Fluid Mechanics II

by Dr. Ahmed Mongy

Assistant professor
Mechanical power engineering
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Tanta University
 Course Contents

❑ Introduction
❑ Internal flow
❑ Dimensional analysis
❑ Differential analysis of fluid flow
❑ External flow
❑ Water hammer

REFERENCES:
Frank White. “Fluid Mechanics” 2011
Cengel and Cimbala. “ Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications”, 2006

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 Fluid mechanics in engineering applications

Solar thermal power plants Wind turbines

3 Pumps Aviation
 Course Grading Scheme

Total mark (100%)

Mini-project and
Midterm Exam

Assignments &
& Attendance

presentation

Final Exam
Quizzes
Code Course Title

MPE 221 Fluid Mechanics II 20% + 5% 10% 30% 40%

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CHAPTER (1)

Introduction
 Introduction
• State of any matter can be: Solid or Fluid
• In solids, any shear stress will result in deflection (strain)
• In fluid, any shear stress will result in continuous fluid motion (rate of strain)
• When two solids in contact move relative to each other, friction force acts
opposite to the motion
• In analogue, when a fluid moves relative to a solid, internal resistance of a
fluid to motion is developed.

Solid mechanics Fluid mechanics

6 𝝉=𝑮𝜶 Physical law 𝝉 = 𝝁 𝜶ሶ

 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions
• Lagrangian discerption: We follow the fluid particles and what happened over
time. We need to keep track of the position vector of each fluid particles (e.g., A)
as function of time.

𝒓 = 𝑟റ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑨, 𝑡
𝒓 = 𝑟റ 𝒓𝒐 , 𝑡
𝑽 = 𝑉 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑨, 𝑡

𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑽= = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + ෡
𝒌
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Lagrangian variables are 𝒓, 𝑽 and 𝑡, so we have only one independent variable

for each particle which is 𝑡.
• Lagrangian discerption is very difficult for fluids as we cannot easily follow
billions of particles of fluid as they move around. Therefore, it is more suitable
for solid mechanics.

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 • Eulerian discerption: We describe what happen over time at a fixed point or a
region in the flow. We do not need to keep track of the position of each fluid
particles. Instead, we define the field variables as functions of space/position and
time. It is more convenient for fluid mechanics.

𝒓 = 𝑟റ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝑽 = V 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 Velocity field
𝑷 = P 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 Pressure field

• The independent variables we have are 𝑥, 𝑦, z and 𝑡.

• As a result, we have two approaches to study fluid motion (kinematics): fluid
system approach and control volume approach.
• In control volume approach, fluid flow in or out across the control surface of a
fixed control volume (Eulerian description).
• In fluid system approach, fluid (system) is always deformable. So, momentum
and energy can not be described by solid mechanics.
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 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Since all the laws of classical mechanics are based on the Lagrangian description
(fluid system approach), we need to find a way to transform these laws from the
fluid system to the control volume analysis.
• Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) provides the transformation from the fluid
system to control volume analysis.

1. Fluid system is inside the CV at

time (𝑡), while at time (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡)
the fluid system moves to new
position (dashed line).
2. Fluid mass flow out of CV is
represented by “O”.
3. Fluid mass flow into CV is
represented by “I”.
4. The part of the fluid remain in
the CV is represented by “R”.
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• Let B represent an extensive property (such as mass, energy, or momentum), and
let 𝒃 = 𝒅𝑩/𝒅𝒎 represent the corresponding intensive property (unity, specific
energy, or velocity).

• The extensive property B of the system at times 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 can be expressed as:
𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠, 𝑡 = 𝐵𝐶𝑉, 𝑡
𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠,𝑡+𝑑𝑡 = 𝐵𝑅,𝑡+𝑑𝑡 + 𝐵𝑂,𝑡+𝑑𝑡 = 𝐵𝐶𝑉,𝑡+𝑑𝑡 − 𝐵𝐼,𝑡+𝑑𝑡 + 𝐵𝑂,𝑡+𝑑𝑡

• Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by 𝑑𝑡 gives:
𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡 − 𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠, 𝑡 𝐵𝐶𝑉, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡 − 𝐵𝐶𝑉, 𝑡 𝐵𝐼, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝑂, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡
= − + (∗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• We can calculate the influx of property B as:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝐵𝐼, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

• Divide both sides by 𝑑𝑡 gives:

𝑏
𝐵𝐼, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡
= න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑎

• We can calculate the outflux of property B as:

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝐵𝑂, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
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 • Divide both sides by 𝑑𝑡 gives:
𝑎
𝐵𝑂, 𝑡+𝑑𝑡
= න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑏

• Substitution for influx and outflux of property B in Eqn. (∗) gives:

𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝑑𝐵𝐶𝑉 𝑏 𝑎
= − න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑏

• The normal component of velocity can be obtained from dot product as:
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝑑𝐵𝐶𝑉 𝑏 𝑎
= +න 𝑏∙𝜌∙𝑽⊙𝒏 ෝ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝑏 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑽 ⊙ 𝒏
ෝ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑏

• Since the control volume is fixed with time, the time derivative on the RHS can be
expressed as a partial derivative as:
𝑑𝐵𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝐵𝐶𝑉
= ෝ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
+ර 𝑏∙𝜌∙𝑽⊙𝒏
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆

• If 𝒃 = 𝟏, we obtain the mass conservation:

𝑑𝑚𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝜕𝑚𝐶𝑉
= ෝ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
+ර 𝜌∙𝑽⊙𝒏
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆

• If 𝒃 = 𝒖, we obtain the X - momentum conservation:

𝑑 𝑚𝑢 𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝜕 𝑚𝑢 𝐶𝑉
= +ර 𝑢∙𝜌⋅ 𝑽⊙𝒏 ෝ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑆
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 Inviscid and viscid flow
• Inviscid flow: is the flow in which there are no frictional forces between fluid layers
and its boundaries.
𝜕𝑢
𝜇 =0 𝐨𝐫 =0 ∴𝝉 =0
𝜕𝑦
• Viscid flow: is the flow in which there is frictional shear stress between fluid layers
and its boundaries.
𝜕𝑢
𝝉 =𝜇 𝜇 ≠0
𝜕𝑦

• Real flow possesses zones of both inviscid

and viscid flows. The zones of viscid or
viscous flow are often in the boundary
layers closed to the solid boundaries, while
the flow far from the solid boundaries can
be considered inviscid flow.

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 Laminar and Turbulent flow
• Laminar flow is a state of flow in which flow is steady, and fluid layers move smoothly
with respect to each other. It usually takes place at low velocity or high viscosity.

• Transition flow is a state of flow in which flow fluctuates between laminar and
turbulent flows. The flow will be smooth, with sharp bursts of intermittent fluctuations.

• Turbulent flow is a state of flow that has rapid mixing, random fluctuations (chaotic)
and eddies. It usually takes place at high velocity or low viscosity.

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 Characteristics of turbulent flow
• Although turbulent flow is always unsteady flow, it can be considered a steady flow in the
mean by taking the time averaging.

Time average

• Turbulent flow is composed of various turbulent structures or eddies. They are characterized
by organized motions that persist for a long time, known as coherent structures.

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 Characteristics of turbulent flow
• Turbulent structures or eddies occur over a wide range of length and velocity scales.
Energy is transferred from the large eddies to smaller eddies, till they are dissipated
by the laminar viscosity in the smallest scale (Kolmogorov length scale). The largest
eddies have a length and velocity scale of the same magnitude as the characteristic
length and velocity of the mean flow (Integral length scale), which would be the
maximum length and velocity scale in the flow.

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 Characteristics of turbulent flow
• The turbulent fluctuations are random or chaotic but comprise of a wide range
(spectrum) of frequencies. This can be explained by using Fourier series as:

∞
2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
u = ෍ 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
n=0

➢ Where the turbulent fluctuations (random) can be decomposed into comprise

periodic fluctuations at different wavenumbers 𝒏 (frequencies 𝒇 = 𝟐𝒏𝝅Τ𝑻). Thus,
every turbulent structure may comprise many frequencies. However, there could be
some frequencies dominant than the others.

Instantaneous velocity at fixed location against time

Different frequencies
𝑛=1

𝑛=2

𝑛=∞
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 Reynolds’s classical experiment
• In 1883, Osborne Reynolds did a classic
experiment, as shown, to demonstrate the transition
from laminar to turbulent flow, and he could notice
that if 𝑽 or 𝒅 (or both) are small and the viscosity is
large, the flow will be laminar. Increase 𝑽 or 𝒅 or
decrease the viscosity, the flow is turbulent.

• After many experiments, he found out that if the

expression 𝝆𝑽𝒅Τ𝝁 is less than 2300, the flow is
laminar. Above this value, the flow is turbulent
(above 4000, the flow is fully turbulent).

• He named this expression 𝝆𝑽𝒅Τ𝝁 as Reynolds

number 𝑹𝒆 , which is a dimensionless number
represents the ratio of inertial force to viscous force.

𝝆𝑽𝒅
𝑹𝒆 =
17 𝝁
 Flow instabilities and critical Reynolds numbers
• To understand why this is so, imagine a spring damper system as shown below. The mass 𝒎 is
said to be stable if it is subject to a small disturbance (perturbation), and it returns to its initial
position (damping action is strong enough). On the other hand, it will be unstable if it does not
return to its original position.

• At low Reynolds number, the viscous force is large enough compared to the inertial force.
Therefore, the viscous forces dampens out any disturbances in the flow field that are a result of
wall roughness, pressure gradients, area change, direction change, noise, vibration ….etc.

• At high Reynolds number, the viscous force becomes smaller compared to the inertial force
and, it becomes possible for small perturbation to become amplified. Eventually, the flow become
unstable and can transition to turbulence.

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 Reynolds decomposition
• Reynolds (1895) decomposed the absolute velocity at fixed location into time-
averaged velocity and a fluctuating velocity terms as:
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑥,
ത 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝑢(𝑥,
ƴ 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

Instantaneous velocity Fluctuated velocity

Time average velocity

• The Reynolds or time averaged velocity is derived using the time averaging as:
𝑁
1 1
𝑢ത = න 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 ≅ ෍ 𝑢𝑖
𝑇 𝑁
𝑖=1

19 Periodic time NO. samples

 Turbulent shear stress
• The eddy motion of fluid particles in a lower layer of lower velocity to an upper layer of
higher velocity will result in a decrease in the momentum of the upper fluid layer and an
increase in the momentum of the lower fluid layer.

• Due to this momentum transfer between fluid layers, there will be an additional shear stress
term, named as Reynold stress.

• In a pipe flow, the additional shear stress can be computed from the control volume
delineated between the two fluid layers as following:
− 𝝉𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃 𝛿𝐴 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑢ത + 𝑢ƴ + 𝛿 𝑢ത + 𝛿 𝑢ƴ − 𝑢ത − 𝑢ƴ 𝑚ሶ 𝛿 𝑢ത + 𝛿 𝑢ƴ
• The magnitude of 𝜹𝒖ƴ is a differential value of a small
quantity 𝒖,ƴ which can be neglected, while the magnitude
𝒖 is the same order of magnitude of 𝒖.ƴ Thus, we can
of 𝜹ഥ
write:
𝝉𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃 𝛿𝐴 = −𝜌 𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝛿𝐴
• Finally, the turbulent shear stress (time averaged) can be
computed as:
𝝉ത 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃 = −𝜌 𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ
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 Eddy viscosity concept
• Boussinesq (1877) suggested that the turbulent shear stress can be expressed in an
analogue to molecular or laminar viscosity as:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢ത
𝝉𝒍𝒂𝒎 = 𝜇 𝝉𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃 = 𝜇𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
➢ Where 𝝁𝒕 is the eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity.

• Unfortunately, the eddy viscosity is not a constant for a given flow, but it is also a
parameter that needs to be correlated with the flow variables (time average flow
variables), through a mathematical framework termed turbulence modelling.

• For example, Prandtl introduced the concept of mixing length 𝒍𝒎 , which represents
the average length for fluid mixing (eddy motion). He assumed that the fluctuation in
velocity 𝒖ƴ is generated by the difference in the velocity of the original layer 𝒖 and

𝝏ഥ
𝒖
that of its new layer 𝒖 + 𝒍𝒎 . Then, the turbulent viscosity can be expressed as:
𝝏𝒚

2
𝑑 𝑢ത
𝜇𝑡 = 𝜌 𝑙𝑚
𝑑𝑦
• But this concept is also of limited use since 𝒍𝒎 is not a constant for a given flow.
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 Internal flow vs. external flow
❑ A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid is
completely surrounded by solid surfaces, or the fluid flow is over a surface.
❑ The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow, while flow over a plate, a wire, or a wing is
external flow.
❑ In external flow, the viscous effects are confined to a small region of the flow field
near the solid surface, which is well-known as the boundary layer, whereas the flow
field in the outer region is considered ideal flow.

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 Internal flow vs. external flow
❑ As the viscous effects grow, the boundary layers will continuously expand
downstream. Nevertheless, the flow in the outer region remains ideal flow.
❑ Similarly in the internal flow, the viscous effects grow, and the boundary layers expand.
❑ As the flow is completely surrounded by solid surfaces, the viscous boundary layers will
merge, and the viscous effects fill the entire flow.
❑ Therefore, the internal flow is dominated by the viscosity throughout the flow field.
❑ Both internal and external flow may be either laminar, turbulent, or both.

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 References
Frank White. “Fluid Mechanics” 2011
Cengel and Cimbala. “ Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications”, 2006

Video resources
[Link]
[Link]

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