14,250 -25,900)/(1620 – 900)]*100 = -1.618%

It is extremely important to observe the numerical sign of the grade.

 A positive sign means the road is on an upgrade.

 A negative sign means the road is on a downgrade.

From the vehicle operation viewpoint, gradients should be as flat as possible. Steep
gradients present one of the greatest barriers to free-flowing conditions in mixed traffic.

See the maximum grades recommended on South African rural roads in TRH 17. For
urban roads and streets, the UTG series of manuals on urban geometric design should
be consulted.

Minimum gradients are only considered where it is necessary to provide longitudinal

drainage facilities as in the case of kerbed pavements and through-cuttings. Generally
minimum gradients should be not less than 0,3% but preferably not less than 0,5%.

5.5.3 Fundamentals of simple parabolic curves

Figure 5.21 shows the elements of a parabolic curve. The vertical curve is symmetrical
about the VPI chainage (also called equal-tangent vertical curve).

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

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 Figure 5.21: Elements of parabolic curve

The general equation of a parabolic curve is

Y = a X2 + b X + C

Where:
Y = Level required at a distance x from the BVC of the vertical curve in the direction of
increasing chainage

a =

G1 %
b =
100
C = Elevation (level) at start of curve (BVC)
A = Algebraic grade difference (G2 - G1)%
L = Curve length (m)
K = L/A

The next numerical example will explain the parameters of the parabolic equation.

Example 5.8

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If the curve length L = 400 m, elevation and chainages are given, so gradients can be
determined as below:

84,200  69,350
G1   100  2,03425 %
850  120

61,400  84,200
G2   100  4,145455 %
1400  850
The two grades form a crest curve, since G1 is positive and G2 is negative.

A = -4,145455 - (+ 2,03425) = - 6,179705 %

Note: A is an absolute value and should be taken as positive, thus, A = 6.179705%.

2,03425  530
C  69,350   80,132
100
2,03425
b  0,0203425
100

 6,179705
a  0,000077246
200  400

Hence the parabola equation can be written as follows:

Y = -0,000077246 X2 + 0,0203425 X + 80,132

To find the level at any point on the vertical curve, subtract the chainage of the BVC
from the chainage of the required point, to give X and substitute into the equation.

For example, if the level of the road surface is required at chainage 900,

the chainage of the BVC = 850 - 200 = 650

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X = 900 - 650 = 250
Y = -0,000154493 (250)2 + 0,0203425 (250) + 80,132
= 80,390

Sag curves are treated in exactly the same way. The only difference is that the signs
of G1 and G2 will change and consequently those of a and b will also change.

To find the highest point on a crest curve and the lowest point on a sag curve we need
to consider the following:

From the equation Y = a X2 + b X + C, if we take the first derivative we get

dY
 2aX  b  0
dX
which is the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point X.

The slope of the tangent is horizontal at the lowest or highest point on the sag or crest
dY
curves respectively, thus, when  2aX  b  0
dX

b
Now solving this equation for X we get X  
2a

Using the figures from the above example:

 0,0203425
X  131,673
2  ( 0,000077246)

The highest point therefore occurs at chainage 650 + 131,673 = 781,673

To find the level of the highest point substitute the value of X into the vertical curve
equation:

TRE2601 -- Study unit 5

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Y = - 0,000077246 (131,673)2 + 0,0203425 (65,836) + 80,132
= 81,471 m

Example 5.9
Scenario
A 183 m sag vertical curve has its PVC at station 5+181.600 and at elevation 304.800
m. The entry grade is -3,5% and the exit grade is +0,5%.
Questions
5.9.1 Determine the chainage and elevation of the PVI, the PVT and the lowest point
on the curve. Also, find the equation of the parabola representing this curve.

Ch PVI = Ch BVC + L/2

Ch PVI = 5181.6 + (183/2) = 5273.100 m
Ch EVC = Ch BVC + L
Ch EVC = 5181.6 + 183 = 5364.6 m
Elev PVI = Elev BVC + (G1/100)(L/2)
Elev PVI = 304.8 + (-0.035)(91.5) = 301.598 m
Elev EVC = Elev PVI + (G2/100)(L/2)
EVC Elev = 301.598 + (0.005)(91.5) = 302.056 m
Distance (x) to the low point = (183*0.035)/(0.005 + 0.035) = 160.125 m

Chainage at low point = BVC Ch +x

Chainage at low point = 5181.8 + 160.125 = 5341.925 m
Low point Elev = 301.998 m (you should show calculations to reach this answer)
The parabola equation:
General parabola equation: Y = aX2 + bX + c
a = (G2-G1)/ (200 L)
a = 0.04/2*183 = 1.092 x 10-4
b = G1 = -0.035
C = Elev BVC = 304.8
Y = 1.092x10-4X2 -0.035X + 304.8

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NB: You should be able to generate a graph of the above equation.

5.9.2 Do the same above calculations if the entry grade is + 3,5% and exit grade is –
0,5%, which generates a crest curve. All other details remain unchanged. You should
do the necessary calculations to arrive at the answers given below:

Solutions
Ch PVI = 5273.100 m
Ch EVC = 5364.600
Elev PVI = 308.003 m
EVC Elev = 307.546 m
Distance (x) to the highest point = 160.125 m
Ch of high point = 5341.925 m
High point Elev = 310.387 m
The parabola equation: Y = -1.092 x 10-4X2 +0.035X + 304.8

Activity 5.10

Basic data is given for the vertical alignment shown in the table below:

Chainage (m) PVI elevation Vertical curve length

100 16.100
500 36,900 500
900 26,600 200
1200 37,950

Determine the following:

a. The finished road levels every 50 m
b. The "K" values of the vertical curves (vc)
c. The chainage and level of the highest or lowest points
d. The design speed (maximum safe speed) of this section of road

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5.5.4 Climbing lanes

Climbing lanes are covered in detail in TRH 17, section 4.4, pages 36 to 39. You
should be able to describe the function of a climbing lane, identify locations where it
should be provided and the warrants for it to be provided, and neatly sketch the details
of a climbing lane terminal. You should also establish the link between the concepts
“critical length of the grade” and “provision of climbing lanes”.

It is extremely important that the downstream terminal be taken far enough beyond the
crest of the vertical curve so that the slow-moving vehicle in the climbing lane can pick
up sufficient speed to re-enter the mainstream of traffic.

Activity 5.11

Scenario
The table below provides details of the vertical alignment of a section of two-lane, two-
way road having a normal camber of 2% and a surfaced width of 7,4 m:

Ch of PVI Elevation of PVI VC length (m)

8 300,000 39,100 -
8 900,000 53,450 600
9 600,000 29,620 -

Questions
5.11.1 Calculate the finished road levels on the centreline and at the edges of
surfacing at Ch 8 500, Ch 8 700, Ch 8 800, Ch 8 900 Ch 9 000, Ch 9 100, Ch 9 200,
and Ch 9 300.

5.11.2 Calculate the value of K for the vertical curve.

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5.11.3 Calculate the chainage and the level of the highest point on the curve.

5.6 SIGHT DISTANCE

For safe operations, roads must be designed to allow drivers a sufficient distance of
unobstructed vision ahead so they can avoid hitting unexpected obstacles or overtake
a slower vehicle.

Refer to TRH 17 and learn the concepts and relevant formulations of stopping sight
distance (SSD), decision sight distance (DSD), passing sight distance (PSD) and
shoulder sight distance for stop and yield controlled intersections.

5.6.1 Stopping sight distance

The sight distance at every section of the road should be longer than the minimum
SSD. The minimum required SSD is based on the sum of two components: the
distance travelled during perception-reaction time before the driver applied the brake,
and the distance travelled after the application of the brake until the vehicle comes to
a complete stop. Refer to TRH 17 to learn the equation to calculate the required
minimum SSD on a level road.

Example 5.10
Question
5.10.1 Calculate the SSD on a level road design; speed is 100 km/h.

Solution
SSD = 0.694 V + V2/254f
Refer to TRH 17 table 2.4.1; the brake force coefficient = 0.29
Note: The brake force coefficient is different from the side friction factor (fs) discussed
earlier for superelevation. The brake force coefficient is the factor for the longitudinal
friction, whereas fs is for the side friction. You need to establish why f and fs are
different in value.
TRE2601 -- Study unit 5
University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
SSD = 0.694*100 + 1002/ (254*0.29) =
SSD = 69.4 + 135.759 = 205.159 m
You should realise that the driver travelled 69,4 m while perceiving an obstacle on the
road and travelled 205,159 m during the braking course of the vehicle.

The effect of the gradient of the road can be taken into account as follows:

SSD = 0.694 V + V2/[254 (f ± 0.01*G)]

5.10.2 For the same road of the previous example, assume (a) an uphill gradient of
+5% and (b) a downhill gradient of -5%.

Solution
Uphill case:
SSD = 0.694 V + V2/[254 (f ± 0.01*G)]
SSD = 69.4 + 1002/[254(0.29 +0.05)]
SSD = 69.4 + 115.794 = 185.194 m

Downhill case:
SSD = 69.4 + 1002/[254(0.29 -0.01*5)]
SSD = 69.4 + 164.042 = 233.442 m

You may have noticed that the minimum required SSD is greater for the downgrade
than for the uphill and level road sections. Also, for a particular speed, the distance
travelled during perception-reaction time is unchanged regardless of road gradient
conditions.

5.6.2 Passing sight distance

On two-lane, two-way roads, the opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be

provided at intervals in the interest of safety and service to the faster-moving drivers.
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Passing sight distance is measured from driver's eye, 1,05 m above the pavement to
the top of an object (a passenger car) 1,3 m high above the pavement. For it to be
effective on two-lane roads, passing sight distance should be provided over a large
proportion of the highway length. The minimum clear distance ahead to permit safe
passing is called the safe passing sight distance. This distance should be long enough
to permit a vehicle to pass an overtaken vehicle safely and return to the left lane with
reasonable clearance before meeting an oncoming vehicle.

In computing safe passing sight distance, certain assumptions relative to traffic

behaviour are generally made. These are the following:
 The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.
 The passing vehicle is required to follow at the same speed until there is an
opportunity to pass.
 The driver of the passing vehicle requires a certain period of time to start
their manoeuvre.
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the passing manoeuvre and its
average speed during occupancy of the right lane is 15 km per hour, thus,
greater than that of the overtaken vehicle.

The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane roads is determined from the sum of
the four distances illustrated in figure 5.22.

Figure 5.22: Distances required for safe overtaking manoeuvre

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d1 = Distance travelled during the preliminary delay period (the distance
travelled during perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the right-hand lane)
d2 = Distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies any part of the
right-hand lane
d3 = Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its manoeuvre and
the opposing vehicle
d4 = Distance covered by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the right-hand lane, or 2/3d2. (The implication
here is that during the first part of the passing manoeuvre the driver can
still return to the left-hand lane if they see an opposing vehicle; this
uncommitted distance is about 1/3d2. Since the opposing and passing
vehicles are assumed to be travelling at the same speed, d4 = 2/3 d2.)

( )
PSD =d1 + d2 + d3 +d4 d = 2

2
d2 = 𝑣 t 2 d4 = 3 d2

Table 5.3 provides values for t1 and t2 for various speed ranges.

Table 5.3: Passing sight distance

Speed group (km/h)

48 - 64 65 - 80 81- 96 97-112

Component of passing Average passing speed (km/h)

manoeuvre 56.1 70.4 84.6 99.7
Average passed speed (km/h)
40.1 54.4 68.5 83.7
average acceleration
(m/s2) 2.25 2.30 2.37 2.41

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 Occupation Initia

man
t1 = time (sec) 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.5

of left lane l
t2 = time (sec)
9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3

Safety distance, d3 (m) 30.5 54.9 76.2 91.5

Example 5.11
Scenario
A vehicle moving at a speed of 80 km/h is slowing traffic on a two-lane highway.
5.11.1 What passing sight distance is necessary for a passing manoeuvre to be carried
out safely?
5.11.2 Calculate the passing sight distance by hand, and then compare it to the values
recommended by TRH 17.

In your calculations, assume that the following variables have the values given:
 Passing vehicle driver's perception/reaction time = 2.5 sec
 Passing vehicle's acceleration rate = 2.41 m/sec
 Initial speed of passing vehicle = 85 km/h
 Passing speed of passing vehicle = 100 km/h
 Speed of slow vehicle = 85 km/h
 Speed of opposing vehicle = 100 km/h
You should also assume that the passing vehicle accelerates to passing speed before
moving into the right lane.

( )
– d = 2

– v = .
= .
= 23.611 m/s

– v = .
= .
= 27.778 m/s

– t = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝐬𝐞𝐜

– t = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑 𝐬𝐞𝐜

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 . ( . . )
– d = 2
= 115.625 m

– d2 = v t 2 = 27.778 ∗ 11.3 = 𝟑𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟗 m

– d3 = 91.5 m
2
– d4 = 3
d2 = ∗ 313.889 = 209.259 m

– PSD =d1 + d2 + d3 +d4 = 115.625 + 313.889+ 91.5 + 209.259 = 730.264 m

Safe passing sight distance for various speed ranges, determined from distance and
time values observed in the field during passing manoeuvres, are summarised in table
2.5.4 in TRH 17.

Activity 5.12

Fully define the following:

a. stopping sight distance
b. barrier sight distance
c. decision sight distance
d. passing sight distance

5.6.3 Sight distance over vertical curves

The sight distance available over a crest curve depends on the curve length, and
algebraic difference in grades. Figure 5.23 illustrates the available sight distance on
crest curves. Based on this diagram, you may have realised that an obstacle height of
less than 0,15 m would reduce the available SSD, whereas an eye height greater than
1,05 m (e.g. height of a truck driver’s eye) would increase the sight distance over the
crest curve.

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Figure 5.23: Sight line over a crest curve

The following formulae apply to crest curves:

 When the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the crest vertical curve (L):
S< L: L = (S2 A)/100 [(2h1)0,5 + (2h2)0,5]2

 When the sight distance (S) is greater than the length of the crest vertical curve
(L):
S> L: L = 2 S – (100 [(2h1)0,5 + (2h2)0,5]2)/A
Where:
L = Length of crest vertical curve (m)
S = Sight distance available over crest vertical curve (m)
h1 = Driver’s eye height (m)
h2 = Object height (m)
A = Algebraic difference in grades (per cent)

The sight distance available over sag vertical curves becomes important at night and
depends on the headlights of the vehicle. The headlights on the average motor car are
considered to be 0,6 m above the road surface and the light beam angled upwards at
10.
Figure 5.24 illustrates the available sight distance on sag curves.

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 1

Figure 5.24: Headlight beams over a sag curve

The following formulae apply to sag curves:

 When the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the sag vertical curve (L):
S< L: L = (S2 A)/[200(0.6 + S(tan 1º)]
The equation can be simplified as follows:
L = (S2 A)/(120 +3.5 S)

 When the sight distance (S) is greater than the length of the sag vertical curve (L):
S> L: L = 2 S – [200 (0.6 + S (tan 1º)/A]
The equation can be simplified as follows:

L = 2 S – (120 + 3.5 S)/A

Example 5.12
Question
Calculate the SSD over the crest of a 400 m vertical curve with an entry grade of
+4,4% and an exit grade of -2,3%.
Solution
A = -2,3 - 4,4 = -6,7% (use absolute value A = 6,7%)
Driver’s eye height (h1) = 1,05 m and dangerous object height (h2) = 0,15 m
S< L: L = (S2 *A)/100 [(2h1)0,5 + (2h2)0,5]2
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400 = (6.7* S2)/ 100[(2*1.05)0.5 + (2*0.15)0.5]2
S =154,291 m < L (400 m) ok
If the answer obtained for S is > L, then calculations have to proceed to the S>L case.

Example 5.13
Scenario
A sag vertical curve of 80 m connects a minus 5% with a plus grade of 1%.
Question
Calculate the available stopping sight distance over the curve.

Solution

A = 6%
S< L: L = (S2 *A)/[200(0.6 + S(tan 1º)]
L = (S2 A)/(120 +3.5 S)
80 = (S2 *6)/(120 +3.5 S)
S2 - 46.667S -1600 = 0
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
S=
2𝑎
S = - 22.975 m (rejected minus length).
S = 69,642 m < L (80 m) ok

5.7 INTERSECTIONS

In this section we deal with the geometry and layout of intersections. Intersections are
covered in detail in the TRH 17, chapters 8 and 9. You should learn how to neatly
sketch the various types of intersections.

5.7.1 Types of intersections

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Intersections are divided into at-grade and grade-separated, depending on the
treatment of crossing conflicts. Figure 5.25 shows the difference between these two
classes.

Figure 5.25: Types of road intersections

5.7.2 At-grade intersections

At-grade intersections may be subdivided according to the number of intersecting

roadway legs, the angles between intersecting roads and the locations at which they
intersect. Commonly used descriptions are
 three-leg intersections (right angle or "T" skewed or "y")
 four-leg intersections (right angle, skewed, off-set or jogged)
 intersections with five or more legs
 rotary intersections or traffic circles

You should be able to neatly sketch each of the above at-grade intersections, with
arrows showing the various traffic directions.
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5.7.3 Grade-separated intersections

Grade-separated intersections, also referred to as interchanges, provide several

benefits over at-grade intersections but require large investments and are therefore
only warranted in certain situations. Well-designed interchanges provide the following
benefits:
 improved safety due to reduction/elimination of traffic conflict points
 reduced travel time due to continuous flow of traffic
 reduced environmental damage at intersections due to continuous flow of traffic
There are several types of interchange layout:
 trumpet
 diamond
 cloverleaf
 directional
 single-point
 parclo
Read the relevant sections in TRH 17 and populate table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Grade-separated intersections (interchanges)

Interchange Layout with Advantage/s Disadvantage/s Crossing of

name arrows showing which road
traffic directions classes

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Activity 5.13

5.13.1 Explain the concepts “lane balance” and “weaving” in relation to interchanges.
5.13.2 Describe what is meant by free-flowing terminals and stop-condition terminals
at interchanges.

5.8 UNIT 5: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. The following details of the vertical alignment of a section of two-lane, two-way road
with a camber of 2% and a surfaced width of 7,4 m are given:

Ch of PVI Elevation of PVI VC length (m)

6 300,000 49,100
6 900,000 23,500 500
7 600,000 29,320

a. Calculate the finished road levels on the centreline and at the edges of
surfacing at Ch 6 500, Ch 6 700, Ch 6 800, Ch 6 900 Ch 7 000, Ch 7 100, Ch
7 200 and Ch 7 300.
b. Calculate the value of K for the vertical curve.
c. Calculate the chainage and the level of the lowest point on the curve.

2. The EC of a horizontal curve on a two-lane, two-way road has a chainage of

1580,000. The finished road levels on centreline at chainages 1500 and 1700 are
13,200 and 19,200, respectively. If the superelevation rate (e) is 6% and the
superelevation runoff length is 60 m:

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 a. Calculate the finished road levels, every 10 m between Ch l570 and Ch
l650, on centreline and on the left and right edges and draw a sketch of the
longitudinal section of the road showing the centreline and the left and right
edges. Also draw the cross-sections at every 10 m between Ch l570 and
Ch l650. The width of the surfacing is 8 m and has a normal camber of 2%.
The road curves to the right.

b. Repeat the exercise for a curve to the left.

3. A 600 m radius left-hand curve on a two-lane, two-way road has a central angle
of 24-16'-24". A point on the centreline of the road on the straight approaching
the curve, 800 m back from the PI has a chainage of 6 231,213.

a. Calculate the chainages of the BC and EC.

b. From TRH 17 determine the superelevation rate and the minimum

superelevation development (runoff) length for a 100 km/h design speed for
a surfaced width of 7,4 m having a normal camber of 2%.

c. Using this information, calculate the finished road levels on centreline and
both edges every 20 m between the following chainages:
6 820 and 6 940
7 120 and 7 240

4. A section of two-lane, two-way road has a surfaced width of 7,4 m; a normal

camber of 2% and the following details for the horizontal and vertical alignments.

Horizontal alignment
Superelevation
Horizontal
BC Ch EC Ch e (%) development length
curve no.
(runoff length) (m)
1 (left) 2 447,332 3 085,794 6,4 50

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 2 (right) 4 006,794 4 319,839 8,7 60

Vertical alignment
Chainage Vertical curve
PVI elevation
(m) length (m)
2000 15,200 0
2400 30,050 300
2900 33,600 200
3500 51,300 400
4300 35,500 350
4700 40,100 0

a. Calculate the finished road levels on centreline and on the left and right edges
of the surfacing between the following chainages:

2 300 to 2 500 3 000 to 3 200

3 900 to 4 100 4 200 to 4 400

b. Plot the levels calculated in (a) to the following scales:

Horizontal 1:1000 and vertical 1:10

5. The following information is given for a section of road:

 BC of horizontal curve at Ch 1650
 Superelevation development (runout) length = 90 m
 At Ch 1500. Finished road level = 20,520
 At Ch 1700. Finished road level = 25,520
 Superelevation (e) = 6%
 Normal camber = 2%
 Road curves to the right

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Calculate the finished road levels at every 20 m for the following:
a. The centreline
b. Left edge
c. Right edge

6. Calculate the minimum superelevation runoff length for a superelevation rate of

5,2% on a four-lane undivided road with a lane width of 3,6 m and a design speed
of 120 km/h.

7. The diagram below shows a plan view of the layout of a bus bay.

Ch 8 705,000

35 m 15 m 35 m

3,2%

9,00 m
5,700 m
5,700 m 2%

5,700 m

The vertical alignment on centreline (C/L) over this section of the road is given below.

Chainage (m) PVI level Vertical curve length

8 320 45,310
8 750 32,410 240
9 380 50,050

a. Calculate the edge of surfacing levels every 10 m along the left edge of the
road between Ch 8 700 and Ch 8 800. The normal camber over the 5,7 m
width of lane and surfaced shoulder is 2%. in the bus bay area the fall
towards the kerb is increased to 3,2%.
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 b. The bus bay is curbed over its whole length. At what chainage would you
construct a kerb inlet to drain the stormwater?

8. The following information relates to the centreline of a road having a reverse-curve

situation.

Y X Curve radius (m)

Ch 12 312,416 +22 994,316 +31 049,864 -
PI 7 +22 501,726 +31 008,582 500
PI 8 +22 053,752 +31 359,158 ?
PI 9 +21 551,367 +31 394,360 -

a. Calculate the radius required for curve 8, which will give a distance along the
tangent between EC 7 and BC 8 of 140,082 m.

b. Calculate the chainages and coordinates of the BCs and ECs of the curves.

9. As shown in the following sketch, District Road 316 intersects with Provincial Road
P-27 at chainage 2438,316. The angles of direction (bearings) of the two roads in
the direction of increasing chainage are
P-27 93o . 16’ . 24” Road 316 198o . 16’ . 24”

Chainage 0 on Road 316 is at the intersection point of the centrelines of the two roads.
The surfaced widths of the two roads are: P-27 = 8 m Road 316 = 7,4 m.

The coordinates of the intersection point of the two roads are

Y = + 373,413 X = + 584,217

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Calculate the coordinates of the BCs and ECs of the bellmouth curves (i.e. BC1, EC1,
BC2, EC2) and also the chainages of these points on both roads. (Tip: Draw the
intersection out to a larger scale, say, 1: 250 and show all construction lines for your
calculations.)

10. Two straight sections of road, P29-1 and D32, intersect each other. The details
are given in the table below:

Road No Point Chainage Y X

P 29-1 A 5 239,423 + 16 324,821 + 9 312,448
P 29-1 B - + 11 421,836 + 12 814,316
D 32 C 1 245,631 + 15 849,316 + 13 413,484
D 32 D - + 12 031,881 + 8 442,618

Use the given information and calculate the coordinates of the intersection point of the
two roads.

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11. Consider the following traverse from A to E, along the horizontal alignment of a
rural highway. The bearings and distances between successive points are shown on
the drawing below, where the bearing (ɵ) and distance (d) C to D are missing.

Horizontal curves must be introduced at B, C and D. Use the information provided on

the drawing and the table to answer the following questions:

Point Chainage Y X Curve radius (m)

A 0.000 -267 577.800 +284 854.900
B ? ? 450
C ? ? 550
D ? ? 350
E -271 375.106 284 845.796

a. Do polar calculations to derive the coordinates of point B, C and D.

b. Do join calculations to derive the distance and bearing on the line C to D.
c. Calculate all the elements of the horizontal curves occurring along the centreline.
d. Calculate the chainages along the road centreline for all BCs, MPs and ECs as
well as point E.
e. Calculate the coordinates of all BCs, MPs and ECs.

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12. The following diagram represents the centreline of road P62-1 with two other
roads, P24-2 and DR 8, crossing it. Using the data given below, calculate the
coordinates and the chainage of the point where the centrelines of roads P24-2 and
DR 8 cross the centreline of road P62-1.

A C
PI 5

EC

BC 5

PI 6

Ch 8 325,164
D
B

Y X R (m)
Coordinates for road P62-1
Ch 8 325,164 -16 589,216 + 9 212,403
PI 5 -19 403,582 + 9 837,363 1 500
PI 6 -21 814,305 + 8 987,321
Coordinates for road P24-2
A -18 958,893 + 8 624,389
B -19 316,882 +10 616,239
Coordinates for road DR8
C -21 384,214 + 8 324,412
D -20 848,892 +10 256,314

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Committee of Transport Officials. 2012. South African road classification and access
management manual, TRH 26.
[Link]
pdf [Accessed on 22/05/2020].

Division of Roads and Transport Technology. 1988. Geometric design of rural roads -
TRH 17.
[Link] [Accessed on 22/05/2020].

National Institute for Transport and Road Research. 1986. Guidelines for the
geometric design of urban arterial roads – UTG 1.
[Link] [Accessed on 22/05/2020].

SANRAL. [n.d.]. Geometric design guidelines.

[Link] [Accessed on
22/051/2020].

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 STUDY UNIT 6

SURVEYS AND SETTING OUT

CONTENTS PAGE

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 48

6.2 INTRODUCTION 48
6.3 DEFINITIONS 49
6.4 MAPS AND PLANS 50
6.4.1 Topographic maps and orthophotos 51
6.4.2 Preparation of plans 51
6.4.3 Aerial photos 52
[Link] Reconnaissance phase
[Link] Preliminary and final location phases
6.4.4 Advantages of photogrammetry 53
6.4.5 Disadvantages of photogrammetry 54
6.5 SETTING OUT A PEG 55
6.6 LEVELLING 57
6.6.1 Centreline and reference peg levelling 57
6.6.2 Cross-section levels 58
6.7 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS 59
6.8 FIELD NOTES 60
6.9 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS (SOIL SURVEYS) 61
6.9.1 Centreline soil survey 62
6.9.2 Borrow pit and quarry site investigations 63
6.9.3 Bridge site investigations 65
6.10 LAND EXPROPRIATION 65

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6.11 METHODS FOR SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES 67
6.11.1 Setting out by tape only 67
6.11.2 Setting out by deflection angles and chord lengths 68
6.11.3 Setting out by theodolite and digital distance measuring device 71
6.12 UNIT 6: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 72
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 72

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6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 describe the survey aspects of roads including maps and plans,

geotechnical investigation, bridge surveys and land acquisition
for road reserve
 explain the procedures involved in setting out road centreline and
circular curves

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Road and rail surveys, as with most engineering works, are based on the South
African Coordinate System (Gauss conform system). This system of coordinates
has the equator as the origin of the X axis and each alternate odd line of longitude
as the origin of the Y axis. Angles (bearings or directions) are measured
clockwise from zero (0o) South.

Before carrying out any surveys or staking road centrelines, the engineer should
consult the client regarding their requirements as most road authorities have
specifications for survey work. These requirements would be staking interval for
 centreline pegs
 frequency of reference pegs
 allowable closure errors on staking and levelling
 photogrammetry
 planimetric map
 photographic mosaic
 stereoscope and topographic map

The objective of this study unit is for you to learn about the surveys required to
gather topographical, geotechnical and other information relating to
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transportation facilities as well as the methods employed in setting out the route
and other features of the route.

6.3 DEFINITIONS

In this section we provide a brief explanation of some of the terminology used

during the preparation of route maps and plans. You should familiarise yourself
with these terms to make it easy for you to understand this section.

Photogrammetry: This is the science of obtaining measurements by means of

photography. In this instance it implies the use of air photos to produce maps.

Planimetric map: This is a map showing the plan of horizontal position of ground
features.

Photographic mosaic: This is an assembly of aerial photos cut out and pasted
on a board to form a continuous photographic representation of a given area.

Stereoscope: A stereoscope is an instrument that enables the observer to see

a relief model of the terrain covered, if two photographs of the same area, taken
from different stations, are properly oriented and viewed simultaneously.

Topographic map: This shows, in addition to ground features, relief or elevations

indicated by contour lines.

Reference peg: This peg is used to mark the alignment and/or the levels of the
road. Usually, they are made of wood or steel. It is advisable to paint at least the
top half of the peg yellow or white so that it stays clearly visible – even after a
period of several months. The chainage of the road will be marked on the
reference peg (chainage shows the distance from the beginning of the road).
Ensure that these pegs are hammered deep into the ground so that it will be
impossible for children to remove them. This should be done even if it means a

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lot of work, as reference pegs are vital during construction and very useful as
references for maintenance afterwards.

Centreline peg: This peg is a line representing an axis of symmetry; usually

shown on drawings as a broken line.

Traverse peg: A traverse consists of a series of straight lines of known length

related to one another by known angles between the lines. The points defining
the ends of the traverse lines are called the traverse stations. Traverse survey is
a method of establishing control points, their positions being determined by
measuring the distances between the traverse stations which serve as control
points and the angles subtended at the various stations by their adjacent stations.

Reference datum: This is the elevation (or level) of any point expressed as
vertical distance of the point above or below a definite datum. This datum is an
imaginary level surface, whose constant elevation is assumed to be zero.
Reference is often made to a “datum plane”.

Trig beacon: A triangulation station, also known as a triangulation pillar,

trigonometrical station, trigonometrical point, trig station, trig beacon, or trig point,
and sometimes informally as a trig, is a fixed surveying station, used in geodetic
surveying and other surveying projects in its vicinity. We call it a trig beacon in
South Africa.

Cadastral surveys: Cadastral surveying is that branch of surveying which is

concerned with the survey and demarcation of land for the purpose of defining
parcels of land for registration in a land registry.

6.4 MAPS AND PLANS

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Route locations, preliminary (basic) planning and detailed design require maps
and plans according to suitable scales.

6.4.1 Topographic maps and orthophotos

Refer to our discussion on topographic maps and their various required scales in
study unit 4 under the subheading 4.3.1 Topography. These maps are
generally adequate and suitable for route location and feasibility studies. They
may be purchased from the surveyor general's office in Pretoria or from other
distributors such as Map Office in Braamfontein, Johannesburg.

Orthophotos to a scale of 1:10 000 covering certain areas of the country are more
suitable and adequate for more detailed work such as preliminary (basic)
planning. These are available from the surveyor general's office in Cape Town.
Detailed design requires plans covering the chosen route to scales of 1:2 000,
1:1 000 or even 1:500 with contour intervals of 2 m, 1 m and 0,5 m, respectively.

6.4.2 Preparation of plans

Most maps and plans these days are prepared by taking photographs from an
aircraft and using the method of photogrammetry. These photographs overlap
by two-thirds, forming what are called "stereo pairs". When viewed under a
stereoscope, these stereo pairs show the relief of the terrain – in other words, the
hills stand out from the valleys.

Using stereo plotting equipment, photogrammetrists are able to transfer the detail
from the photographs onto plans. This may be done directly or the information
can be digitised (in other words, captured on computer file). Ground levels can
be stored as x, y and z coordinates and used to produce digital terrain models
(DTM) for use in road design programmes.

Before the route is flown, it is generally necessary for a surveyor to fix a traverse
on the ground, along the general line of the route and clearly mark the position of
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the traverse stations (usually 12 mm diameter pegs set in concrete) by placing a
cross of whitewashed stones with the beacon at the centre of the cross, so that
they are visible from the air and show up clearly on the photographs. The traverse
pegs are generally 200 m to 250 m apart. This traverse will also be used at a later
stage for setting out the pegs on the final centreline of the road.

Mapping and plan preparation for most projects are carried out by
photogrammetric means from aerial photographs and Google Earth. Traditional
ground survey methods are used for small areas, ground control and physical
setting out of the route.

You can create a terrain configuration mesh inside an existing closed polyline or
along a polyline path calculating point elevations from Google Earth. By
specifying the origin point, rotation angle and distance between rows and
columns, the mesh density and precision can be adjusted. The resulting mesh
can be processed to obtain contour lines, dynamic profile and section drawings,
complete with annotations.

6.4.3 Aerial photos

Aerial photos can be used in all the following phases of route location:

[Link] Reconnaissance phase

During this phase, new aerial photos provide the most up-to-date information and
also the most complete picture of the area considered. From these, important
control points can be selected so that the possible band routes can be determined
(refer to the relevant discussion in study unit 4, section 4.5 Principles of route
location). During this phase a small-scale mosaic will usually provide sufficient
detail to enable the elimination of all but a few possible bands.

[Link] Preliminary and final location phases

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During these phases an enlarged mosaic is necessary. After that it may be
possible to complete the final location survey as well as plans and specifications
without actually going on site; this, however, depends on the scale of the
photographs. When this occurs, the final location centreline need not be pegged
until the contractor is about to begin construction, in which case the final location
survey becomes a combined location-and-construction survey.

While preparing maps and plans by photogrammetric means, the ground surface
can be digitised and stored as a series of x, y and z coordinates which, with
suitable computer programs, can be turned into a DTM. By superimposing the
final design of the road onto the DTM, visual models at various angles can be
generated and viewed on a computer screen or printout. Furthermore, earthwork
quantities can be calculated very quickly.

The accuracy of the maps, plans and ground levels produced from the
interpolation of contours depends on the scale of the photographs, which is in
turn dependent on the height above the ground at which the photographs were
taken.

Photogrammetry is not necessarily a perfect method of taking photographs.

6.4.4 Advantages of photogrammetry

 On a large scheme the time required to locate the facility and prepare plans
is reduced.
 Skilled technical personnel are released from routine survey work and can be
used more profitably.
 Topographic maps prepared from aerial photographs can be more reliable
than those produced from ground surveys.
 The ability to see a complete picture of the whole area ensures that the most
suitable location is not accidentally overlooked.

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 Preliminary surveys and measurements can be performed without physically
entering private property.
 The most complete inventory of all surface features is obtained.
 The transfer of information into computer storage is made possible.

6.4.5 Disadvantages of photogrammetry

 Good photography requires clear atmospheric conditions and thus cannot be

guaranteed to be ready at any particular time.
 A topographic map cannot be accurately obtained of areas covered by forests,
snow, etc.
 For small projects the costs may be relatively high if photos are not already
available. In this case, photogrammetry can be supplemented or replaced by
land surveying.

Activity 6.1

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a recent technology that can be used to
generate a DTM. Do a web search to collect information on the following aspects:
a. How does the LIDAR method work?
b. Provide pictures showing instruments and setup used.
c. Briefly compare its accuracy to photogrammetry.
d. Compile a list of projects, in South Africa, where the method is used.

Feedback
The following websites will provide some help in completing this activity:

[Link]

[Link]

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[Link]
_Roxanne_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

6.5 SETTING OUT A PEG

Once the final route has been fixed, the coordinates of the chainages (Chs) and
elements or points of circular curve properties (points of intersections [PIs],
beginning of curve [BC], end of curve [EC] etc.) have been established and
calculated. The pegs marking the chainages and elements/points of circular
curve properties can be set out on the ground in the field by the engineering
surveyor.

Pegs are usually placed in the centreline of the road, generally at 20 m intervals
or sometimes at 50 m intervals – according to the client's survey specification.

Before going out into the field to set out the centreline, a certain amount of
calculation work is required.

 Joins must be taken out between successive traverse pegs in order to have
a back-sight (orientation) bearing.

 Joins must be taken out between the nearest traverse peg and the centreline
peg to be established (set out) so as to have the setting out (forward) bearing
and distance.

The distances obtained from joins on the Gauss conform system are at sea level.
It is generally accepted that no correction is applied for the fact that at higher
altitudes the length of the road or rail line may be slightly longer than calculated.
However, this fact must be recognised by the surveyor staking the road and sea
level and scale correction must be applied when calculating the staking closure
between coordinated pegs.

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The general method of setting out a peg is to use a theodolite and tape or
electronic measuring device. Better still is to use a "total station" if this is available.

To set out a peg on the centreline as illustrated in figure 6.1, take the following
steps:
 Set up the instrument over the traverse peg situated on peg RB5.
 Back sight onto another traverse peg (RB4) and set the instrument onto the
correct back bearing.
 Sight onto the next traverse peg (RB6) and check that the bearing is correct.
 Set the instrument on the bearing to the peg (centreline peg) you want to fix
and set off the required distance and place the peg.

Figure 6.1: Setting out centreline pegs using reference points

Although the intermediate 20 m (or 50 m) chainage pegs can be set out directly
from the traverse pegs as illustrated above, it is advisable to set up the instrument
on the 500 m line pegs and to check that all the intermediate pegs follow each
other on a straight line and at the correct distance apart. The centreline pegs
must be driven into the ground until only about 30 mm projects above the ground.

Because the centreline pegs will be removed as soon as earthwork construction

begins, reference pegs must be placed on either side of the centreline at all
strategic points (BCs, ECs, MPs on curves and at the 500 m points on straights).
These reference pegs are usually placed equidistant from the centreline, at right
angles to it and just inside (approximately 1 m) the road reserve boundary.
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The plan view illustrated in figure 6.2 shows the typical relation of the reference
pegs to the centreline and the road reserve.

Figure 6.2: Road reserve and reference pegs

These reference pegs are usually 500 mm long and set in a 300 mm diameter by
200 mm deep concrete block. The name of the peg or the chainage is usually
scratched in the wet concrete and/or an aluminium or galvanised steel plate with
the same information is set into the concrete as illustrated in figure 6.3.

16mm diameter steel

rod standing 30 mm
above (NGL)

(NGL)

Figure 6.3: Typical reference peg

6.6 LEVELLING

6.6.1 Centreline and reference peg levelling

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
To obtain accurate levels for detailed design and to establish benchmark levels
on the reference pegs, an accurate level traverse must be carried out along the
centreline taking levels on all the centreline pegs and reference pegs along the
route.

The reference datum for the level traverse is usually taken from the traverse peg
near the start of the route and check closures made onto the traverse pegs at 1
to 2 km intervals along the route.

If there is no traverse available, convenient trig beacons can be used to fix the
start and end of the route, or else any other reliable coordinated survey pegs may
be used.

6.6.2 Cross-section levels

To establish the ground profile across the road, levels are taken on a line at right
angles to either side of the centreline and at 20 m or 50 m intervals along the
centreline (according to the chainage peg). This exercise is performed to produce
earthwork quantities. Generally, these cross-sections are taken right across the
road reserve.

The following road diagrams, figures 6.4 and 6.5, show that cross-section levels
should be taken at points where there are significant changes of slope in the
natural ground.

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 Figure 6.4: Road centreline positions

Figure 6.5: Road cross-section setup

By superimposing the cross-section of the finished road surface on the cross-

section ground level profile, the earthworks quantities can be measured and
calculated.

6.7 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

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Preferably at the same time as the staking, levelling and cross-sectioning of the
route is being carried out. Detailed tache surveys should be carried out at points
where major streams or rivers cross the centreline of the proposed road.

Generally, an area of 300 m radius from the point where the road centreline
crosses the river would be sufficient, as illustrated in figure 6.6.

Also, two cross-sections of the stream or riverbed should be taken on either side
of the road centreline at a distance of about 6 m to 20 m from the centreline,
depending on the width of the roadway (discuss this with the bridge engineer).

Figure 6.6: Survey area at a bridge site

6.8 FIELD NOTES

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During the staking and levelling operations, notes and sketches should be made
describing details, measurements and the chainages of existing features which
occur next to the road reserve including
 buildings
 fences
 roads
 footpaths
 boreholes
 windmills
 pipelines
 graves
 watercourses
 springs, etc.

Since the drainage of surface runoff of stormwater and also subsurface seepage
are very important in the design of roads and railways, it is essential that during
the survey stage adequate details relating to these be recorded so that the
designer in the office is fully aware of them.

6.9 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS (SOIL SURVEYS)

Although much information of a general nature regarding the rock and soil types
occurring on the route can be obtained from geological maps and field
investigations carried out during the route location and preliminary design or basic
planning stages of the project, it is essential that once the route has been staked
detailed investigations be carried out.

The main sections of geotechnical investigation for a road or rail project are
 centreline soil survey
 borrow pit and quarry site investigations
 bridge site investigations
 profiling
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  sampling and testing of materials

6.9.1 Centreline soil survey

Holes need to be dug along the centreline of the road at intervals of about 200 m,
or closer if necessary, to pick up changes in the in situ materials, to a depth of
between 0,6 m (min) and about 2,0 m. These holes can either be dug by hand
(slow) or using a tractor-loader-backhoe (TLB), as illustrated in figure 6.7.

The sides of the holes must be profiled and the depths at which changes in soil
type (horizons) occur, recorded; at least one sample for a road indicator test and
one sample for a California bearing ratio (CBR) test in each horizon. The sample
bags must be labelled recording to the chainage and the depth below ground
level at which they were taken.

Figure 6.7: Road centreline soil survey – trial hole setup

All holes must be filled in after the investigation has been completed.

From the basic planning, longitudinal section areas where the road is in-cut can
be identified. In these instances, the investigation must be taken down to at least

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0,8 m to 1,2 m below the finished road level. If this is deeper than the reach of a
backactor, then an auger must be used.

If rock is encountered, the level of the rock must be recorded. In the case of rock,
diamond drilling will probably be necessary to determine its nature and hardness
from cores taken in the drilling process. Seismic methods may also be used. A
seismic method is a geophysical prospecting method based on the fact that the
speeds of transmission of shock waves through the earth vary with the elastic
constants and the densities of the rocks through which the waves pass.

A seismic wave is initiated by firing an explosive charge (or by equivalent artificial

sources) at a known point (the shot point); records are made of the travel times
taken for selected seismic waves to arrive at sensitive recorders (geophones).

There are two main subdivisions of seismic operations:

 the reflection method
 the refraction method

The seismic method has been applied to a lesser extent to explain mining
problems, partly due to its high cost. It has been used to investigate the base of
drift deposits, and drift-filled channels have been successfully outlined.

6.9.2 Borrow pit and quarry site investigations

The objective in a good road design is to be able to balance the cut and fill – in
other words, the material excavated from cuts should be just enough to build up
the fills. In practice this is often not possible, and material has to be spoiled
(discarded) if there is too much cut or borrowed material (material obtained from
outside the road reserve).

Furthermore, the material from cuts may not be of sufficient quality for the layers
in the pavement – in other words, layer works or selected subgrade, subbase and
base as illustrated in figure 6.5. These will have to be obtained from sources
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outside the road reserve, i.e. from borrow pits and quarries. Generally, most of
the materials for subbase and base will come from sources outside the road
reserve.

Road authorities and their appointed representatives (the consulting engineer)

have the authority to enter private land to search for suitable road construction
materials with the relevant permits.

Areas which appear to be suitable borrow sites must be investigated by digging

trial holes on a grid pattern at about 50 m intervals as illustrated in figure 6.8.
These must be profiled and sufficient representative samples taken for testing. A
sketch plan must be drawn showing the position of the trial holes and the
chainage relative to the road centreline. The distance from the road centreline
must also be recorded.

Where fresh crushed rock is required for the base layer or concrete aggregates,
the same procedure as described above would be used to determine the
properties of the overburden (soft material overlying the rock). However, diamond
drilling and core extraction and analysis would be required to prove the quality of
the rock.

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 Figure 6.8: A typical borrow pit diagram

6.9.3 Bridge site investigations

Bridge sites must be investigated by drilling auger and/or diamond drill holes to
determine the nature of founding conditions for the bridge structure. The position
of the holes is very important because they must be placed under or very near
the future abutments and piers. This investigation is normally performed by the
consultants in conjunction with the bridge engineer.

6.10 LAND EXPROPRIATION

The state has the power to acquire land for the purposes of constructing roads,
railways and other infrastructural things. Compensation must be made to the
owner of the property. Usually compensation takes the form of payment for the
land and any buildings and other improvements that fall within the road reserve.
If the owner objects, the state has the power to expropriate such areas as
required and makes its own determination of the value of compensation subject
to the Act of Parliament governing such an action. SANRAL (2018) provides
guidelines on the land expropriation issue.

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As soon as the effects of deep cuts and high fills that may require the widening
of the road reserve locally have reached their full extent, the engineer must draw
up plans showing the lines (left and right of the centreline) of the final road reserve
(including additional areas required for interchanges, intersections, etc.) and give
the coordinates of the points where such lines make a change in direction.

Generally the road crosses a number of farms or other properties. The area of
each piece of land to be excised for the road must be calculated and the
coordinates of its boundaries determined.

This is a job often given to a competent technician and involves obtaining all the
individual diagrams for each property from the SG’s office, calculating where the
road reserve boundaries cut the property boundaries and calculating the
coordinates of these points. Thereafter the areas of each type of land use (e.g.
grazing, orchards, cultivated land) must be measured (since they will have
different values) as well as the total area.

A typical example of an SG property diagram is shown in figure 6.9.

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 Figure 6.9: SG property diagram

Expropriation diagrams showing all relevant details need to be drawn and

submitted to the client.

Activity 6.2

Draw a flow chart to show the steps followed in the land acquisition process.

Feedback
Hint: refer to the respective SANRAL guidelines.

6.11 METHODS FOR SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES

6.11.1 Setting out by tape only

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This method is used for small-radius curves (i.e. less than 50 m to 100 m) and
can only be used where the centrepoint of the curve can be established on the
ground. It is usually used for setting out curves at intersections where the radii
are of the order of 2 - 15 m.

The centrepoint of the curve is found by establishing the BC and/or the EC,
turning off 90 and measuring the appropriate radius to the centrepoint, which
should be marked with a peg in the ground and protected from damage as
illustrated in figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Setting out circular curve by tape

6.11.2 Setting out by deflection angles and chord lengths

This method is usually carried out by setting up a theodolite on the PI and taping
back along the tangents to place the BC and EC pegs. The theodolite is then
moved to the centreline BC peg, sighting the PI and turning off the calculated
offset angle to each centreline chainage peg.

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Refer to example 5.3 of the previous study unit. The deflection angles are given
in table 6.1 and illustrated in figure 6.11.

Table 6.1: Deflection angles

Chainage Arc length (Li) δ⁰

(BC) 574,685 0
600 25,315 1o 48' 47"
700 125,315 8o 58' 30"
800 225.315 16o 8' 13" (*)
900 325.315 23o 17' 56"
1000 425.315 30o 27' 39.5"
1 042,685 (EC) 468.000 33o 31' 05"

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 EC
10
42
1

,68
00

5
0,
0
00
90
0,
000
80
0,0
00

700,000

600,000

BC 574,685

500,000

Figure 6.11: Offset angle diagrammatically

The deflection angles and chord lengths method of setting out circular curves
includes the following steps:

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  The surveyor sets up the theodolite over the BC peg, sights the PI and
sets the horizontal angle reading on 0o 00' 00".
 The surveyor then turns off the first offset angle, i.e. 1o 48' 47" to Ch 600.
The chain men measure off the distance from the BC to Ch 600 (i.e. 25,315
m) while the surveyor indicates that they should move to the left or right
until they are on the line. The chain men then place the peg.
 The surveyor then sets the theodolite on the second offset angle (i.e. 8o
58' 30"). The chain men then tape 100 m from Ch 600 while the surveyor
shows them the line. When they are on the line, they place the peg for Ch
700.
 This sequence of actions is repeated until all the curves are placed.

6.11.3 Setting out by theodolite and digital distance measuring device

Modern survey instruments incorporate an electronic distance measuring device

in the theodolite so that measurements of the distance from the instrument to a
prism held by an assistant some distance away can be made directly and
therefore the use of a tape can be eliminated. These instruments are called total
stations.

Any peg can be set out along the straights or on a curve directly from the traverse
pegs or any other reference point, provided that the coordinates of the points are
known. All that is required are the orienting joins (i.e. bearing and distance from
the traverse peg being used to set out to other nearby traverse pegs) and the
joins from the traverse peg to the pegs on the centreline.

The surveyor can then set up the total station, orientate the bearing on the
traverse peg behind and in front, set the instrument on the bearing to the peg
they want to set out, line the assistant on this bearing, and move the assistant
with the prism forward or back until the required distance is obtained. The peg
can then be placed on that point.

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6.12 UNIT 6: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. Use Google Earth Pro software to establish the surface profile of Christiaan de
Wet Road in Johannesburg, the section between Ontdekkers Road and Pioneer
Avenue.
Note: Google Earth Pro can be downloaded free of charge.

2. Self-learning project: Drone technology

Background
Use of drone technology offers enormous potential to transportation engineers. It
is possible, among other innovative applications, to
 generate accurate topographic surveys
 measure volumes of stockpiled construction materials
 manage traffic congestion and assist with clearing of vehicle crashes

Task
a. Do a web search and generate a report of not more than 5 pages on the above
drone benefits.
b. Your report must include a section on legislation and licensing in terms of
flying drones over the South African sky.
c. Provide pictures to enhance your report.

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

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Mitchell, A. 2011. An introduction to coordinate systems in South Africa. Survey
and Land Information Department.
[Link]
nformation/Documents/An_introduction_to_Coordinate_systems_in_SouthAfrica
.pdf [accessed on 16/09/2020]

National Ocean Services. [n.d.]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.
[Link] [Accessed on 23/05/2020]

Roxanne, M. 2017. Modelling terrain roughness using LiDAR derived digital

terrain model in eucalyptus plantation forests, in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
[Link]
_Roxanne_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed on 23/05/2020].

SANRAL. 2018. Land Acquisition Guidelines for Consulting Engineers

Rev7/2018. [Link] [Accessed on
16/09/2020]

[Link]
consulting_engineers_Rev7-[Link] [Accessed on 23/05/2020].

Wikipedia. [n.d.]. Lidar.

[Link] [Accessed on 23/05/2020].

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 STUDY UNIT 7

PARKING

CONTENTS PAGE

7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 232

7.2 INTRODUCTION 232
7.2.1 Definitions 233
7.2.2 South African standards used 234
7.3 PARKING LOCATION AND ZONING ORDINANCE 234
7.4 PARKING SURVEYS 236
7.5 DESIGN 237
7.5.1 Elements of good design 237
7.5.2 Major use of a parking facility 238
7.5.3 Types of parking 238
[Link] On-street parking
[Link] Off-street parking
7.6 KERBSIDE PARKING 240
7.6.1 Types of kerb spaces 240
7.6.2 Parking prohibitions 240
7.6.3 Parking regulations 240
7.6.4 Stall dimensions 241
7.6.5 Safety considerations 243
7.7 PARKING LOT DESIGN 244
7.7.1 Site characteristics 244
7.7.2 Access points 244
7.7.3 Traffic circulation 245
7.7.4 Parking lot standards 251
7.7.5 Landscaping 251

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 7.7.6 Lighting 251
7.7.7 Parking dimensions and layout 251
7.7.8 Parking lot drainage 252
7.8 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROVISION OF PARKING 252
7.9 UNIT 7: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 256
REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 257

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7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 decide on suitable locations for a parking area

 explain the requirements for parking provision
 distinguish between different parking types
 design and sketch parking lots

7.2 INTRODUCTION

The design of parking facilities is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. It is
actually quite complex, especially in urban areas, where parking is required by
shopping and other commercial areas, offices, campus developments and for central
business districts (CBDs).

Parking problems occur because of the ever-increasing population choosing to drive

their motor vehicle to work. To increase flow in and around the city, many authorities
have done away with kerb parking, reducing the parking opportunities. However, this
solution created a parking problem for the road user. Except for the larger cities in
South Africa where additional transportation modes are available, for example railway
transport, public bus and taxi services, very little else except the private motorcar and
bicycle are available for day-to-day commuting and other trips. Solving the above
problems (insufficient parking) requires careful planning and the provision of adequate
parking facilities.

The objectives of this study unit are to introduce you to the basic requirements for the
provision of parking facilities for motor vehicles and for you to utilise the information

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given in the text, diagrams and equations in order to design the layout of parking lots
to the accepted norms and standards.

7.2.1 Definitions

Zoning ordinance: This refers to the rules or laws that describe how a property in a
geographic zone can be utilised, for example residential or commercial
purposes. They may also control lot size and structure height.

A space hour: This is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space
for a period of one hour.

Parking volume: This is the total number of vehicles parked in a study area during a
specific length of time, usually a day.

Parking accumulation: This refers to the number of parked vehicles in a study area
at any specified time. It can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against
time, which shows the variation of parking accumulation during the day.

Parking load: This is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific
times. It is usually given as the number of space hours used during a specified period
of time.

Parking duration: This is the length of the time the vehicle is parked at a parking bay
or stall. When the parking duration is given as an average, it gives an indication of how
frequently the parking space becomes available.

Parking turnover: This refers to the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by
dividing the parking volume for the specific period by the number of parking spaces.

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Parking generator: Provisions are a means of ensuring an adequate supply of off-
street parking in all new developments. They therefore represent a long-range
approach to reducing parking problems in cities.

Parking generator: This refers to zones, buildings or places that attract vehicles in a
way that generates the need for parking, for example shopping centres, Gautrain
stations and government service centres. Identification of parking generators is
important for planning an adequate supply of parking facilities which can result in
reducing future parking problems in cities.

Kerb parking: Kerb parking or on-street parking means the vehicles are parked on
the sides of the street itself. This will usually be controlled by government agencies.

7.2.2 South African standards used

The purpose of this section is to clarify and amplify, where necessary, the contents of
this unit. Study the manual Parking SADC – RTSM – VOL 4 publication together with
this section of the study unit.

For a particular clarification, refer directly to SADC – RTSM – VOL 4.

7.3 PARKING LOCATION AND ZONING ORDINANCE

The generalised location of parking facilities in the urbanised areas has long been a
subject of debate. On the one hand, the thought has been to provide parking facilities
at the destination of the parkers. In many instances, these parking facilities would be
constructed as part of the overall development scheme. At the other extreme, it has
often been proposed that considerable parts of the central business district (CBD) be
closed to through-traffic and that parking facilities be provided at the fringes of the
CBD.

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If the CBD is to remain attractive as a business and shopping location, the in-town
businesses and retail establishments must be readily accessible by vehicle and
convenient parking facilities must be available. In such a scheme (development
scheme), the first parking facilities to be provided would be in the CBD.

As the city grows, the second-stage parking facilities would be constructed

immediately adjacent to the core area at an inner-ring road, if one were available.
The third-stage parking facilities would be at the fringe to the CBD on major arterial
routes, leading into the centre of the city.

The third-stage parking facilities would probably be needed only in the larger cities
and could be tied to the public transit system.

To establish the location of parking facilities, it is first necessary to conduct the

appropriate field studies to determine the areas of concentration of parking demand
and needs that are unsatisfied in terms of existing supply.

Many factors influence the location of parking facilities:

 parking shortages in each area
 origin and destination of parkers
 pedestrian walking distance and ease of movement
 vehicular access
 street capacities
 types of generators in the area
 future development
 economic factors
 relationship to the overall CBD plan
 zoning for parking

Zoning ordinance provisions are a means of ensuring an adequate supply of off-street

parking in all new developments. They therefore represent a long-range approach to

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reducing parking problems in cities. An adequate supply of off-street spaces will allow
on-street parking to be limited or prohibited. The streets can then better serve their
primary function of moving traffic.

Factors affecting parking demand include the following:

 availability of mass transit
 economic levels
 local policies
 customs of the city or part of the city
 car ownership

Local parking generation studies are useful in determining parking needs. Zoning
ordinances can specify parking requirements according to districts within the city.

Several factors can significantly affect the recommended minimum standards of

zoning ordinances, such as
 location in relation to the city centre
 available public transportation service
 the basic trip-generating characteristics of the particular establishment

In recent years, zoning ordinances have not only specified the amount of parking
required with various land uses, but also contain provisions for bicycle and motorbike
parking.

These provisions in zoning ordinances reflect the concern for adequate off-street
parking and storage for these vehicles.

7.4 PARKING SURVEYS

Before any parking facility can be designed, a parking survey must be conducted to
determine the parking demand for that specific area. Information gathered must

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provide knowledge about the parking habits and requirements of motorists and also
determine the relation of these factors to existing parking facilities. Parking surveys
should be designed in such a way that they provide answers to certain questions and
factors relating to the parking problem. Information gathered should include
 location, type and capacity of the existing facility
 amount of space required to serve present demands
 approximate location of possible additional parking facility
 economic, financial, legal and administrative aspects of parking facilities

7.5 DESIGN

7.5.1 Elements of good design

In designing any off-street parking facility, the following elements must receive first
priority:
 customer service
 convenience
 minimum interference with street traffic flow

Other important factors in both the location and design of off-street parking facilities
are
 accessibility of the facility
 ease of entering
 circulating
 parking
 unparking
 exiting

The results of a well-organised and adequately designed lot or garage are

 distance
 manoeuvrability

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  traffic flow
 parking ease
 circulation

7.5.2 Major use of a parking facility

A factor for consideration in designing a parking facility is the use of the facility either
in terms of type of parker or the type of generator being served.

A parking facility may serve any and all types of parking generators, particularly in a
city centre area. However, parking facilities that serve special events, such as sports
stadiums, auditoriums, or other similar uses, require special design considerations
because of the parker characteristics. People attending special events generally arrive
over a short time period, and everyone will be leaving on conclusion of the event. This
can place a severe strain on entrance and exit facilities and the internal circulation
system. Special consideration must be given to the provision of adequate entrance
and exit capacity at these facilities.

7.5.3 Types of parking

There are mainly two types of parking facilities: on-street parking and off-street
parking.

[Link] On-street parking

On-street parking can be grouped into prohibited parking zones and time-limited
parking zones.

Prohibited parking
Vehicle parking is prohibited in the following locations:
 intersections – not allowed within 50 m of a major intersection
 narrow streets – in two-way carriageways less than 5,75 m wide and one-
way streets less than 4 m wide
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  driveways
 pedestrian crossings
 curvature and grade conditions
 road bridges and tunnels
 pedestrian concentrations
 priority conditions – fire hydrants and bus stops, etc.

Time-limited parking
The time in terms of vehicle parking is controlled using the following methods:
 limited waiting schemes under direct police or warden control
 parking meter control
 parking card control
 parking ticket control

[Link] Off-street parking

Surface parking areas

Parking areas situated at ground level are the most commonly used type of general-
purpose parking facility, primarily because of how quickly, easily and economically
they can be constructed when suitable sites become available.

Parking garages
There are three basic types of garages:
 by vertical location – underground or above ground
 by method of interfloor vehicle travel – whether cars can move up and down
via ramps/sloping floors or mechanical lifts
 by the person who parks the car – for instance, whether the cars are
attendant-parked or patron-parked

Activity 7.1

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Do a web search and compile a list of “intelligent parking systems” used to manage
parking facilities and reduce search time.

7.6 KERBSIDE PARKING

The primary use of the streets in any city is for the movement of vehicles. Parking on
these streets must be considered a secondary use of street space, for other uses such
as bus stops, emergency parking, etc.

7.6.1 Types of kerb spaces

The kerb space along streets in any city will have several categories of use. These
uses include kerb parking, truck loading zones, no-parking zones, bus and taxi
zones and passenger loading zones.

7.6.2 Parking prohibitions

Parking prohibitions can be warranted on the basis of

 statutes
 traffic capacity
 accident hazard

Statutory prohibitions also apply to kerb space near fire hydrants, crosswalks and
approaches to intersections.

7.6.3 Parking regulations

Time restrictions are often posted on kerb parking spaces to increase the turnover of
parkers. They may be posted with the use of signs only, or parking meters may be
used together with signs. Very short limits are used in areas where very high turnover
may be expected, such as near banks and post offices.

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7.6.4 Stall dimensions

Three types of stalls must be considered in dimensioning kerb parking facilities:

 end stalls (refer to figure 7.1)
 interior stalls (refer to figure 7.2)
 paired parking stalls (refer to figure 7.3)

The end stall, because a vehicle can either be driven directly into or out of it, need only
be long enough to accommodate a parked vehicle. Interior stalls must allow room for
manoeuvring. Paired parking has stall layouts so that two vehicles are parked bumper
to bumper and the pairs of stalls are separated by areas for manoeuvring.

A variation of the paired parking layout is travers tandem parking. This system
expands the area for manoeuvring, providing a minimum of 10 m of manoeuvre area,
and allows the driver to pull alongside the kerb in one forward motion. This system
reduces somewhat the total number of kerb spaces but improves the traffic flow in the
kerb lane.

The design vehicle is shown in figure 7.1 and on-street parking bay dimensions are
shown in figures 7.2 and 7.3.

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 Figure 7.1: Proposed South African design vehicle for parking facility design

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 Figure 7.2: The interior bay

Figure 7.3: Paired parking bays

The parking stalls should be defined by white lines extending perpendicular from the
kerb for a distance generally recommended at 22 m. The end stall line is generally
marked with an L, whereas interior lines have a T-shape.

7.6.5 Safety considerations

The overall picture of accidents related to kerb parking is not a good one. For all
streets, an increasing accident rate was generally associated with changes from
single-family residential to multi-family residential land use. In addition, there is an
increasing accident rate associated with changes from multi-family residential to office
land uses and from office land uses to retail uses.

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Parking-related mid-block accidents account for a larger percentage of the total
accidents on collector and local streets than on major streets.

7.7 PARKING LOT DESIGN

7.7.1 Site characteristics

The following factors affect the design of off-street parking:

 site dimensions
 topography
 profiles

7.7.2 Access points

The design of a parking facility, particularly in the location of entry and exit points, is
affected by external factors such as
 pedestrian traffic controls
 turning restrictions
 volumes of traffic on adjacent street

Points at which entrances and exits can be logically placed may be limited by
 street traffic volumes
 turning restrictions
 other traffic controls

It is important to investigate these factors before making final decisions on entrances

and exits. Entry and exit points should be located to provide maximum storage space
and maximum distance from intersections.

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7.7.3 Traffic circulation

The ideal movement into a parking facility is a right-hand turn from a one-way street.

The driver's position is on the inside of the turn, which allows better visibility and more
accurate judgement of the placement of the vehicle.

Vehicle circulation on the site may be either two-way or one-way, depending on site
dimensions and the angle of the parking stall. Two-way circulation is generally used
with stall angles of 90⁰ and less.

Figure 7.4: Stall angles of 90⁰ and less

Cross aisles are necessary in large facilities. Generally, no more than 30 spaces
should be provided without a cross aisle to get to exits or other parking spaces.

Some typical layouts are shown in figures 7.5 and 7.6. Parking bay dimensions are
shown in figures 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9.

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 Figure 7.5: Typical layouts: Alternative circulation patterns in a car park: (a)
one-way, (b) two-way and (c) combined one-way and two-way

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Figure 7.6: Common interlocking parking arrangement
(a) one-way aisle, butt bays, 60 angle
(b) one-way aisle, drive-through bays, 60 angle
(c) two-way aisle, butt bays, 60 angle
(d) one-way aisle, herringbone bay arrangement, 45 angle

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 Figure 7.7: Design vehicle and 90 bay

Bay widths for different parking angles

Parking angle,  Bay width, W p (m)

90 2,5 m
60 2,9 m
45 3,5 m

Wp = Ws x Cosec 

Activity 7.2

Provide the details (dimensions and marking) of a parking facility for the disabled.

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 Figure 7.8: Bay width and depth for angle parking

Bay depth – no interlocking

Parking angle  Bay depth, Lp (m)

90 5,0 m
60 5,3 m
45 4,9 m

Lp = 1.8 Cos  + 4.8 Cos  + 0.2

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 Figure 7.9: Bay depth for angle parking – vehicles interlocking

Bay depth – interlocking

Parking angle,  Bay depth, Lp (m)

90 5,0 m
60 4.8 m
45 4,2 m

1.8
Lp′ = 5.0 sinθ + cosθ
2

Activity 7.3

Calculate the parking bay widths (Wp) and bay depths (Lp) for the following parking
angles: 80, 75, 70, 60, 55 – based on the standard angle parking bay dimensions
of W p = 2,5 m and Lp = 5,0 m for the no interlocking condition.

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7.7.4 Parking lot standards

The "dump time" of the parking facilities is especially critical for special events or sports
parking. This value is usually between 30 and 60 minutes, and efforts should be made
in design to minimise this time. One aid to reducing dump time is to use pre-cashiering.
The dump time then depends on the internal design of the parking facility, its ramps
and exits, and the surrounding street system. Separation of pedestrians and vehicles
should be the aim whenever possible because of the large volume of pedestrians. This
is especially true at vehicle exit driveways. Pedestrian ways, including overpasses or
tunnels, should be considered to help this separation.

7.7.5 Landscaping

Landscaping of parking facilities is desirable but should be limited to types that will not
interfere with the parking function. Care should be taken to use shrub, plant and tree
types that can withstand the fumes from vehicles’ exhausts and the concentrated heat
arising from a large paved surface. Landscaping can be an effective means of
controlling pedestrians, and scraping can be an effective means of controlling
pedestrian paths.

Extreme care should be taken in locating shrubbery or other plants near entrances
and exits so that sight distances are not restricted.

7.7.6 Lighting

Adequate lighting of the parking site is very important. Mounting height and spacing of
lights should be sufficient to distribute the desired lighting intensity to the entire facility.
In any event, adequate lighting should be placed between adjacent stalls and at the
ends of the parking rows.

7.7.7 Parking dimensions and layout

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Typical parking dimensions vary according to the angle at which the stall is arranged
relative to the aisle.

7.7.8 Parking lot drainage

Adequate slope should be provided to surface lots to minimise the possibility of low or
flat spots. The pounding of water in a lot is undesirable for both vehicle and pedestrian
movement.

7.8 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROVISION OF PARKING

We will discuss off-street parking requirements in the following sections.

To safeguard traffic flow on adjacent arterials, ensure effective access and protect the
functioning of the transportation system in general, a sufficient number of off-street
parking spaces must be provided at all the different types of development in urban
areas. Requirements for this parking provision are normally contained in the town
planning scheme for a particular area. The minimum desirable standards developed
and recommended in this report should be applied with the necessary care.

The following factors may make it necessary for these standards to be adjusted in a
specific case:
 size and nature of the development
 urban character, socioeconomic structure of the population and residential
density in the market or influence area, including car ownership
 availability of public transport
 availability of other on-street or off-street parking in the vicinity
 price of parking
 extent of traffic congestion on the streets
 certain combinations of land uses, such as offices or theatres in shopping
centres which may reduce the total combined parking requirements where

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 the peak parking demand for the different land uses does not occur at the
same time

When different minimum standards are required in terms of the metropolitan transport
plan and the town planning schemes, the most onerous of the minimum desirable
standards must apply. The requirements recommended by the Department of
Transport are shown in table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Summary of recommended minimum indices for off-street parking

Land use Standard

1. Residential
1.1 Dwelling units – single and attached
Dwelling unit of 1 habitable room 1,0 space/unit
Dwelling unit of 2 habitable rooms 1,0 space/unit
Dwelling unit of 3 habitable rooms 1,25 spaces/unit
Dwelling unit of 4 or more habitable 1,5 spaces/unit
rooms
Visitors 0,5 additional spaces/unit

1.2 Hotels and motels 1 space/habitable room + 10 spaces per

100 m2 PAA
1.3 Residential hotels, boarding houses, etc. 0,6 spaces/habitable room

1.4 Old-age homes, orphanages, etc. 0,3 spaces/habitable room

2. Offices

2.1 General offices 2,5 spaces/100 m2 GLA

2.2 Banks, building societies and other public 4 spaces/100 m2 GLA

trading offices

3. Business

3.1 Shopping centres

Neighbourhood (<5 000 m2) 7 spaces/100m2 GLA
Community (5 000-15 000 m2) 6 spaces/100m2 GLA
Regional (>15 000m2) 5 spaces/100m2 GLA
Hypermarket 7 spaces/100m2 GLA

3.2 Single shops excluding car showrooms 6 spaces/100m2 GLA

and plant nurseries

4. Medical

4.1 Consulting rooms 6 spaces/100m2 GLA

4.2 Small private hospitals and clinics 1 space/bed

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 4.3 General hospitals 1 space/bed

5. Industrial and commercial

5.1 Manufacturing 1 spaces/100m2 GLA

5.2 Warehousing 1 spaces/100m2 GLA
5.3 Dairies, bakeries and laundries 1 spaces/100m2 GLA
5.4 Storage yards 1 spaces/100m2 GLA

6. Public garages 4 spaces/working bay plus 2 spaces per

100 m2 spares and sales area

7. Places of public worship 0,15 spaces/seat

Land use Standard

8. Educational

8.1 Nursery school 1 space/classroom/office + sufficient

8.2 Primary school 1 space/classroom/office on- and

off-
8.3 Secondary school
1 space/classroom/office loading
8.4 Colleges area

8.5 Universities 0,25 spaces per student

9. Recreation, sport and entertainment 0,4 spaces per student

9.1 Community centres

9.2 Halls 2 spaces/100m2 GLA

9.3 Cinemas and theatres 0,25 spaces/seat or 20 spaces/100m2 GLA

- within shopping centre
- isolated
0,1 spaces/seat
9.4 Sport stadiums 0,2 spaces/seat

9.5 Swimming pools 0,25 spaces/seat

9.6 Libraries and museums 0,25 spaces/seat

2 spaces/100m2 GLA

(Mackey et al 1981)
* Not applicable in CBD of cities and some large towns.
Note: PAA means publicly accessible area.

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In the central areas of major cities, the situations are different from those in the outlying
areas or in the CBDs of smaller cities and towns. Factors such as the high density of
development, available public transport, major pedestrian flows and scarcity and cost
of land may prohibit or limit the provision of parking. Therefore, there is normally a
separate parking policy for the CBD of a large city, as we discuss very briefly in a later
section.

Example 7.1
Scenario
The figure below represents an area (35 m x 30 m) set aside for parking at a shopping
centre. The perimeter of the covered area has walls except for the entrance and exit
gates as shown on the figure. Consider the 35 m walls to be parallel to the 5,0 m
dimension of the parking bay.
Questions
a. Calculate the number of parking bays that will fit into a clear area if the
standard parking bay dimensions (5,0 m x 2,5 m) and an aisle width of 7,5 m
and a parking angle of 90 to the walls are used.
b. How many rows of parking bays will there be?

Number of rows

35 - (5 + 5) = 25 m left
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In the 25 m we can fit two aisle widths of 7,5 m; therefore:

25 m – (7.5 + 7.5) = 10 m. This will fit two rows of parking.

This means that (5 + 5) + 10 = 20 m will be considered for the rows.

20 m/5 m = 4 rows

Number of bays

30 m/2.5 m = 12 bays per row

Total bays will be: 12 *4 = 48 bays

From observation, we can depict that there will be 12 parking bays that will be used
for the gates and the road. The gates will occupy 4 bays and the road 8 bays.
Usable bays will be 48 – 12 = 36 bays.

1 27
2 28
11 19 29
12 20 30
3 13 21 31
4 14 22 32
5 15 23 33
6 16 24 34
7 17 25 35
8 18 26 36
9
10

7.9 UNIT 7: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. Calculate the parking bay depths (Lp') for the following parking angles: 80, 75, 70,

60, 55 for the interlocking condition.

2. The sketch below represents an area (200 m x 140 m) set aside for parking at a
shopping centre. The 200 m long sides have walls. The 140 m long side is open for
traffic to enter and leave the parking area.
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 a. Calculate the number of parking bays that will fit into this area if the standard
parking bay dimensions (5,0 m x 2,5 m) and an aisle width of 7,5 m and a
parking angle of 90 to the walls are used.

b. How many rows of parking bays will there be?

c. If angle parking at 45o with interlocking is allowed except along the walls and
the minimum aisle width is 5,2 m, how many rows of parking bays could be
accommodated?

d. How many parking bays could be accommodated if 45 angle parking is

allowed?

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Bester, CJ & Da Silva, LM. 2012. Parking standards that can work in South Africa.
Proceedings of the 31st Southern African Transport Conference (SATC 2012).
[Link]
df [Accessed on 23/05/2020].

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Mackey, TC, Van Zyl, OAW & Vorster, JC. 1981. South African parking standards.
Transportation Research Records 816. 60th Annual Meeting of the Transportation
Research Board. Washington DC, USA.

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 STUDY UNIT 8

HYDROLOGY AND RUNOFF

CONTENTS PAGE

8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

8.2 INTRODUCTION 261

8.3 DEFINITIONS

8.4 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE 263

8.5 HYDROLOGY 265

8.5.1 General 265

8.5.2 Storm and flood return period 266

8.6 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOODS 266

8.6.1 General 266

8.6.2 Rainfall 269
[Link] Storm and rainfall types 269
[Link] Time and spatial distribution of storms 270
[Link] Mean annual precipitation (MAP) 271
[Link] Return period 271
[Link] Design storm precipitation 272
[Link] Aerial reduction factor (ARF) 273
8.6.3 Runoff 274
[Link] Time of concentration 274
[Link] Climatic factors 275
[Link] Physiographic factors 276

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8.7 METHODS OF DESIGN FLOOD DETERMINATION 279

8.7.1 General 279

8.7.2 Rational method 281

[Link] Assumptions made in the rational method

[Link] Rational runoff coefficient

[Link] Time of concentration
[Link] Rainfall intensity

8.8 DESIGN PROCEDURE 286

8.9 UNIT 8: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 290

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 292

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8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 define the fundamentals of hydrology and runoff
 determine the peak discharge from a catchment area

8.2 INTRODUCTION

A very important aspect of the design of any structure such as a road is to protect it
from damage that may occur from stormwater runoff. The designer must have some
method of predicting how much stormwater to expect in a big rainstorm so that the
canals, bridges and culverts will be large enough to cope effectively.

To design a stormwater system for a road or road network, the road designer must
have an understanding of hydrology. The stormwater characteristics which concern
the designer are the intensity, duration, frequency and behaviour of stormwater over
the total catchment area that affects the road and thereafter the movement of the water
on the road surface and how to contain, control and remove this discharge.

Hydrology is not an exact science and hydraulic calculations are based on historical,
statistical and empirical methods. There are many methods of calculating discharge
and some of these will be discussed. Normally, charts, tables and nomographs are
available to perform the calculations based on a particular method.

The objectives of this study unit are to introduce you to the fundamentals of hydrology
and the nature of the runoff of water from the earth’s surface resulting from storms.
Furthermore, we will teach you the methods used to calculate the magnitude of this
runoff in order to size stormwater structures to cope with storms.

The Civil Engineering programme offers a separate hydrology module; however, the
intension here is to provide you with the necessary reviews that can help you to carry
out the drainage design for roads, platforms, parking areas, etc.
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8.3 DEFINITIONS

Hydrology: Hydrology is the study of rainfall, its properties and laws and its
distribution over the earth's surface.

Discharge: The discharge is the volume of water transported from one point to
another in a certain amount of time. The unit used internationally is m³/s (cubic metres
per second). For example, the discharge of a river can be estimated by taking the area
of a cross-section of the river and multiplying it by the river's average velocity. The
greater the discharge of a river, the more sediment it may carry. In relative terms the
ability to carry sediments depends on the settling velocity; the speed of the flow.

Runoff: This is the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface water instead
of evaporating or being absorbed into groundwater.
The amount of rainfall directly affects the amount of runoff. As expected, if more rainfall
hits the ground, more rainfall will turn into runoff.

Rain intensity: This is a measure of the amount of rain that falls over time. The
intensity of rain is measured according to the height of the water layer covering the
ground in a period of time. It means that if the rain stays where it falls, it would form a
layer of a certain height. This is expressed in mm per hour (mm/hrs).

Time of concentration or duration: This is the time required for runoff to travel from
the hydraulically most distant point in the watershed or catchment area to the outlet.
The hydraulically most distant point is the point with the longest travel time to the
watershed outlet, and not necessarily the point with the longest flow distance to the
outlet.

Return period or frequency: The probability that events such as floods, wind storms
or tornadoes will occur is often expressed as a return period.

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Catchment area or sheet flow: This is an area of land where water is collected when
it rains. Each drop of precipitation that falls into a catchment area eventually ends up
in the same river going to the sea if it does not evaporate. However, it can take a very
long time. Catchment areas are separated from each other by watersheds. A
watershed is a natural division line along the highest points in an area. Catchments
are divided into sub-catchments, also along the lines of elevation.

Runoff coefficient: The runoff coefficient (C) is a dimensionless coefficient relating

the amount of runoff to the amount of precipitation received. It is a larger value for
areas with low infiltration (pavement, surfacing, etc.), and a smaller value for
permeable, well-vegetated areas (forest, flat land).

Mean annual precipitation (MAP): This is the arithmetically averaged total amount
of precipitation recorded during a calendar month or year.

8.4 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Hydrology may broadly be described as the study of the life cycle of water. A simplified
diagram of this is shown in figure 8.1.

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 Hydrological cycle

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

EVAPORATION PRECIPITATION

INTERCEPTION

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

RUN-OFF
EVAPORATION SOIL MOISTURE
STREAM FLOW
INTERFLOW

GROUND WATER

OCEANS

Figure 8.1: The hydrological cycle

Of particular importance in this cycle is the section where rainfall occurs and results in
either sheet flow or stream flow – thus, flow across a surface or in a river or channel.
The quantity of water, which becomes stream flow as a result of rainfall, is critical to
many activities – for example, in designing flood control structures and protection
works for urban areas and agricultural land, and in assessing how much water may be
extracted from a river for water supply or irrigation. Generally, that part of the rainfall
which results in stream flow is referred to as runoff, and the quantity of runoff resulting
from a given rainfall event depends on a number of factors.
The initial wetness of the catchment and the permeability of the soil play a major role.
Rain falling on a very dry permeable soil will tend to infiltrate the soil rather than move
across the surface (run off) towards a stream or river. Conversely, rain striking a wet,
comparatively impermeable surface will result in a high proportion of runoff.

The intensity of the rainfall and the slope of the catchment will also affect both the
quantity of runoff and the speed of response. There will be a lag in time between the

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time it starts raining and the time when the resulting flow in the river builds up to a
peak value.

If the catchment has a rapid response then, for a given quantity of runoff, the peak
flow in the river will be higher than if a slow response had occurred with the runoff
being more evenly distributed with time. This is illustrated later in figure 8.2.

8.5 HYDROLOGY

8.5.1 General

The accuracy of flood estimates depends on the amount and quality of relevant
information available and the proficiency of the hydraulic model employed in the
analysis. In hydrological calculations the consequences of failure should dictate the
effort required to make an acceptable estimate. Practical experience and sound
judgement are particularly important in determining the extent of investigation
required.

Two readily applied manual methods are recommended by the Department of

Transport (DoT) for making flood estimates required in the process of stormwater flood
peak estimation. These are
 the rational method
 the United States Soil Conservation Service method (SCS method)

Selecting these two methods is a compromise between dealing adequately with

complex and variable hydrologic phenomena on the one hand and the practical
administrative demand for simplicity and consistency on the other. We will discuss only
the rational method in this course.

Note that the methods presented here are generally applicable to rural catchments,
but may be applied to urban catchments, with caution. The complex nature of urban
catchments often requires methods which can accommodate subdividing a catchment
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into various hydrologic elements in order to obtain realistic flood estimates. This
“disaggregation” may be particularly important when the consequences of flood
underestimation are severe. This type of problem should be analysed by computer-
based methods, but these are beyond the scope of this course.

8.5.2 Storm and flood return period

A storm of a particular return period can produce floods of different capacity,

depending on the hydrologic condition of the catchment. Furthermore, floods of the
same return period may be represented by a number of different hydrographs, ranging
from those with high peaks and small volumes to others with low peaks and large
volumes.

It is assumed that a flood with the same return period as the design storm will occur
when there are average catchment conditions, consistent with that return period. It is
therefore necessary to assess the probable average condition of a catchment,
compatible with the design return period, to achieve consistency in flood estimates.
The various factors used in the design methods must in turn be selected to reasonably
represent the assessed catchment condition.

8.6 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOODS

8.6.1 General

When rain falls on a drainage basin (catchment area), part of the water may be
prevented from reaching the catchment exit, and some may be delayed en route.
Losses from precipitation arise from infiltration, storage in surface depressions,
evaporation and interception by vegetal cover.

Consider what happens when the water falling out of the sky strikes the earth during
a storm.

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 Initially some of the rain is taken up by wetting up the vegetation, the surface of the
soil, roofs, etc. and filling small depressions and hollows. This is referred to as
initial abstraction.
 As the rain falls, some of the water is absorbed into the ground (infiltration) and the
rest runs off on the surface until it reaches a channel, stream or river (runoff).

This is illustrated in figure 8.2:

Rainfall
intensity
Runoff
(mm/h)

Initial
Infiltration
abstraction

Time

Figure 8.2: Rainfall intensity – runoff relationship

The excess rain, in other words, total precipitation minus losses (initial abstraction plus
infiltration) which represents the runoff, travels by the hydraulically shortest route to
the exit of the drainage basin. The volume of this runoff and the rate at which it arrives
at the catchment exit are the main concerns for the drainage designer.

The factors affecting flood peaks and volumes have been – and continue to be – the
subject of a great deal of research and we can group them as those affecting rainfall
and runoff. For the design methods we present here, the principal factor used to link
rainfall and runoff is the time taken for the catchment to respond to the rainfall input.

A number of empirical methods have been developed from modelling catchment

response. In various ways these relate the characteristics of the flood hydrograph at
the catchment exit to the starting time and duration of the rainfall.
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The flow of water in a stream or river can be represented by a hydrograph. This is a
plot of flow rate (discharge) against time at a particular point in the stream or river, as
illustrated in figure 8.3.

35

30 Peak discharge
3/sec
(m3/s)

25
Discharge(m

20
Discharge

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (hrs)
Rapid Base

Figure 8.3: Typical hydrograph

When designing flood control structures, the size of the structure is determined by the
peak discharge for a certain return period storm which is the maximum flow rate
(discharge) – as illustrated in figure 8.3.

Time of concentration is the time taken for the flood runoff to reach its peak discharge
at the point on the river or stream. Time of concentration (tC) has been adopted as the
measure of the catchment response time. This is the time taken for a wave in the runoff
to travel from the hydraulically remotest part of the catchment to the catchment exit.
Various methods are used to determine the time of concentration of a particular
catchment area. This depends on the hydrologic model being used to determine the
peak discharge from the catchment.

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8.6.2 Rainfall

In the following subsections, we will discuss methods of determining rainfall depths for
design purposes, together with some of the more important factors that affect
precipitation. Not all the influencing factors, such as storm type, have been quantified
in the prediction equations. Nevertheless, it is important for the designer to be aware
of these additional factors in order to take care in estimating floods.

[Link] Storm and rainfall types

Storm types are important when considering both the duration and the intensity of
rainfall and may be classified as follows:

Table 8.1: Types of storms

Type Description
Orographic These occur when winds force moist air up mountain or
escarpment slopes. This type is usually of low intensity and long
duration (often several days) and is an important source of
rainfall along the southern and eastern escarpments and
mountain ranges in South Africa.
Convective These storms are the result of the convective rising and
subsequent condensation of warm air pockets heated by the
earth’s surface. Most floods from small South African
catchments are the result of convective thunderstorms, which
generally yield high-intensity rainfall of short duration.
Frontal These occur when a mass of cold air rapidly displaces and lifts
a mass of warm air, resulting in high-intensity rainfall of short
duration. Warm fronts displacing cold air masses usually move
slowly and tend to produce low-intensity, long-duration
precipitation.

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 These are caused by the formation of high-pressure and low-
Cyclonic pressure cells resulting from the rotation and unequal heating of
the earth’s surface. High-pressure cells in the southern
hemisphere form anti-clockwise descending masses of air,
whereas low-pressure cells form clockwise ascending air
masses. When a deep low-pressure trough develops over the
interior of South Africa, flanked by high-pressure systems over
the oceans to the east and west, warm, moist air is drawn inland
and results in extensive rain over wide areas. Major floods
occur when such a system persists for a long period.

[Link] Time and spatial distribution of storms

The response of a catchment to rainfall input depends on its physiographic features

as well as the size, duration, direction and speed of the storm passing over it. Storm
sizes vary – from those covering a few square kilometres to others covering hundreds
of square kilometres. Storms are known to travel at speeds of up to 50–60 km/h and
rarely follow straight paths.

Storm activity is seldom uniform over a catchment area, resulting in an uneven

distribution of precipitation. Generally, the larger the catchment area, the greater the
variation in depth of precipitation at different points throughout the catchment. We will
discuss the effects of these variations on the design flood further in [Link].

The design methods presented in this study unit are based on the assumption that the
most severe flood peak will occur when a stationary storm lasts long enough to ensure
that runoff from each portion of the catchment will contribute to the flood peak
simultaneously. This establishes the relationship that the critical storm duration, tS,
should be at least equal to the catchment response time (time of concentration) tC. It
is further assumed that runoff reaching the catchment exit after the time of
concentration will arrive too late to contribute to the flood peak. This implies that the
flood peak for a storm of duration tC is an instantaneous event. It is evident from depth,
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duration and frequency studies that storms lasting longer than the time of
concentration result in lower, prolonged flood peaks with increased flood volumes.

Storms driven by prevailing winds in the direction of a catchment exit will frequently
lead to more severe floods than stationary storms or storms moving upstream or
across the catchment. The designer should, where possible, determine the prevailing
storm path when considering catchment response.

It is recommended that where prevailing storms are known to travel in the downstream
direction, time of concentration be adjusted.

[Link] Mean annual precipitation (MAP)

Research based on rainfall and stream flow records has shown that MAP has a
significant influence on the depth of precipitation for a particular storm duration ts and
return period T, and a matching effect on peak flood discharges.

MAP may be obtained from local records or from one of the following publications, for
any region in South Africa:

1. 1996 – Water Research Commission report number 298/1/94 (DC Midgley, WV

Pitman & BJ Middleton, Surface Water Resources of South Africa 1990 – User's
Manual – ISBN 1 86845 143 7)
2. Weather Bureau, Climate of South Africa – Part 4 Rainfall Maps, WB 22,
Department of Transport
3. Weather Bureau, Climate of South Africa – Part 2 Rainfall Statistics, WB 20,
Department of Transport

[Link] Return period

The various methods for estimating depth of precipitation d reflect the dependence of
d on return period T for a given storm duration in a particular locality.
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The return period (recurrence interval) of a storm is the reciprocal of the probability of
that storm occurring in any one year. For instance, a storm with a return period of 50
years has an annual probability of 0,02. This does not imply that this storm will occur
only once every 50 years, but rather that over an extended period the average interval
between storms of similar or greater intensity will be 50 years.

The annual probability of occurrence tends to average out for a number of structures
scattered over an extensive region under the control of one road authority. For this
reason, the design flood return period is usually prescribed for various types of
installations and need not be established for each design case by hydro-economic
optimisation.

The design return period will be defined by the controlling road authority, who will
generally stipulate the following:
 flood return period required to establish the design flood for sizing hydraulic
structures
 alternative flood return periods for which the hydraulic behaviour of the structures
should be checked

[Link] Design storm precipitation

Although alternative methods for predicting depth of precipitation are available, only
the Depth – Area – Duration – Frequency curves developed by the Hydrological
Research Unit of the University of the Witwatersrand – Report No. 2/78 – are partly
reproduced in this section for design purposes.

The required depth of precipitation is obtained from the co-axial diagram provided at
the end of this unit and marked as FIG 4.4. For a given storm duration tS, rainfall region
(coastal or inland), return period T and mean annual precipitation MAP, the maximum
point rainfall depth d, to be expected on the catchment may be read off the diagram.

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The inclusion of curves in the co-axial diagram related to coastal and inland rainfall
regions takes into account the storm types that predominate in those areas. Although
no definite line demarcates coastal and inland regions, it is recommended that the
following be adopted for design purposes:

Coastal: Eastern and southern seaboard of South Africa: 30 to 50 km wide strip from
the coastline, except where mountain ranges define a narrower strip.
Regions in which frontal or orographic precipitation generally occur.
The winter rainfall region of the Cape may be considered as coastal.

Inland: Areas inland from those described above; north-western Cape coast and
inland and Namibia.
Regions in which high-intensity convective thunderstorms predominate.
The rainfall stations falling within the respective regions are indicated in report No.
2/78 (Frequency curves developed by the Hydrological Research Unit of the University
of the Witwatersrand), which should be referred to in cases of doubt.

[Link] Aerial reduction factor (ARF)

The methods in this section for computing design floods require an estimate of
equivalent uniform precipitation depth over the entire catchment.

The larger the catchment area, the greater the variation in depth of precipitation to be
expected at different points throughout the catchment.

The non-uniform rainfall depth must therefore be averaged out for design purposes.
Average depth of precipitation dA is obtained by multiplying point precipitation depth d
by ARF.

dA = ARF x d (mm)

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8.6.3 Runoff

The numerous factors affecting runoff may vary considerably on the same catchment
over a period of time as a result of changing land use. In addition, a catchment may
display different runoff characteristics when responding to different types of storms.
The relationship of rainfall to runoff must therefore be made considering the probable
average hydrologic condition of the catchment consistent with the design return period
(T).

[Link] Time of concentration

The time of concentration tC is used to define the design storm duration, and is also a
parameter related mainly to the physiographic features of a catchment.

 Rural and urban catchments

Time of concentration is obtained by adding up the flow travel times along the various
reaches of the longest collector in the catchment. Generally, flow in the first few
hundred metres of the upper reaches of a rural catchment is of the overland type, and
after that upland gully flow occurs as the water converges. Finally, flow is concentrated
in defined channels in the lower reaches of a catchment. The velocity of flow may
therefore vary considerably along a collector, depending on the flow type (overland or
channel), waterway slope and vegetal cover.

Similarly, for urban catchment, flow type and velocity are influenced by how flood water
is conveyed downhill, for instance park, garden and pavement (overland) flow, ditch
and gutter flow, pipe flow and, finally, defined channel flow.

The method used to determine the time of concentration or response time of a

catchment must be consistent with the method being used to determine the peak
discharge.

 Lakes, swamps or dams

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Where this type of basin lies on the longest collector, it will have the effect of reducing
the flood peak, even if the basin is full when the storm starts. To correctly assess the
effect, a rigorous routing procedure would need to be applied. However, after carefully
considering risk, a simplified approach as described for transversely divided
catchments in the design manual may be adopted.

 Storms travelling downstream

As mentioned in 8.6.2, the methods discussed here assume a stationary storm. In

many instances the prevailing storm direction over a catchment is known. It is
recommended that in these cases where the prevailing storms are known to travel in
the downstream direction, the time of concentration tC be reduced by 20%. This figure
is arbitrary due to the lack of published research data in this regard. However, it
recognises the higher peaks that are likely to be experienced on these catchments,
bearing in mind that to obtain a flood of the same return period as the storm, average
conditions should prevail.

[Link] Climatic factors

The type of precipitation, temperature, solar radiation, wind, humidity and antecedent
moisture condition all influence the hydrological response of a catchment. Engineering
judgement must be relied on to assess the possible effects of most of these factors,
which are difficult to quantify.

Antecedent moisture condition (AMC) is the index of catchment wetness prior to

precipitation from a design storm.

The rational method has been roughly calibrated with respect to AMC. This is done by
providing runoff coefficients in FIG 4.5 at the end of this unit grouped under three
ranges of MAP, which takes into account the effect of the AMC.

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[Link] Physiographic factors

The important factors relating to the geometric and physical aspects of a catchment
may be listed as follows:

 Geometric factors

Area

Runoff is directly related to area of catchment, although seldom linearly.

From the hydrological point of view, a distinct characteristic of the small catchment
is that overland rather than channel flow may become a significant factor affecting
peak runoff.

Consequently, a small catchment is very sensitive to high intensity, short duration

rainfall and to land use. However, on larger catchments the effects of channel flow
or basin storage become more obvious, so these sensitivities tend to be greatly
suppressed.

A small catchment may therefore be defined as one in which the response to high
intensity, short duration rainfall and land use is not significantly suppressed by
channel storage characteristics. The upper limit of area depends on the condition
at which the above sensitivities become practically lost due to channel storage and
other effects.

Shape and orientation

The shape and orientation of a catchment play an important part in catchment
response – particularly in relation to the prevalent storm travel direction.

Catchments with irregular shapes (e.g. catchments with two or more main
collectors meeting upstream of a culvert) should be analysed separately.
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 Slope
The average slope SO of the hillsides within a catchment may be determined from
the equation below and should not be confused with S, which is the slope for a
reach of the longest collector. Generally SO > S.

Lc x h
S0 = %
10 x A

Where:

LC = Total length of contours within the catchment (km)

h = Contour interval (m)
A = Catchment area (km2)

Generally, the greater the value of So, the more numerous the defined erosion
channels within a catchment. Apart from the gravitational effect of slope, steep
catchments have less obvious surface depressions than flat catchments and
consequently abstract less precipitation.

Average catchment slope is important in establishing the velocity of overland flow in a

catchment and in determining rainfall-runoff coefficients for use in the rational method.

 Physical factors

Permeability
Soil permeability is one of the most important factors which influence storm
precipitation losses.

In the rational method, permeability, average hillside slope and vegetal cover are
considered to be three factors that are equally important in evaluating the runoff
coefficient C.

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 Changes in soil permeability within a catchment must be taken into account when
using either the rational method or the SCS method.

Land cover, use, treatment and hydrologic condition

Cover means any material or plants covering the soil and providing protection from
the impact of rainfall. Land use generally refers to agricultural practices such as
straight-row or contour farming, terracing, trash burning, grazing and irrigation, or
particular types of urban development.

The designer must attempt to establish the average conditions likely to prevail in
the catchment during the design return period. For example, if a catchment falls in
a sugar cane farming area, in which the average cutting cycle is two years, it would
be wise to assume that, say, 40% of the farming area will be fallow at the time of
the design storm, in addition to the permanently bare portion of the catchment
occupied by roads, farm buildings, orchards, etc.
In contrast, a lower percentage of cleared land could be assumed for a catchment
predominantly covered by a young forest plantation with a normal felling cycle of
15 years or more.

Information about future urbanisation should be obtained for catchments on urban

boundaries.

The hydrologic condition of a catchment is as an additional classification relating

to the extent of cover or treatment for a particular land use, which in turn further
affects the runoff potential of a catchment. Good, fair or poor condition reflects a
low, average or high runoff potential, respectively. For example, the degree of
grazing on pasture lands from lightly grazed to heavily grazed would result in a
hydrologic condition ranging from good to poor.

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 Improvement in hydrologic condition is usually associated with an increase in soil
permeability.

Lakes, swamps and dams

Although the storage capacity of lakes, swamps and dams may be significant, it is
general design practice to assume that these basins are full when a design storm
starts – resulting in 100% runoff of the precipitation on their areas. However, even
when full, a large proportion of inflow must be stored before the rate of outflow is
equal to that of the inflow. This has the effect of reducing the flood peak.

8.7 METHODS OF DESIGN FLOOD DETERMINATION

8.7.1 General

There are a number of methods which can be used to assess flood peaks and volumes
for ungauged catchments. Table 8.2, presented later, offers guidance on the use of
these and other methods for ungauged catchments.

Rainfall-runoff data is seldom available on a small catchment. In cases where

sufficiently long records do exist, a statistical analysis for flood estimation should be
applied rather than other methods, whenever justified.

Empirical methods which have been calibrated for local conditions and are known to
have provided reasonably reliable estimates of flood peaks in the past should continue
to be used as a comparison with either the rational method or the SCS method.

NB: The practice of weighting the flood estimates obtained from a number of methods
to determine a mean peak value is not recommended, since the design constants lie
in the methods themselves, thereby leading to potentially erratic results.

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However, as all of the methods for estimating floods are imprecise in varying degrees,
it may be wise to compare the order of the flood estimates from alternative methods.
Preference should nevertheless be given to the results of the method considered best
suited to the analysis.

Maximum recorded flood discharges offer the designer some guidance when
estimating the probable maximum flood peak to be expected for a particular catchment
size. Envelope curves are presented in FIG 4.2 at the end of this unit which bound the
maximum recorded flood discharges for catchments in regions, A, B and C of South
Africa. The maximum recorded flood discharges should be used only to confirm the
order of the flood estimates obtained from the recommended design methods.

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Table 8.2 offers a guide for selecting a method for design flood determination.

Table 8.2: Selecting a method for design flood determination

Catchment area (km2)

Design method Consequences of failure
(Ungauged catchments) Not severe Severe Very
severe
1. Empirical equations Limited to location and size for which
developed
2. Rational formula:
Direct application <25 <5 <2
Constant discharge method <100 <25 <5
3. SCS manual method <100 < 50 < 10
4. Computer modelling techniques > 100 > 50 >10

The size of catchment and consequence of failure should always dictate the extent to
which the catchment should be subdivided into smaller hydrologic elements. Very
severe consequences of failure imply great risk to human life or vital services and
almost without exception require a more reliable approach as the catchment area
increases and the anticipated flood become correspondingly greater.

8.7.2 Rational method

This method has been one of the most widely used methods for predicting peak
discharge on ungauged catchments and dates back to the middle of the 19th century.
Extensive research has been carried out on the reliability of the rational method.
Generally, comparisons with measured flood peaks have indicated large variances.
Consequently, the method is statistically regarded as a low-order prediction model.
One of the main problems in applying the method is the subjectiveness in selecting

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the runoff coefficient C. It is recommended that direct application of the rational method
be limited to catchments of minor importance and less than 25 km2 in area.

The basic form of the equation is

CxIxA
Q=
3,6

Where:

Q = Flood peak discharge arriving at the catchment exit (m3/s)

C = Rational coefficient (a number between 0 and 1)
I = Average rainfall intensity over the whole catchment (mm/h)
A = Catchment area (km2)

[Link] Assumptions made in the rational method

The main assumptions in the method are that
 the design storm produces a uniform rainfall intensity over the entire
catchment
 the relationship between rainfall intensity and rate of runoff is constant for a
particular catchment
 the flood peak at the catchment exit occurs at the time of concentration

[Link] Rational runoff coefficient

The runoff coefficient C in the rational method represents the ratio of rate of runoff to
rainfall intensity for a particular catchment.

For rural catchments, the coefficient consists of three component factors, the sum of
which constitutes the total runoff coefficient, thus

C = CS + CV + CK

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Where:

CS = Slope factor, based on the average hillside slope in the catchment

CV = A factor dependent on the permeability of the soil
CK= = A factor relating to the vegetation in the catchment

Values for C are given in FIG 4.5 at the end of this unit (refer to example 8.1).

[Link] Time of concentration

There are a number of methods to calculate the time of concentration for a particular
catchment. However, the generally accepted formula for tc for flow in a defined
watercourse is
0 ,385
 0,87 L2 
Tc (Watercourse) =  
 1000 S 
Where:
L = Hydraulic length of the watercourse (generally the length of the longest
tributary or collector)
S = Average slope of the longest tributary or collector

To determine the slope S the “10-85” method as shown in figure 8.4 is used.

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 H

0 ,1 L
0 ,8 5 L
L

Figure 8.4: Representation of the 10-85 method

The difference in height (H) between the stream bed levels at 10% and 85% of the
length of the longest collector is measured and divided by (0,85 – 0,1) L.
i.e. S = H/0,75L
However, the slope is generally calculated using the following formula when the height
at the 10% and 85% is not given:
( )
i.e. S =

Where:
L = Hydraulic length of the watercourse (generally the length of the longest
tributary or collector)
H1 = Highest elevation
H2 = Lowest elevation

.
𝑟𝐿
𝑇𝑐 (𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑) = 0.604 ∗
𝑆 .
Where:
Tc = Time of concentration (hours)
r = Roughness coefficient obtained from table 8.3
L = Hydraulic length of catchment, measured along flow path from the
catchment boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined
(km)

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S = Slope of the catchment 𝑆=𝐻/1 000𝐿 (m/m)
H = Height of most remote point above outlet of catchment (m)

Table 8.3: Manning roughness coefficients for overland flow surfaces

Surface description Manning in

Concrete, asphalt 0.010-0.016
Bare sand 0.010-0.016
Gravel 0.012-0.030
Bare clay-loam (eroded) 0.012-0.033
Natural rangeland 0.010-0.320
Bluegrass sod 0.39-0.63
Short grass prairie 0.10-0.20
Dense grass, bermuda grass, bluegrass 0.17-0.48
Forestland 0.20-0.80

[Link] Rainfall intensity

It is assumed that the design storm will have a duration ts that is equal to the time of
concentration tc.

Having determined the design return period or recurrence interval (T), the MAP and
the rainfall region, the co-axial diagram (FIG 4.4 at the end of this unit) is used to
determine the depth of precipitation.

The intensity (I) is the depth of precipitation divided by the storm duration.
(Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 appear at the end of this study unit.)

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8.8 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Table 8.4 summarises the procedure for the rational method for simple catchments.

Table 8.4: Steps summarising the procedure for the rational method

(i) Measure the catchment area. A (km2)

(ii) Determine the design flood return period, rainfall region and mean T (years)
annual precipitation. Region
MAP (mm)
(iii) Determine the time of concentration (watercourse or overland) for tC
the catchment tS and set tC = tS tS
Changing land use should be considered in the determination of
tC. Urbanisation over the design life of a drainage structure must
be considered, particularly for catchments on the outskirts of
present development. Long-term town planning and regional
planning proposals should be studied.
(iv) Determine the average depth of precipitation from FIG 4.4 at the
end of this unit. dA
Average intensity I = dA/tC (mm/h)
(v) Determine the average catchment slope So, soil permeability, LC (km)
land use and vegetal cover of the catchment, either as a whole or h (m)
by sub-areas as appropriate. From FIG 4.5 at the end of this unit, SO
select the component values CS, CK, and CV for slope, soil type CS
and vegetation, respectively, which should be added together. CK
Where the runoff coefficients for portions of the catchment clearly CV
differ, a composite value of C may be calculated.
C = CS + [  (%A x CK ) +  (%A x CV ) ] / 100 C

(vi) Compute the flood peak Q = (C x I x A)/3,6 (m3/s) : Q (m3/s)

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Example 8.1
Scenario
A catchment of 620 hectares in area is situated in the coastal region near Mossel Bay
where the mean annual precipitation (MAP) is 1 000 mm. The 5 m interval contours
falling within the catchment area were measured to be 174 km in length. The
mainstream draining the catchment is 4,4 km in length. The stream starts at an
elevation of 284 m and flows at a fairly uniform slope for 2,4 km as a natural channel
to an altitude of 209 m, at which point the general slope and nature change to an
excavated channel for the remainder of its length. At the discharge point the elevation
of the stream is 155 m. Dense forest with very permeable soil covers 345 hectares;
cultivated land with permeable soil covers a further 120 hectares; the remainder of the
area is grassland on semi-permeable soil.
Question
Calculate the peak discharge from the catchment for a 50-year return period storm.

Region near Mossel Bay : Coastal

T : 50 years
Area : 620 hectares
: 1 km² = 100 ha
: 620/100 = 6,2 km²
MAP : 1 000 mm
Length of the longest watercourse : 4,4 km
El at most remoted part : 284 m
EL at end of natural slope : 209 m
EL at discharged point : 155 m

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S= = 0.03125 = 3,125% flat

S= = 0.027 = 2,7%

TC1 = ((0.87)* (2.4²))/((1 000*0.03125))^0.385 = 0.494 hr

TC2 = ((0.87)* (2²))/((1 000*0.027))^0.385 = 0.454 hr
Total TC = TC1 + TC2 = 0.494 + 0.454 = = 0.948 hr
d = 76 mm
ARF = 0.924
DA = 0.924*76 = 70.224
I = DA/TC = 70.224/0.948 = 74.076 m/hr
C= CS + CV + CK
𝑆 =𝐿 *h/10*A 𝑆 =174*5/10*6.2 =14%
Runoff coefficients C
CS = 0.2
Dense forest CV = (345/620) = 56%= 0.05*0.56 = 0.028
Cultivated land CV = (120/620) = 0.19 = 19.35% = 0.15*0.19 = 0.0285
Grassland CV = (155/620) = 0.25 = 0.25* 0.25 = = 0.0625
Cv = 0.119

Semi-permeable soil CK =(155/620) = 0.25 = 0.2* 0.25 = 0.05

Very permeable CK = (345/620) = 56% = 0.05*0.56 = 0.028
Permeable soil CK = (120/620) = 19.35% = 0.1*0.19 = 0.019
CK = 0.097
C= 0.2 + 0.119 + 0.097 = 0.416
Q= CIA/3.6 = 0.416 * 74.076* 6.2/3.6 = 53.071 m³/sec

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 0.924

76mm

Figure 8.5: Design storm precipitation diagram

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8.9 UNIT 8: EXTRA ACTIVITIES
1. A 400 ha catchment area situated near Newcastle in KwaZulu-Natal (inland region)
has an average annual rainfall of 850 mm. The elevation of the discharge point is
1 323 m and the elevation of the point at the head of the natural channel
watercourse, which has a length of 2,8 km and a fairly uniform slope, is 1 379 m.
The catchment is covered by 30% dense timber plantations, 20% cultivated land
and 50% grassland. The soil permeability over the catchment area can be
considered to be 25% semi-permeable, 35% permeable and 40% very permeable.
The average slope of the hillsides (So) in the catchment was calculated to be 4,2%
over 65% of the catchment and 3,1% over the remainder.

Using the rational method, calculate the peak discharges for 10-year, 25-year and
50-year return period (recurrence interval) storms. Plot a graph of your results.

2. A catchment with an area of 3,4 km2 is situated in the built-up area of

Johannesburg, which has a MAP of 730 mm. The catchment comprises 84 ha of
grassed parkland with heavy soil and an average slope of 7,8%, 21 ha of light
industrial development, 36 ha of city centre business area, 24 ha of neighbourhood
business area and the remainder is single family residential housing. Allow 10% of
the total area for asphalt surfaced streets.
The first 800 m of the longest drainage path flows overland through the parkland
where the slope is 6,3%. It then flows in a natural drainage watercourse with an
average slope of 3,2% for a further 1,1 km. The last 760 m of the watercourse is a
concrete-lined canal with a slope of 2,1%.

Calculate the peak discharge from the catchment area for return periods of 5, 10,
20, 50 and 100 years using the rational method and plot a graph of your results.

3. A new township is to be developed near Port Elizabeth (coastal region). This

township will be 400 ha in extent (in area) comprising 10% neighbourhood business
(shopping centres), 15% CBD, 20% heavy industrial and the remainder single
family residential.
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 This township will lie in an undulating catchment (average hillside slopes = 2,9%)
6 km2 in area and covered with low bush (thin forest) on very permeable soil. The
length of the longest stream, which is a natural channel, is 7,5 km and the height
difference between the watershed and the discharge point is 150 m.

Calculate the change in peak discharge (i.e. before and after the township is built)
for 5-year, 10-year, 20-year, 50-year and 100-year return period storms. The
average annual rainfall or MAP in the region is 580 mm per annum. For the
township use the average of the values of C for urban areas given in FIG 4.5 at the
end of this unit. Plot a graph of your results.

4. In figure 8.6, ABCDEF represents an asphalt-surfaced parking area with slopes as

shown. The surface of the parking area is horizontal in the east-west direction and
falls away from the line BE to the north and south. Stormwater runoff is collected
along its northern and southern edges in grassed waterways (CD) and (EF) which
discharge into an excavated drainage channel (DF) running down the eastern side.
The invert levels (IL) of the channels are as shown.

If the runoff coefficient (C) for the surfaced area is taken as 0,9 and the mean
annual precipitation for the area, which lies within the inland region, is 800 mm,
calculate the peak discharge resulting from a 20-year return period storm at the
point marked X on the diagram.

NB: Ignore the surface areas of the channels as being insignificant in relation to
the parking area. Use the dimensions given on the drawing when calculating the
catchment area and lengths of the drainage channels.
(Hint: What is the longest path a drop of water has to travel?)

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Figure 8.6: Stormwater diagram

REFERENCE WORK AND FURTHER READING

SANRAL. 2013. Drainage manual.

[Link]
[Accessed on 22/05/2020].

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TRE 2601 -- Study unit 8
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 STUDY UNIT 9

ROAD SURFACE DRAINAGE

CONTENTS PAGE

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 297

9.2 INTRODUCTION 297

9.3 MAJOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM 299

9.4 MINOR DRAINAGE 300

9.5 DRAINAGE CHANNELS 301

9.5.1 Factors in design 302

9.5.2 Types of drainage channels 304
[Link] Gutters 305
[Link] Chutes 306
[Link] Side drains 307
[Link] Toe-of-slope channels 308
[Link] Catchwater drains (intercepting channels) 308
[Link] Median drains (swales) 309
9.5.3 Channel changes 309
9.5.4 Alignment and grade 310
9.5.5 Protection from erosion 311
9.5.6 Maintenance 313

9.6 BASICS OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 313

9.6.1 Uniform flow 314

9.6.2 Non-uniform or varied flow 315
9.6.3 Energy of flow 315
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 9.6.4 Critical flow 324
9.6.5 The Froude number 326

9.7 UNIT 9: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 328

REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING 330

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9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 describe the types of drains used in roadways

 define the importance of the rapid conveyance of stormwater from road
surface
 apply Manning’s equation and the conditions for its application
 apply Manning’s equation to calculate the velocity and discharge in an open
channel

9.2 INTRODUCTION

Read this study unit in conjunction with chapter 6 – Drainage, in the prescribed
book TRH 17 (Geometric Design of Rural Highways).

There are three broad categories of drainage in the design of any road project:

Major drainage The drainage of the catchment of a stream or river crossed

by the road as illustrated in figure 9.1.

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 Figure 9.1: Major drainage facility

Minor drainage The drainage of the roadway itself and its immediate
surroundings. (In urban areas this will include the kerb
inlets and underground system comprising pipe culverts
and other stormwater conduits.) See the illustration in
figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2: Minor drainage facility

Subsurface drainage The drainage of the subsurface layerworks forming the

pavement structure and protection of the road prism from

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 groundwater. (This aspect will not form part of this module
but will be discussed in other courses dealing with the road
pavement.) See the illustration in figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: Installation of subsurface drain (photo taken by JM Kasenge)

There must be provision of adequate, properly designed drainage structures of

sufficient size to cope with flooding that may occur from time to time so as to minimise
the risk of damage and injury to the road user, roadway structure as well as the
properties adjacent to the transportation facility.

9.3 MAJOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The major drainage system consists of the streams and rivers that cross the centreline
of the road. Stormwater that needs to pass under the roadway is accommodated in
culverts or, in the case of rivers, larger bridge structures are required.

In rural areas, where there is no development close to the river banks in the reach
immediately upstream of the proposed major culvert or bridge structure, the damming
effect of backwater caused by the constriction of the waterway opening due to the
flood plain embankments does not need to be considered.

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However, in built-up areas, this can have a major effect on the flooding of property
upstream of the bridge site. Be aware of this when dealing with large streams and
rivers.

9.4 MINOR DRAINAGE

Effective drainage of the roadway surface is essential for the maintenance of the level
of service of roads and for traffic safety during rainstorms. Water on the roadway
surface slows traffic and contributes to accidents from hydroplaning and loss of
visibility from splash and spray. Free-standing puddles or flow patterns which affect
only one side of a vehicle are perhaps the most dangerous – due to the possibility of
uneven grip of tyres to the road surface, which may lead to skidding.

Well-planned road and street layouts can significantly reduce the total road capital and
maintenance costs related to stormwater management and drainage – and when
integrated with the major system, may prevent or substantially reduce the need for
underground drainage conduits.

In the preliminary stages of township planning, adequate attention should be paid to

stormwater and drainage considerations.

Water on the pavement is the principal cause of loss of tyre contact with the road
surface in hydroplaning incidents.

In the design of a drainage system for a kerbed section of a roadway, the objective is
to collect stormwater runoff in the gutter and convey it to inlets and then into an
underground system of pipes that eventually discharge into the major drainage
system. This is the general method adopted in urban areas as it provides greater
safety for adjacent properties, traffic and pedestrians (at a greater cost, however).

All drains and channels must be designed according to recognised practice and
special attention should be paid to areas where problems can arise. These include
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sharp bends in the horizontal alignment and changes in the grade of the vertical
alignment, especially when flow is supercritical.

To drain the road surface, the road is either cambered (i.e. given a fall from the high
point on the centreline to the edge of the road on either side) or given a cross-fall from
one side to the other. The slope for both cases should be not less than 2%.

9.5 DRAINAGE CHANNELS

Roadside drainage channels perform the vital function of diverting or removing surface
water from the roadway road prism. They should provide the most efficient disposal
system consistent with cost, importance of the road, economy of maintenance and
legal requirements. One standard channel will rarely provide the most satisfactory
drainage for all sections of a roadway, although it might be adequate for most
locations. Thus, the design engineer needs procedures for designing various types of
channels. In this study unit we discuss flow in roadside drainage channels and
preventing channel erosion. We present methods for designing drainage channels
required to remove runoff from the area immediately adjacent to the roadway.

Drainage channel design requires, firstly, determining where surface water or

groundwater will occur, in what quantity and with what frequency. This is a hydrologic
problem. The solution to the hydrologic problem will be found in study unit 8 of this
study guide, generally by applying the rational method to obtain the appropriate peak
discharge for the prevailing conditions.

Then structures of appropriate capacity must be designed to divert water from the
roadway in order to remove water that reaches the roadway, and to pass collected
water under the roadway. This is a hydraulic problem.
In this study unit we will discuss only the part of the problem that deals with roadside
drainage channels; however, many of the principles discussed also apply to natural
streams.

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Erosion control is a necessary part of good drainage design. Unless the side slopes
and the drainage channels themselves are protected from erosion, unsightly gullies
appear, maintenance costs increase and sections of the roadway may be damaged or
even destroyed.

Drainage design begins with the road location. Locations that are free from poorly
drained areas, unstable soil, frequently flooded areas and unnecessary stream
crossings greatly reduce the drainage problem.

Data gathered in the field can be used to solve the drainage problems that cannot be
avoided when locating the roadway. Adequate notes on farm drainage, terraces and
humanmade channels are particularly important, as these channels are seldom
indicated on topographic maps.

The design procedures we discuss in this study unit are only tools to aid in solving the
surface drainage problem – there is no standard solution. The drainage problem of
each section of roadway is individual and requires adequate field data and an engineer
who has experience in roadway drainage to be solved.

9.5.1 Factors in design

The primary purpose of roadside drainage channels is to prevent surface runoff from
reaching the roadway and to efficiently remove the rainfall or surface water that
reaches the roadway. To achieve this purpose, the drainage channels should have
adequate capacity for the peak rates of runoff that recur with a frequency depending
on the class of road and the risk involved.

On less important roads where overtopping of the drainage channels would not cause
much damage and where traffic would suffer only minor inconvenience, a peak runoff
that recurs frequently might be satisfactory. On major roadways or on minor roadways
where serious erosion damage would result from overtopping of the drainage
channels, a less frequent peak runoff might be used as the design runoff.
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The frequency used depends somewhat on the climate, the topography of the area
and the cost of the drainage system. Water standing on the edge of the travelled way
for a few minutes during an intense storm might not interfere with traffic movement
any more than the storm itself, but if water remains for a long time or collects in
pavement sags or in underpass depressions, a traffic hazard will result. At locations
where shoulder gutters protect high fills that are susceptible to erosion, the peak
discharge for which the channels are designed might be greater than the class of the
road would otherwise warrant.

The capacity of a drainage channel carrying uniform flow depends on its

 shape
 size
 slope
 roughness

For a given channel, the capacity becomes greater when the grade or the depth of
flow is increased. The channel capacity decreases as the channel surface becomes
rougher. For example, a rubble- or stone-lined drain has only about half the capacity
of a concrete-lined drain of the same size, shape and slope because of the differences
in channel roughness. A rough channel is sometimes an advantage on steep slopes
where it is desirable to keep velocities from becoming too high.

The most efficient shape of channel is a semicircle, but hydraulic efficiency is not the
sole criterion. In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the drainage channel
should be economical to construct and require little maintenance during the life of the
roadway.

Channels should also be safe for vehicles accidentally leaving the travelled way, they
should be pleasing in appearance and should dispose of collected water without
causing damage to the abutting property. Most of these additional requirements for
drainage channels reduce the hydraulic capacity of the channel. Thus, the best design
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for a particular section of roadway is a compromise between the various requirements,
sometimes with each requirement having a different influence on the design from that
of another section.

9.5.2 Types of drainage channels

Roadway drainage channels may be classified according to function as

 gutters
 side drains
 chutes
 roadway channels
 toe-of-slope channels
 intercepting channels
 median drains (swales)

Figure 9.4 shows a typical divided roadway where several types of drainage channels
are needed to drain the roadway.

Catchwater drain/
Intercepting channel

Edge drain / berm Side drain

Median drain
Chute

Toe-of-slope drain

Figure 9.4: Drain location

(Refer also to figure 6.4 in TRH 17)

Starting at the outer edge of the road prism are the intercepting channels (catchwater
drains) on the natural ground outside the cut or fill slope, or on benches breaking the
cut slope. Next are the roadway channels between the cut slope and the shoulder of
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the road and the toe-of-slope channels which take the water discharged from the
roadway channels and convey it along or near the edge of the roadway embankment
to a point of disposal. A shallow depression or swale drains the median. We will define
and discuss the types of drainage channels in subsequent sections of this study unit.

[Link] Gutters

Gutters are the channels at the edges of the pavement or the shoulder formed by a
kerb or by a shallow depression. Gutters are invariably paved with concrete, brick,
stone blocks, or some other structural material.
Kerb
(curb in the USA)

Gutter
Sidewalk
(pavement in the UK)

Pavement
(USA and South Africa)

Channel

Figure 9.5: Gutter cross-section

Gutters are generally used in place of other types of channel for urban roadway
drainage. They are sometimes used in rural areas, particularly on urban arterials, in
mountainous regions, in sections with limited road prism, in areas of poor soil stability
and for special drainage problems such as traffic interchanges and underpasses.

In areas where vegetative cover cannot be used to prevent erosion damage to high
fills, shoulders are designed to serve as a gutter with a kerb constructed at the outer
edge to confine the water to the shoulder. The water collected in the gutter is
discharged down the slope through chutes. The kerb may be made of
 earth

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 bituminous material
 Portland cement concrete
 cut stone

[Link] Chutes

Chutes are steeply inclined open or closed channels, which convey the collected water
to a lower level. Chutes are also called flumes and spillways.

The most common applications in roadway construction are the chutes used to convey
water down cut or fill slopes. Open chutes can be metal or be paved with Portland
cement concrete, bituminous material, stone, or earth sod, depending on the volume
and velocity of the water to be removed. What is figure 9.6 illustrating?

Figure 9.6: Chute plan and long-section

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On long slopes, closed (pipe) chutes are generally preferable to open chutes because
in an open chute the high-velocity water is likely to jump out of the channel, erode the
slope and destroy the chute. Also, open chutes may interfere with machine-mowing
operations on the roadway slopes. The inlet of all chutes must be adequately designed
to prevent water from bypassing the chute and eroding the slope. Energy dissipaters
or other types of erosion protection are frequently needed at the chute outlet.

[Link] Side drains

Side drains are the channels provided in the cut section to remove the runoff from rain
falling on the roadway and on the cut slopes. These drains are sometimes called
gutters when paved; however, in this study unit paved channels separated from the
travelled way will be called roadway channels.

A well-designed side drain removes stormwater from the cut areas with the lowest
overall cost, including cost of maintenance, and with the least hazard to traffic. The
channel should also be pleasing in appearance. To meet these requirements, it is
recommended that where the terrain permits, roadside drainage channels built in earth
have side slopes not steeper than 1 m vertical to 4 m horizontal and a rounded bottom
at least 1 m wide. Flatter side slopes are desirable on channels beside low fills. The
depth of channel should be sufficient to remove the water without saturating the
pavement sub-grade.

It is unnecessary to standardise the design of roadside drainage channels for any

length of roadway. Not only can the depth and breadth of the channel be varied with
variation in the amounts of runoff, the rate of channel grade and the distance between
lateral outfall culverts, but the dimensions can be varied by the use of different types
of channel lining. Nor is it necessary to standardise the lateral distance between the
channel and the edge of the pavement. Often liberal offsets can be obtained where
cuts are slight and where cuts end and fills begin.

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[Link] Toe-of-slope channels

Toe-of-slope channels are located at or near the toe of a fill when it is necessary to
convey water collected by the roadway channel to the point of disposal. On the
downhill side of the roadway, this channel can often be laid on a mild slope and the
lower end flared to spread the water over the hillside. Where this practice would cause
erosion or permit water to drain into the roadway embankment, the toe-of-slope
channel must convey the stormwater to a natural watercourse.

In arid and semi-arid regions, the water draining out of the roadway cut should be
diverted away from the fill far enough so that it does not come back to the roadway.
The landowner will seldom object to receiving stormwater from the roadway, provided
it is delivered without causing erosion.

[Link] Catchwater drains (intercepting channels)

Intercepting channels are located on the natural ground near the top edge of a cut
slope or along the edge of the road prism, to intercept the runoff from a hillside before
it reaches the roadway. Intercepting the surface flow reduces erosion of cut slopes,
decreases silt deposition and infiltration in the roadbed area and decreases the
likelihood of flooding the roadway in severe storms.

Intercepting surface water is particularly important in arid and semi-arid regions.

Intercepting dikes may be built well back from the top of the cut slope and generally
on a flat grade until the water can be spread or emptied into a natural watercourse. In
most cases, the owners of rangeland will permit roadway departments to construct a
series of contour furrows beyond the road prism in order to recover the water.

An intercepting channel constructed by forming a dike with borrow material is superior

to an excavated channel because the latter destroys the natural ground cover and is
more likely to erode. Care should be taken to avoid ponding water at the tops of slopes
subject to sliding. In slide areas, stormwater should be intercepted and removed as
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rapidly as practicable, and sections of the channel crossing highly permeable soil
might require lining with impermeable material.

[Link] Median drains (swales)

Median swales are the shallow depressed areas at or near the centre of medians to
drain the median area and portions of the roadway. The depressed area or swale is
sloped longitudinally for drainage, and at intervals the water is intercepted by inlets
and is discharged from the roadway. It is not necessary that the longitudinal slope of
the swale conform to the pavement grade, particularly on flat grades.

Generally, kerbs are not provided on the edge of the pavement and the median swale
drains part or all of the pavement area in addition to the median area. Even where
kerbs are provided, it is preferable to slope medians wider than 5 m to a swale. This
keeps water in the median off the pavement and prevents snowmelt water from
running onto the pavement and becoming a hazard after a quick freeze. Medians less
than 5 m wide are generally crowned for drainage, and if under 1.829 m (i.e. 6 feet) in
width, the median is usually paved. 1.829 m is about the minimum width that can be
mowed with mechanical equipment.

9.5.3 Channel changes

Channel changes alter the alignment or cross-sections of natural watercourses.

Replacing a long, sinuous natural channel with a shorter, improved channel will
increase the channel slope and usually decrease the channel roughness. Both of
these changes increase the velocity of the flowing water, sometimes enough to cause
damage to the roadway embankment near the stream or excessive scour around
footings of structures. At other times damage occurs if the stream continues to use the
old channel rather than the new because adequate training works are not provided to
divert the stream into the new channel. In addition to possible damage to the roadway,
a major channel change may be detrimental to fish and other aquatic life because of
increased velocities, decreased depth of flow and the removal of boulders and
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irregularities in the channel. Placing boulders at random in the new channel will aid in
restoring the fish habitat.

Occasionally, small watercourses crossing the roadway can be diverted into an

adjacent watercourse at a lower cost than by providing separate cross drains. Channel
changes in the vicinity of a roadway or at a roadway crossing are sometimes made to
secure borrow material for the roadway embankment with the thought of incidental
improvement in the channel cross-section or alignment. This practice on a stabilised
stream channel almost always results in future maintenance problems. Channel
changes also incur a legal liability for damage to private property that might be brought
about by the changed channel. Thus, channel changes should always be studied for
their value and effect rather than made to secure borrow material or to save the cost
of a cross drain.

Borrow ditches should not be placed near the toe of embankments that are adjacent
to natural streams which overflow their banks. A ditch that is located like this will often
carry flow at high velocities with damage to the embankment section during flood
periods. In some locations borrow ditches on the upstream side of the fill will direct the
high-velocity water back into the main channel in a way that causes scour at bridge
piers and abutments.

9.5.4 Alignment and grade

The width of the right-of-way usually allows little choice in the alignment or in the grade
of the channel, but abrupt changes in alignment or in grade should be avoided where
practicable. A sharp change in alignment presents a point of attack for the flowing
water, and abrupt changes in grade cause deposition of transported material when the
grade is flattened, or scour when grade is steepened.

A drainage channel should have a grade that produces velocities that neither erode
nor cause deposition in the channel. This optimum velocity also depends on the size
and shape of the channel, the quantity of water flowing, the material used to line the
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channel, the nature of the soil and the type of sediment being transported by the
stream.

Ordinarily the roadway drainage channel must be located where it will best serve its
intended purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable at the location. The
capacity of the channel and the degree of protection given are then determined.

The point of discharge of a drainage channel into the natural watercourse requires
particular attention. The alignment of the drainage channel should not cause eddies
with scour in the natural watercourse or near drainage structures. In erodible soils, if
the flow line of the drainage channel is much higher than that of the watercourse at
the point of entry, a spillway or chute should be provided to discharge the water into
the watercourse in order to prevent erosion in the drainage channel. The chute should
be designed to prevent being undermined and destroyed.

9.5.5 Protection from erosion

The need for prevention of erosion is not limited to the roadway drainage channels; it
extends throughout the road prism and is an essential feature of adequate drainage
design. Erosion and maintenance are minimised largely by
 flat side slopes, rounded and blended with natural terrain
 drainage channels designed with due regard for location, width, depth, slopes,
alignment and protective treatment
 proper facilities for groundwater interception; dikes, berms and other protective
devices
 protective ground covers and planting

We limit our discussion in this study unit to providing erosion control in drainage
channels by proper design, including the selection of an economical channel lining.
Lining as applied to drainage channels includes vegetative coverings. The type of
lining should be consistent with the degree of protection required, overall cost, safety

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requirements and aesthetic considerations. We will not be discussing the control of
erosion caused by overland or sheet flow.

In general, when a lining is needed, the lowest cost lining that gives satisfactory
protection should be used. This is often sod in humid regions, used alone or in
combination with other types of linings. Thus, a channel might be grass lined on the
flatter slopes and lined with more resistant material on the steeper slopes. In a cross-
section, the channel might be lined with a roadway-resistant material within the depth
required to carry floods occurring frequently and lined with grass above that depth for
protection from rare floods.

Ditch checks were once used extensively to prevent erosion in roadway channels. In
recent years they have become unpopular in humid areas as grade-control structures
in channels because they are often a hazard to vehicles driving off the roadway, they
are difficult to maintain, they are often unsightly and, in most locations, their job can
be done better and more cheaply with a vegetative lining.

In semi-arid and arid regions, some erosion of cut and fill slopes is inevitable.
Occurring infrequently at any one location, the damage can be repaired without
excessive average annual cost. The roadbed is generally protected by paving or
treating the road shoulders. Channels in cut sections can be protected by rubble or
paving.

The best way of protecting channels off the roadway is by laying them on grades which
will not produce velocities more than those allowed (see table 6.2 in TRH 17) for the
soil of that locality and by spreading the collected water over the hillside as soon as it
can be released without reaching the roadway. Indicate what figure 9.7 is illustrating.

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 Figure 9.7: Vertical drop/ditch check to control velocity

When steeper channel grades cannot be avoided, vertical drops or properly designed
ditch checks can be used to maintain non-eroding grades between drops. If the
spacing of the drops is close, their cost should be compared with the cost of paving
the entire channel and providing an adequate outlet structure. High drop structures
require careful design and even though they may be hazardous to traffic and at times
unsightly, they are preferred to a deep gully.

9.5.6 Maintenance

Systematic maintenance is essential for any drainage channel. Without proper

maintenance, a well-designed channel becomes an unsightly gully. Maintenance
methods should be considered when designing drainage channels so that the channel
sections will be suitable for the methods and equipment that will be used for their
maintenance.

9.6 BASICS OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

In this section we will not give a full discussion of open channel flow. We will just give
you some background to calculating the flow in open channels using Manning’s
equation and the conditions when to use this equation.

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9.6.1 Uniform flow
Figure 9.8 illustrates……..

Figure 9.8: Steady uniform flow

To have uniform flow, the grade must be constant and all cross-sections of flow must
be identical in form, roughness and area, necessitating a constant mean velocity.
Under uniform flow conditions, the depth (dn) and the mean velocity (Vn) for a particular
discharge are said to be normal. Under these conditions, the water surface is parallel
to the stream bed, as illustrated in figure 9.8. Normal depth is also defined as the
depth at which uniform flow will occur when a given quantity of water flows through a
long channel of uniform dimensions, roughness (n) and slope (So).

Uniform flow conditions are rare in drainage channels, but the error in assuming
uniform flow in a channel of fairly constant slope and cross-section is small in
comparison to the error in determining the design discharge. If the channel cross-
section, roughness and slope are fairly constant over a sufficient distance to establish
essentially uniform flow, equations such as that of Manning give reliable results.

Velocity of uniform flow in open channels can be computed with the Manning equation,
using the slope of the channel bed as the slope of the energy line. Non-uniform steady
flow computations require other methods, however.

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9.6.2 Non-uniform or varied flow

Varied steady flow occurs when the quantity of water (discharge rate Q) remains
constant, but the depth of flow, velocity, or cross-section changes from section to
section. The relation of all cross-sections will be
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = AnVn

This equation is called the continuity equation. Figure 9.9 illustrates……..

Figure 9.9: Non-uniform flow

The hydraulic design engineer needs a knowledge of varied flow in order to determine
the behaviour of the flowing water when changes in channel resistance, size, shape,
or slope occur. A proper discussion of varied flow starts with a discussion of the energy
of the flowing water.

9.6.3 Energy of flow

Water flowing in an open channel has two kinds of energy: potential energy and kinetic
energy. Potential energy is due to the position of the water above some datum, and
kinetic energy is due to the velocity of the flowing water. In channel problems, energy
is conveniently expressed in terms of head. Thus, a column of water 20 m high has a
potential (static) head of 20 m with respect to the bottom of the column. Flowing water
has both potential head and velocity head, the velocity head being equal to v2/2g.

Where:
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V = Mean velocity in m per second
G = Acceleration of gravity or 9,81 m per second

A useful hydraulic concept of the energy of the flowing water within one vertical cross-
section of the channel is that of specific head (also called specific energy).

Specific head (Hd) = d + V2/2g

If the potential head is related to some datum (figure 9.10), at or below the bed of the
channel at the outlet, energy can be expressed in terms of total head. If Z is the
elevation of the channel bottom, total head at any section is

Total head (H) = d + V2/2g + Z

The energy losses due to friction, channel contractions, changes in alignment and
other factors are termed head losses (hL). The law of conservation of energy
(Bernoulli’s theorem) states that the total head at any section is equal to the total head
at any section downstream, plus intervening head losses; or for the channel in figure
9.10, is equal to the total head at section 2, plus head loss between sections 1 and 2
or d1 + V12/2g + Z1 = d2 + v2/2g +z1 + hL.

Figure 9.10: Rectangular channel

In figure 9.10:
Area (A)(m²) = b x d
Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = b + 2d

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 Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
Slope (m/m)
Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
Discharge (Q) (m3/s)

In figure 9.10, the head loss, in a channel of uniform cross-section, equals the change
in Z or (Z1 – Z2). Thus, the water surface is parallel to the stream bed, and d1 + V12/2g
= d2 + v2/2g.

The head loss

(Z1 – Z2) = LSo

Where:
L = Horizontal distance between section 1 and section 2
So = Channel slope or (Z1 – Z2)/L

So in uniform flow is sometimes called the friction slope. For uniform flow, the Manning
equation can be computed for S(=So).

From the continuity equation Q = A V

The flow is uniform and can be computed by the Manning equation.

V = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2

Q = (A/n) R2/3 S1/2

Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
V = Velocity (m/s)
A = Flow area (m2)
R = Hydraulic radius (m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
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S = Slope (m/m)

Example 9.1
Scenario
Figure 9.11 represents a rectangular concrete channel.

Figure 9.11: Concrete channel

b=1m d = 0.3 m Slope (S) = 0.9% n = 0,012

Question
Calculate the velocity (V) and the discharge (Q).

Area (A)(m²) =bxd

= 1*0.3 = 0.3 m²
Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = b + 2d
= 1 + 2*0.3 = 1.6 m
Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
= 0.3/1.6
= 0.1878 m
Slope (m/m) = 0.009
Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
= (1/0.012) *0.1878^(2/3)*0.009^(1/2)
= 2.593 m/s
Discharge (Q) (m3/s) = A*V

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 = 0.3*2.593 = 0.777 m3/s

Case number 02

w1 w2 w3

Figure 9.12: Trapezoidal channel

In figure 9.12:

Area (A)(m²) = (h*W1*0.5) + (W2*h) + (h*W3*0.5)

Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = (h² + W1²)^0.5 + W2 + (h² + W3²)^0.5
Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
Slope (m/m)
Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
Discharge (Q) (m3/s)

Example 9.2
Scenario
Figure 9.13 represents a rectangular concrete channel.

w1 w2 w3

Figure 9.13: concrete channel

W1 = 0.250 m W3 = 0.25 m W2 = 1 m Slope (S) = 1.3% n = 0,013

h = 0.3

To calculate the velocity (V) and the discharge (Q) we need:

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 Area (A)(m²) = (h*W1*0.5) + (W2*h) + (h*W3*0.5)
= (0.3*0.250*0.5*2) + (1*0.3)
= 0.375 m²
Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = (h² + W1²) ^0.5 + W2 + (h² + W3²) ^0.5
= (0.32 +0.252)^0.5 + 1 + (0.252 + 0.32)^0.5
= 2*[(0.32 + 0.252)^0.5] + 1
= 1.781 m
Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
= 0.375/1.781
= 0.211 m
Slope (m/m) = 0.013
Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
= (1/0.013)*(0.211^(2/3))*(0.013^0.5)
= 3.108 m/s

Discharge (Q) (m3/s) = A*V

= 0.375*3.108 = 1.166 m3/s

Case number 03

w1 w2
Figure 9.14: Triangular channel

In figure 9.14:

Area (A)(m²) = (h*(W1 + W2) *0.5)

Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = (h² + W1²) ^0.5 + (h² + W2²)^0.5
Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
Slope (m/m)
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 Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
Discharge (Q) (m3/s)

Example 9.3

Figure 9.15 represents a rectangular concrete channel.

w1 w2
Figure 9.15: Rectangular concrete channel

W1 = 0.500 m W2 = 0.500 m Slope (S) = 1.5% n = 0,012 h = 0.075

To calculate the velocity (V) and the discharge (Q) we need:

Area (A)(m²) = (h*(W1 + W2) *0.5)

= (0.075*(0.5 + 0.5)*0.5)
= 0.0375 m²
Wetted perimeter (P)(m) = [(h² + W1²) ^0.5]*2
= [ (0.0752 + 0.52) ^0.5] *2
= 1.011 m
Hydraulic radius (R)(m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
= 0.0375/1.011
= 0.0371 m
Slope (m/m) = 0.015
Velocity (V)(m/s) = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
=(1/0.012)*(0.0371^(2/3))*(0.015^0.5)
= 1.135 m/s

Discharge (Q) (m3/s) = A*V

=0.0375 *1.135 = 0.0426 m3/s
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Table 9.1 illustrates the flow depth and radius relationship.

Table 9.1: Flow depth, radius relationship

If flow depth ˂ Radius If flow depth ˃ Radius

Circular segment height H=d H = 2r - d

Central angle θ = 2arccos. ((r-h)/(r)) θ = 2arccos. ((r-h)/(r))
Circular segment area k = r² (θ-sin θ)/2 k = r² (θ-sin θ)/2
Arc length S = r* θ S = r* θ
Flow area A=k A = πr²-k
Wetted perimeter Pw = s Pw = 2πr²-s
Hydraulic radius Rh = A/Pw Rh = A/Pw

V = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2

Q = (A/n) R2/3 S1/2

Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
V = Velocity (m/s)
A = Flow area (m2)
R = Hydraulic radius (m) = Area/Wetted perimeter
S = Slope (m/m)

Figure 9.16 illustrates the flow depth and radius relationship in steps.

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 Figure 9.16: Flow depth and radius relationship

When the head loss does not equal the change in Z, non-uniform flow occurs and the
depth of flow either increases or decreases in a uniform channel. In figure 9.16, flow
takes place with decreasing depth.

Between section 1 and section 2, the velocity is increasing and the rate of losing
energy is therefore not constant. This condition could be caused by a channel slope
which is steeper than that needed to overcome frictional resistance or by a change in
channel cross-section. Thus, the total head line (also called the energy line or energy
gradient) is not a straight line.

With a constant discharge passing a particular section, changing the depth of flow
causes a different specific head for each depth. If specific head is plotted against depth
of flow, the result is a specific head (energy), as illustrated in figure 9.17.

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 Figure 9.17: Specific energy diagram

The specific head curve is asymptotic to the line representing the energy due to depth
and the vertical line of zero depth. Examination of figure 9.17 reveals several
important facts. Starting at the upper right of the curve with a large depth and small
velocity, the specific head decreases with decrease in depth, reaching a minimum
value at depth dc, known as critical depth, sometimes called the depth of the minimum
energy content. Further decrease in depth results in rapid increase in specific head.

For any value of specific head except that corresponding to critical depth, there are
alternate depths at which the flow could occur. These alternate depths are sometimes
referred to as equal energy depths.

When the flow occurs at depths greater than critical depth (velocity less than critical),
it is called subcritical or tranquil. When the flow occurs at depths less than critical
(velocity greater than critical), it is called supercritical, rapid, or shooting. The change
from supercritical to subcritical flow is often very abrupt, resulting in the phenomenon
known as hydraulic jump.

9.6.4 Critical flow

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Flow at the critical depth is called critical flow and the velocity at critical depth is the
critical velocity. The channel slope which produces critical depth and critical velocity
for given discharge is the critical slope.

Critical depth for a particular discharge is dependent on channel size and shape only,
and is independent of channel slope and roughness. Critical slope depends on the
channel roughness, the channel geometry and the discharge. For a given critical depth
and critical velocity, the critical slope for a particular roughness can be computed by
the Manning equation.

Supercritical flow is difficult to control because abrupt changes in alignment or in cross-

section produce waves which travel downstream, alternating from side to side, and
sometimes cause the water to overtop the channel sides. Changes in channel shape,
slope, or roughness cannot be reflected upstream except for very short distances
(upstream control). Supercritical flow is common in steep flumes and in mountain
streams. Pulsating flow can occur at depths as great as 2,5 m.

Subcritical flow is relatively easy to control. Changes in channel shape, slope and
roughness affect the flow for some distances upstream (downstream control).
Subcritical flow is characteristic of the streams located in the plains and valley regions
where stream slopes are relatively flat.

Critical depth is important in hydraulic analyses because it is always a hydraulic

control. The flow must pass through critical depth in going from one type of flow to the
other. Typical locations of critical depth are at

 abrupt changes in slope when a flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased to a

steep (supercritical) slope
 a channel constriction such as a culvert entrance under some conditions
 the unsubmerged outlet of a culvert or flume on a subcritical slope, discharging
into a wide channel or with a free fall at the outlet
 the crest of an overflow dam or weir
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Distinguishing between the types is important in channel design; thus the location of
critical depth and the determination of critical slope for a cross-section of given shape,
size and roughness becomes necessary. When flow occurs at critical depth

A3/T = Q2/g

where T is the top surface width of water in the channel.

9.6.5 The Froude number

An important parameter of flow is the Froude number which is usually expressed as

F = V/(gdm)0,5
Where:

V = Mean velocity (m/s)

g = Gravitational constant (m/s2)

If the Froude number is < 1, the flow is subcritical

= 1, the flow is critical
> 1, the flow is supercritical

Figure 9.18 illustrates…….

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 Water surface

Critical depth dc Hydraulic jump

Steady uniform
Steady uniform
Subcritical flow Steady uniform
Supercritical
Manning’s Subcritical flow
flow
equation is valid Manning’s
Manning’s
equation is valid
equation is valid

Figure 9.18: Regions where Manning’s equation is valid

Table 9.2 illustrates values of Manning “n” for different channel surfaces.

Table 9.2: Values of Manning "n" for different channel surfaces

Channel type Channel surface Manning “n”(s/m1/3)

Earth, stones up to 75 mm
nominal average size:
Straight alignment route, no weeds 0,02 - 0,025
Poor alignment, no weeds 0,03 - 0,050
Poor alignment, with weeds 0,05 - 0,150
Rivers and streams
Gravel, stones 75 mm to 150 mm
nominal average size:
Straight alignment, no weeds 0,03 - 0,040
Poor alignment, no weeds 0,04 - 0,080

Gravel, stones and boulders exceed

150 mm nominal average size 0,04 - 0,070
Artificial unlined Earth with good alignment 0,018 - 0,025
channels Earth, poor condition with stony bed 0,025 - 0,040
Earth, with rock outcrops in bed 0,025 - 0,045
Concrete 0,012 - 0,017
Hand-placed stone pitching 0,025 - 0,035
Lined channels Dressed stone, jointed 0,013 - 0,020
Planed, timber flume 0,011 - 0,013
Unplaned timber flume 0,012 - 0,015
Cement-sand mortar 0,011 - 0,013
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 Models Smooth hardboard 0,009 - 0,011
Perspex 0,009
Glass 0,009 - 0,010

9.7 UNIT 9: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. The figure below represents a rectangular concrete channel.

b=4m d = 2,6 m Slope (S) = 1,2% n = 0,013

Calculate the velocity (V) and the discharge (Q).

2. The figure below represents a trapezoidal concrete channel.

The channel sides have a 1:1 batter.

b=1m d = 2,6 m Slope (S) = 1,2% n = 0,013

Calculate the velocity (V) and the discharge (Q).

3. The figure below represents a rectangular concrete channel.

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 d

b = 3.6 m Q = 80 m3/s Slope (S) = 1,2% n = 0,013

Calculate the velocity (V) and the depth of flow.

(Hint – this cannot be solved directly. Choose a depth (d) and solve for Q’. If Q’
is less than 80, try a larger d or vice versa.)

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REFERENCE WORKS AND FURTHER READING

Division of Roads and Transport Technology. 1988. Geometric design of rural roads -
TRH 17.
[Link] [Accessed on 22/05/2020].

SANRAL. 2013. Drainage manual.

[Link]
[Accessed on 22/05/2020].

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 STUDY UNIT 10

CULVERTS

CONTENTS PAGE

10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 331

10.2 INTRODUCTION 331

10.3 CHOICE OF CULVERT TYPE 332

10.3.1 Hydraulic performance 333

10.3.2 Number of cells and barrels 333

10.4 LOCATION AND GEOMETRY 334

10.4.1 Location 334

10.4.2 Plan 335
10.4.3 Profile 337
10.4.4 Geometry 338

10.5 CULVERT HYDRAULICS 339

10.5.1 Inlet control flow 340

[Link] General principles 340
[Link] Inlet control design curves 342
10.5.2 Outlet control flow 342
[Link] General principles 342
[Link] Design equations (outlet control) 344
10.5.3 Critical and normal depth of flow 345
10.5.4 Hydraulic length 345

10.6 CONTROL PARAMETERS 346

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 10.6.1 Design flood 346
10.6.2 Culvert geometry and barrel roughness 346
10.6.3 Headwater 348
10.6.4 Tailwater 349
10.6.5 Velocity of culvert flow and scour 350
10.6.6 Debris control 351
10.6.7 Sedimentation 352

10.7 HYDRAULIC DESIGN 352

10.8 UNIT 10: EXTRA ACTIVITIES 358

REFERENCE WORK AND FURTHER READING 360

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10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

On successfully completing this unit, you should be able to

 describe the requirements for correct positioning of culverts to handle

stormwater efficiently
 evaluate the hydraulics of water flow through culverts
 predict the capacity of a culvert using the respective nomographs and
select culverts of adequate size to cope with the predicted discharge from
a catchment
 explain the correct procedures involved in installing precast pipe and box
culverts

10.2 INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of a culvert is to transmit or convey surface water through a road
or railway embankment. This requires the following:
 acknowledge of the catchment area of the stream or river
 an estimation of its discharge for a certain return period
 the determination of the size of the structures
 the structural design of the structures
 the design of the inlet and outlet for the culvert

In this study unit we briefly discuss the hydraulics of conventional concrete pipe and
box culverts and information for selecting a culvert size for a given set of conditions.
We will give you instructions on the design procedure and the use of the design curves
and tables. References to location, geometry and the structural aspects of culvert
design are only made where they relate to hydraulic design. Some approximations are
made in the hydraulic design procedure for the sake of simplicity, and we discuss
these at appropriate points throughout the text.

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10.3 CHOICE OF CULVERT TYPE

The designer has a choice between a number of different types and shapes of culverts,
depending on the location and the conditions prevailing:

 cast in situ square or rectangular box culverts

 precast square or rectangular box culverts
 precast pipe culverts
 various corrugated metal plate culverts (round or arch)

The choice of culvert type for a particular application will depend very much on a
number of factors, the major one being economics of the project as a whole. The most
popular types are the precast pipe and box culverts.

A major consideration is construction cost, which generally includes materials, labour

and transport. With culverts, the most important decision is whether to install cast in
situ or precast culverts. Usually the main variable that solves this question is the cost
of transporting precast culverts from the nearest factory to the site after all other costs
and factors have been taken into account. Generally, the major variable cost on any
road project is the earthworks. The designer will always try to minimise the earthworks
and, where possible, will try to achieve an economic balance between cut and fill. If
this objective is achieved and there is enough headroom for adequate cross-drainage
structures to be accommodated everywhere, that would be ideal. This, however, is
very rarely the case.

Often there are sections where cross-drainage structures are required, but there is
insufficient height of fill to allow for a suitable drainage structure, so the designer is
forced to raise the grade line to allow for a structure. Naturally they will strive for a
structure that requires the minimum increase in grade line level and therefore the least
additional fill material cost. Very often precast rectangular box culvert sections will
provide the most cost-effective structure in these circumstances.

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Cast in situ culverts are generally used where the required size of culvert is not
available as a precast unit for larger structures such as underpasses, or it is not
economical, or it is more suitable for other reasons.

Corrugated metal culverts are economical to transport and install. However, these
culverts are subject to corrosion in the long term and would certainly not be used in
warm, humid climates – especially where groundwater conditions exist.

Caution should also be exercised in dry areas where there may be soluble salts in the
soil.

10.3.1 Hydraulic performance

Hydraulic performance is defined as the relationship of headwater depth to discharge

through a culvert.

Hydraulic performance is another of many factors which influence the choice of type
of structure for a particular location. The shape of a culvert is generally not the most
important consideration at most sites as far as hydraulic performance is concerned.
Rectangular, arch or circular shapes of equal hydraulic capacity are generally
satisfactory.

10.3.2 Number of cells and barrels

Having decided to adopt a particular culvert from the range that may be suitable for a
specific site, the designer will be faced with the choice of a single or multiple cell
installation. In certain cases, the use of multiple barrels separated by some distance
should be considered.

It is often necessary for the culvert to have a low profile because of the terrain or
because of limited fill height. Construction cost, the potential for clogging by debris,

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limitations on headwater elevation, fill height and the hydraulic performance of the
design alternatives should also be considered in the selection process.

Culverts consisting of more than one cell are useful in wide channels where the
constriction or concentration of flow is to be kept to a minimum. Low roadway
embankments offering limited cover may require the use of a series of small openings.
The barrels may be separated by a considerable distance in order to maintain flood
flow distribution. The practice of altering channel geometry to accommodate a wide
culvert will often result in deposition in the widened channel and in the culvert. Where
overbank flood flow occurs, relief culverts with inverts at the flood plain elevation
should be used to avoid the need for channel alteration.

In some locations, multiple cells have a tendency to catch debris which clogs the
waterway and are also susceptible to the deposition of silt in one or more barrels.
Alignment of the culvert face normal to the approach flow and installation of debris
control structures can help to alleviate these problems.

10.4 LOCATION AND GEOMETRY

10.4.1 Location

Culvert location refers to the horizontal and vertical alignment of the culvert with
respect to both the stream and the highway. It is an important aspect of the hydraulic
performance of the culvert, the stream stability, the construction and maintenance
costs and the safety and integrity of the highway.

Culvert location in both plan and profile is particularly important in maintaining

sediment-free culvert barrels. Deposition occurs in culverts because the sediment
transport capacity of flow within the culvert is often less than in the stream. The
following factors contribute to deposition in culverts:

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 At moderate flow rates, the culvert cross-section is larger than that of the stream,
thus the flow depth and sediment transport capacity are reduced.

 Point bars form on the inside of stream bends and culvert inlets placed at bends in
the stream will therefore be subjected to deposition in the same way. This effect is
most obvious in multiple-cell culverts with the barrel on the inside of a curve, often
becoming almost totally plugged with sediment deposits.

 Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the culvert or in the channel adjacent to the
culvert will cause deposition. Gravel and cobble deposits are common downstream
from the break in grade because of the reduced transport capacity in the flatter
section.

Deposition usually occurs at flow rates smaller than the design flow rate. The deposits
may be removed during larger floods, depending on the relative transport capacity of
flow in the stream and in the culvert, compaction and composition of the deposits, flow
duration and ponding depth above the culvert.

10.4.2 Plan

Plan location deals basically with the route the flow will take in crossing the right-of-
way. Regardless of how sinuous the natural channel is, a crossing is generally made
by using a straight culvert, either normal to or skewed with the roadway centreline, as
illustrated in figure 10.1.

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 Figure 10.1: Plan location of culverts

Ideally, a culvert should be placed in the natural channel (figure 10.1 – A). This
location usually provides good alignment of the natural flow with the culvert entrance
and outlet, and little structural excavation and channel work are required.

Where location in the natural channel would require an extremely long culvert, the
stream may need some modification (figure 10.1 – B). This modification to reduce
skew and shorten culverts should be carefully designed to avoid erosion and siltation
problems.

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It is important that the alignment of culverts always take into account the high flood
stage route where this differs from the alignment of the natural channel under low flow
conditions.

Culvert locations normal to the roadway centreline are not recommended where
severe or abrupt changes in channel alignment are required upstream or downstream
of the culvert. Short radius bends are subject to erosion on the outer bank and
deposition on the inside of the bend. These changes upstream of the culvert result in
poor alignment of the approach flow to the culvert, subject the highway fill to erosion
and increase the probability of deposition in the culvert barrel. Abrupt changes in
channel alignment downstream of culverts may cause erosion on adjacent properties.

10.4.3 Profile

Most culvert profiles adhere to the natural streambed, though other vertical alignments
may be more economical. Modified culvert slopes, or slopes other than that of the
natural stream, can be used to
 arrest stream degradation
 induce sedimentation
 improve the hydraulic performance of the culvert
 shorten the culvert
 reduce structural requirements

However, modified slopes can also cause stream erosion and deposition. Slope
alterations should therefore be given special attention to ensure that detrimental
effects do not result from the modified culvert slopes. Figure 10.2 illustrates profile
locations.

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 Figure 10.2: Profile location

10.4.4 Geometry

Geometry and hydraulics must be considered simultaneously when designing box

culverts. Right at the start, before a culvert size has been determined, the preliminary
length and slope of a culvert have to be assumed to enable the hydraulic calculations
to be done. Following final hydraulic optimisation, the final geometry of a culvert may
be determined.

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The type, shape and angle of the headwalls and wingwalls influence the hydraulic
capacity, especially at the inlet end.

10.5 CULVERT HYDRAULICS

The hydraulic performance of culverts is complex and the flow characteristics for each
site should be carefully analysed to select an economical installation which will perform
satisfactorily over a range of flow rates.

Factors which influence hydraulic performance include

 the culvert shape and size
 number of cells
 entrance configuration
 barrel roughness
 gradient
 skew
 length
 natural stream features
 proximity to other structures
 the storage potential of the channel or flood plain immediately upstream from a
culvert

There are two main types of culvert flow:

 flow with inlet control
 flow with outlet control

A control section is defined as a section in the flow where the relationship between
discharge and depth is known. Flow profiles can be plotted upstream or downstream
from the control section, depending on whether the flow is subcritical or supercritical,
respectively. Control sections other than at the inlet or outlet are possible, but for the
purposes of standard box culvert design only the above two are of concern.

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The hydraulic sizing of culverts is carried out with the aid of the relevant culvert
performance curves, which indicate the discharge capacity for a particular headwater
depth. The headwater depth is in turn influenced by the control section of the culvert;
thus, inlet or outlet control.

In all culvert designs, headwater or depth of ponding at the entrance to a culvert is an

important factor in culvert capacity. The headwater depth is the vertical distance from
the culvert invert at the entrance to the energy line of the headwater pool (depth +
velocity head). Because of the low velocities in most entrance pools and the difficulty
in determining the velocity head for all flows, the water surface and the energy line at
the entrance are assumed to be coincident. This means that the headwater depths
given by the inlet control performance curves in this manual can be higher than will
occur in some installations. For the purposes of measuring headwater, the culvert inlet
is at the beginning of the full cross-section of the culvert barrel.

A culvert may flow with either inlet or outlet control over its full design discharge range,
or alternatively the flow through the culvert may vary with discharge from inlet to outlet
control.

Activity 10.1

Why do culverts seldom flow full? State the conditions required to make them do so.

10.5.1 Inlet control flow

[Link] General principles

Inlet control means that the discharge capacity of a culvert is controlled at the culvert
entrance by the depth of headwater (HWI) and the entrance geometry, including the
barrel shape, cross-sectional area and the type of inlet edge. Refer to the diagrams of
inlet control flow for both unsubmerged and submerged entrances in figure 10.3.
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In inlet control the roughness and length of the culvert barrel and outlet conditions
(including depth of tailwater) are not factors in determining culvert capacity. An
increase in barrel slope reduces headwater to a small degree so that any correction
for slope can be neglected for standard box culverts flowing with inlet control.

Culverts flowing with inlet control usually lie on relatively steep gradients and flow only
partly full as shown in figure 10 3. Entrance improvements can result in full, or nearly
full flow, thereby increasing culvert capacity significantly.

Figure 10.3: Inlet control flow - submerged and unsubmerged entrances

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Side and slope tapered inlets flowing with inlet control have the advantages of
increased flow capacity or lower headwater depth for a given flow rate and a possible
reduction in the size of culvert barrel required. In long culverts, the reduced barrel size
and cost will generally far outweigh any increase in cost of the non-standard inlet
design and result in considerable overall cost savings.

[Link] Inlet control design curves

Study the inlet control performance curves in Appendix B at the end of this study unit.

10.5.2 Outlet control flow

[Link] General principles

When the headwater depth at the culvert inlet is governed by conditions at the outlet,
the culvert is said to be operating under outlet control.

Outlet control depends on the discharge, entrance losses, length and roughness of
barrel, culvert slope and prevailing tailwater conditions. It is important to note that the
same culvert may flow with either inlet or outlet control, depending on the discharge
rate.

Typical outlet control flow profiles are shown in figure 10.4, together with the criteria
to which they relate.

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 Figure 10.4: Outlet control flow principles

These criteria do not guarantee outlet control; yet they are essential for outlet control.
In particular, outlet control may be successful only when flow through the culvert is not
supercritical – thus, Yc < Yn, but nevertheless the condition of subcritical flow, Yn >
Yc, does not guarantee outlet control.

The procedure given for the computation of outlet control headwater depth HWo is
accurate for flow profiles II, III and IV in figure 10.4. The equations given below are
based on the assumption that a culvert subject to outlet control at its design discharge
will generally be flowing full; therefore the method is less accurate for flow profile I,
and becomes increasingly inaccurate for decreasing headwater depth. In most cases,
however, profile I will occur at an intermediate stage of the flood and is not of concern
in the design.

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[Link] Design equations (outlet control)

For culverts subject to outlet control, the control section is at the outlet brink and flow
is generally subcritical. The headwater HWo due to outlet control is therefore derived
from a backwater calculation starting at the outlet brink.

The general expression for outlet control headwater is obtained from the conditions
for pipe flow and is given by
HWo = H + yo - LSo
Where:

H = Outlet head (m)

yo = Outlet depth (m)
LSo = Gravity head (m)

The outlet head H represents the energy required to pass a particular discharge
through the culvert and includes the velocity head Hv, entrance loss He' and friction
loss Hf.

H = Hv + He + Hf
Hv = v2/2g
He = ke (v2/2g)
Hf = (n2L/R4/3)(v2/2g)2g

Where:
Ke = Entrance loss coefficient
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius

Barrel roughness for practical purposes is taken as n = 0,012.

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Backwater computations on culverts with freefall outlets show that the hydraulic grade
line, if extended as a straight line, intersects the outlet cross-section at a point
approximately halfway between the critical depth and the culvert crown.

The outlet depth yo therefore equals (yc + D)/2 or the tailwater depth Tw, whichever
is the greater.

10.5.3 Critical and normal depth of flow

Critical depth curves for the pipe and box culverts are presented in Appendix B. These
curves are developed from the minimum specific head condition that critical flow
occurs when the depth equals twice the velocity head.

For a particular discharge a mild slope is defined when the normal depth of flow Yn is
greater than the critical depth (yc). Conversely, a steep slope is defined when normal
depth is less than critical depth.

The critical depth curves are presented primarily for use in determining the outlet depth
(Yo) for culverts on mild slopes.

10.5.4 Hydraulic length

For any culvert flowing with discharge Q, on a mild slope So, with a Manning's
roughness coefficient n, there is a specific length L' beyond which the culvert will flow
with outlet control. The ratio (n/0,012)4. (L/100So) is termed the hydraulic length and
denoted L'.

The hydraulic length may be obtained by equating the appropriate inlet and outlet
control headwater equations and solving for So in terms of Q and L.

Activity 10.2
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What are the characteristics which determine whether a culvert is hydraulically “short''
or “long''? Discuss fully.

10.6 CONTROL PARAMETERS

10.6.1 Design flood

The design flood for a culvert is an estimate, usually considering the risk involved or
the chance that the discharge will be exceeded. For instance, there is a 2% chance
that the 50-year flood will be exceeded in any one year, or a structure with a 25-year
life expectancy designed for the 50-year flood has a 40% chance of experiencing a
higher flood during its life. The shorter the design return period, the greater the risk of
the flood peak being exceeded.

This further emphasises the necessity of evaluating a culvert's performance through a

range of discharges. The risk of damage to the highway or adjacent property due to
floods greater than the design flood should always be considered.

The method of estimation of the peak inflow QIP is presented in study unit 8, in which
the designer is given guidance on flood return periods appropriate to the importance
of the culvert installation being considered.

10.6.2 Culvert geometry and barrel roughness

From the start the preliminary culvert geometry and barrel roughness have to be
assumed so that the designer can assess whether the structure will operate under
either inlet or outlet control. The information required for standard box culverts includes
the following:

L = Culvert length (m)

So = Culvert gradient (m)
TRE2601 -- Study unit 10
University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 E = Maximum embankment height above culvert invert (m)
n = Manning's roughness coefficient (s/m1/3)

In addition, the elevations of both the culvert inlet invert and the road shoulder break
point are required to establish the allowable headwater depth AH\v that may not be
exceeded for a particular flood return period. These terms are illustrated in figure 10.5.

Barrel roughness is an important parameter used in assessing whether a culvert may

operate under outlet control and for determining outlet velocity when considering scour
potential. Estimation of barrel roughness depends on concrete finish and likely build-
up of sediment and vegetation on the culvert floor under operating conditions.

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Figure 10.5: Control parameters
10.6.3 Headwater

The maximum permissible elevation of the headwater pool at the culvert for the design
discharge is called the allowable headwater elevation (AHE). The designer must select
this elevation by evaluating many factors, all of which should be well documented.
These include highway elevations, upstream development and land use, feature
elevations, historical high-water marks, importance of the highway and damage risks.
Possible loss of life and property and traffic interruption should be considered in the
damage risk analysis.
TRE2601 -- Study unit 10
University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
Throughout the design process, the designer should remain aware of the
consequences of exceeding the AHE. In some situations, such as in rural areas, the
damage might not be important, whereas in others, exceeding the AHE should
definitely be avoided.

Allowable headwater depth or depth of ponding at the culvert entrance is the difference
between the allowable headwater elevation and the elevation of the culvert inlet invert
ElL as illustrated in figure 10.5.

AHW = AHE - ElL

Culvert installations under high fills may enable the designer to use a high headwater
or ponding depth to reduce flood peaks. When headwater depths exceed, say, 6 to 7
m for the design flood, the roadway embankment will function as a dam and the risk
of an embankment breach, the occurrence of a larger flood or blockage of the culvert
by debris should be evaluated. In some instances, designing the highway fill as a dam
and using emergency facilities such as spillways and relief culverts should be
considered as alternative designs to constructing larger structures or changes in the
roadway profile.

The study of culvert headwater should include verification that watershed divides are
higher than design headwater elevations. On flat terrain, drainage divides are often
undefined or non-existent and culverts should be located and designed for least
disruption of the existing flow distributions. In these locations culverts can be
considered to have a common headwater elevation, though this will not be precisely
so.

10.6.4 Tailwater

Tailwater (TW) is the flow depth or the depth of ponding in the downstream channel,
measured from the invert at the culvert outlet to the tailwater elevation computed
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immediately downstream from the culvert wingwalls in the natural stream channel. It
can be an important factor in culvert hydraulic design because a submerged outlet
may cause the culvert to flow full rather than partially full.

A field inspection of the downstream channel should be made to determine whether

there are obstructions which will influence the flow depth. Tailwater depth may be
controlled by the stage in another stream, headwater from structures downstream of
the culvert, reservoir water surface elevations, tide stages or other downstream
features.

In cases where downstream features are likely to control the tailwater depth at the
outlet of an important culvert installation, studies of the stage-discharge relationships
of a stream into which the stream in question flows, backwater computations or other
appropriate design checks should be made. In cases of most natural outlet channels
without downstream obstructions, tailwater depth can be approximately calculated
using Manning's formula, if the channel is reasonably uniform in cross-section, slope
and roughness.

10.6.5 Velocity of culvert flow and scour

Unchecked erosion is a primary cause of culvert failure. The natural erosion tendency
of a stream is usually increased by introducing a flow restriction in the form of a culvert
beneath a road embankment.

It is important to recognise that culvert inlets are designed to improve culvert capacity
or to limit headwater heights by minimising energy losses at the entrance, whereas
outlet structures should provide a smooth transition back to the natural channel flow.

Ideally, outlet structures should provide a gradual expansion starting with a flare of
12,5 or less. However, in practice this is often uneconomical and the same treatment
is generally given to both entrance and exit geometry. This is the case in the standard
box culvert end treatments in which the wingwall flare angles are in the range of 30
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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
to 45 and the same detail is to be provided at the inlet and outlet ends. As a result,
the greatest scour potential is at the culvert exit – where high velocities may
necessitate special scour protection or energy dissipation.

The outlet velocity can be checked by using nomograph N7 for the solution of
Manning’s formula in Annexure C.

It is important to check the outlet velocity and if it is too high in relation to the erodibility
of the downstream channel, measures should be taken either to limit the outlet velocity
or to protect the channel against damage due to scour.

Channel erodibility is a complex phenomenon and depends on parameters such as

vegetal cover, grading and compactness of material. Site inspection data along with
information about the soils and maintenance histories of existing structures in similar
environments provide the best estimate of potential erosion hazards.

Activity 10.3

10.3.1 Why is it important to check the outlet velocity of water issuing from a culvert
and how is this done?
10.3.2 What effect does the angle of flare of the wingwalls have on the hydraulic
performance of a culvert?

10.6.6 Debris control

Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet results in a restricted flow area at the entrance
and, consequently, higher headwater depths.

The potential for debris deposition should be identified at the initial survey stage by
inspecting the catchment vegetal cover and other possible sources of debris. Other
hydraulic structures in the same catchment or in catchments with similar conditions
offer useful guidance.
TRE2601 -- Study unit 10
University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
Debris control measures should be considered in relation to the effects of possible
blockage and to the importance of the structure and surrounding areas with regard to
inundation and overtopping.

It is often more economical to construct debris control structures after problems

develop, since they do not occur at all suspected locations.

10.6.7 Sedimentation

Sedimentation in culverts is closely related to the gradient of culverts. In cases where

sedimentation cannot be avoided, the designer should check if sediment is likely to be
removed during larger floods by the higher-flow velocities occurring through the culvert
at high headwater. Alternatively, the culvert should be designed with sufficient
discharge capacity to ensure that the AHE criterion is not exceeded as a result of
sedimentation.

10.7 HYDRAULIC DESIGN

To select an economical culvert installation for a particular site, it is important to

consider a representative set of hydraulic performance curves of the hydraulic
behaviour of various culverts operating over their full design range.

As indicated previously, a culvert may flow with inlet control or outlet control over the
full design discharge range, or control may vary with discharge from outlet to inlet.
Thus, a performance curve for a particular structure may be an inlet control
performance curve, an outlet control performance curve or a composite performance
curve.

Study nomographs for the hydraulic design of concrete circular pipes and rectangular
box culverts in Annexure C.

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
Activity 10.4

10.4.1 Define in detail the terms “inlet control”, “outlet control”, “headwater”, “head”
and “tailwater” in relation to the flow of water through a culvert.
10.4.2 What are the three major factors which determine the type of flow through a
culvert?
10.4.3 Discuss in detail four different types of flow through a culvert.

Example 10.1
Scenario
A 50 m long culvert of entrance type 1 is needed to move rainwater transported from
upstream catchment and convey it under the road embankment. The culvert is laid at
a slope of 3,5%; Ke is 0.5.
Assume the runoff is 4,5 m3/s and the headwater depth:diameter ratio is 1.
Questions
10.1.1 What size of pipe in mm is need?

Check: Inlet control

– Given: = 𝟏. 𝟎 𝐦; q = 4.5 m3/s

– From N1 D = 1 800 mm Ø

10.1.2 What is the invert elevation at the inlet, assuming the water elevation at the
inlet end is 100 m?

– HW = 1.8*1.0 = 1,80 m
– IE = 100 - 1.8 = 98,2

10.1.4 Is the chosen culvert operating under inlet control or outlet control?

Check: Outlet control

– HWo = H + ho – LSo

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 𝐇 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 m

– ℎ𝑜 =

𝐝𝐜 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝐦 < 𝟏. 𝟖 ∴ 𝐨𝐤𝐚𝐲
(1.07 + 1.8)
ℎ𝑜 = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝐦
2
.
– LSo = 50 * = 1.75 m

– HWo = 0.28 +1.435 – 1.75 = -0.035 m

– Hw inlet = 1.8 m > Hw outlet = -0.035 m
– Inlet control is critical.

10.1.5 Calculate the tailwater elevation.

.
– IE = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟐 − 50 * = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟓

– ho = 1.435
– TWE = 96.45 + 1.435 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟖𝟖𝟓

Freeboard

100

H = 0.28
HWi = 1.8
97.885

So = 3.5 % ho =1.435

98.2
96.45
L = 50 m

Figure 10.6: Type 1 culvert

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 next available size = 1.8 mm

TRE2601 -- Study unit 10

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 H = 0.281 m

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 Dc=1.07 m

TRE2601 -- Study unit 10

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
Activity 10.5
Scenario
The height of fill at the shoulder breakpoint (SBP) relative to the proposed invert level
of a culvert at the upstream headwall is 0,980 m. The discharge to be handled is 1,6
m3/s with a freeboard below the SBP of 200 mm. The cover over the culvert deck at
the SBP should not be less than 0,250 m. The slope of the ground at right angles to
the road at this point is 2,1%.

10.5.1 What size of culvert would you propose for an inlet control condition and
wingwalls as extensions of the sides of the culvert?

Scenario
Three years after the road was built, you found out that the municipality had installed
a pipeline on the surface, 15 m downstream and parallel to your road, which is now
damming up the water upstream towards your culvert to a level of 61,814. The level
of the upstream SBP of the road is 62,317.

10.5.2 Will the culvert still handle the design discharge?

10.5.3 The length of the culvert is 25 m. What is the discharge velocity in both cases?

10.8 UNIT 10: EXTRA ACTIVITIES

1. For the headwater depths (HW) marked with "X" for the respective culvert sizes in
the table below, calculate the following:

a) Headwater to depth ratio (HW/D) b) Discharge (Q m3/s)

c) Critical depth (dc) d) Outlet velocity (V m3/s)
e) Tailwater depth (TW)

(Assume Ke = 0.2; culvert slope = 2% and inlet control in all cases)

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
 HW 1/600 Ø 1/900 Ø 1/1200  450 1/900  900 2/1500  1200
(mm)

500 X

700 X X X

900 X X X

1100 X X X X

1300 X X X X

1500 X X X X

1800 X X

2000 X

Repeat the exercise with outlet control using the values of headwater (HW) in the first
column as the head (H). In all cases, assume a culvert barrel length of 24 m.

Scenario
A straight section of road which has a surfaced width of 7,4 m (normal camber = 2%)
and 1,8 m gravel shoulders (slope = 3,5%) crosses a valley with a shallow watercourse
(about 300 mm deep at right angles to the centreline of the road), which has a natural
longitudinal slope of 1,8%, discharging a 20-year return period flood peak of 3,2 m3/s.

The finished road level on the centreline at the crossing point is 42,325. The level of
the bed of the watercourse at this same point (i.e. on the centreline) is 40,330. The
invert slab of the culvert is to be laid at the same line and level as the bed of the
watercourse. The fill batters are to be 1:2.

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University of South Africa Engineering: Civil
10.8.2 Choose the most economical rectangular portal culvert size allowing for a
freeboard of 300 mm below the shoulder breakpoint. There are no obstructions to the
stream flow downstream of the proposed culvert site and the culvert will have standard
45 wingwalls.

10.8.3 Propose an alternative design, using concrete pipe(s).

Scenario
At a point where the height of road fill (i.e. the difference between the finished road
level and the ground level on centreline) is 7,3 m, a catchment discharges 13 m3/s,
calculated for a 25-year return period storm. Assuming inlet control and a maximum
allowable headwater to culvert depth ratio of 1,2, use the manufacturer's catalogues
issued to you and choose a suitable structure to pass the design flood using
rectangular portal culvert sections and also an alternative using concrete pipes with
an entrance loss coefficient of 0,2. In both cases standard wingwalls at 30 are used.
Check the outlet velocity for the portal (box) culvert if the barrel slope is 2% and
Manning's roughness factor is 0,012.

10.8.3 What is the critical depth of flow (dc) for this box section?

REFERENCE WORK AND FURTHER READING

SANRAL. 2013. Drainage manual.

[Link]
[Accessed on 22/05/2020].

TRE2601 -- Study unit 10

University of South Africa Engineering: Civil