UNIT 3

Q. Explain load curve with neat sketch.

A load curve is a graphical representation of how electrical load

varies over time. It typically shows peaks during specific times,
like morning and evening, and lower loads at night. This helps in
energy management and planning by visually illustrating load
variations.

Key aspects of a load curve: Types: 1. Daily load curve: Shows

load variations within a 24-hour period. 2. Monthly load
curve: Represents the average load over a month. 3. Annual load
curve: Shows the average load over a year.

Applications: Load curves are crucial for: 1. Generation planning: Determining the capacity and type of
generating units needed. 2. Power plant operation: Scheduling the operation of generating units to meet load
demand. 3. Energy management: Optimizing energy consumption and distribution.

Q. Explain different heads acting on Turbines.

The performance and design of a turbine depend on the type and magnitude of heads (energy per unit weight)
available at the site. The major types of heads acting on turbines are: 1. Gross Head (Hg): The vertical distance
between the head race water level and the tail race water level. It is the total height available for energy
conversion. 2. Net Head (Hn): The effective head available at the turbine inlet after accounting for losses. Hn=Hg
− hf. where, hf = head loss due to friction in the penstock. 3. Static Head: The difference in water levels without
considering velocity (i.e., pressure energy only). 4. Velocity Head: Due to the velocity of water at the turbine
inlet. Hv=v2 / 2g. 5. Pressure Head: Head due to pressure of water at a particular point. Hp=p / ρg

Q. What is sedimentation in reservoir? How it is caused?

Sedimentation in a reservoir refers to the settling and accumulation of sediments (silt, sand, clay, gravel, etc.)
carried by river water into the reservoir area behind a dam. This reduces the storage capacity and efficiency of
the reservoir over time. How is it Caused? 1. Erosion in Catchment Area: Rainfall and runoff cause soil erosion
in the upstream catchment. Loose soil is carried by rivers into the reservoir. 2. River Flow Velocity Reduction:
When River water enters the reservoir, its velocity decreases. This loss of kinetic energy causes sediments to
settle down. 3. Lack of Vegetation: Deforestation and poor land use increase soil erosion. 4. Uncontrolled
Agricultural Practices: Ploughing and irrigation loosen the topsoil, making it easier to be washed away. 5.
Construction and Mining Activities: These activities disturb the soil and increase sediment load in rivers.
 UNIT 3
Q. Define the terms

1. Utilization factor: This refers to the ratio of the maximum demand placed on a system to its rated capacity,
essentially indicating how much of the system's potential is being used at any given time.

Utilization Factor = Maximum Demand / Plant Capacity

2. Plant capacity factor: This represents the ratio of the actual energy produced by a power plant during a
specific period to the maximum possible energy it could have produced if operating at full capacity for the same
time period.

Plant Capacity Factor = Actual Energy Generated / Plant Capacity × Total Time

3. Plant use factor: This is similar to the capacity factor, but it is calculated by dividing the actual energy
generated by a plant by the product of its installed capacity and the number of hours it was operational.

Plant Use Factor = Actual Energy Generated / Plant Capacity × Operating Hours

4. Load Factor: Load Factor is the ratio of the actual energy generated over a period to the maximum possible
energy that could have been generated if the plant operated at full capacity during that period. It indicates the
efficiency and consistency of power generation.

Load Factor = Average Load / Peak Load

5. Installed Capacity

Installed Capacity is the maximum power output (in kW or MW) that a power plant is designed to produce
under ideal conditions. It represents the rated capacity of all the generating units combined.

6. Capacity Factor

Capacity Factor is the ratio of actual energy produced to the energy the plant could have generated if it had
operated at full installed capacity over a given time period. It is similar to load factor but considers the full rated
capacity.

Capacity Factor=Actual Energy Generated / Installed Capacity × Time

7. Firm Power: Firm Power is the minimum guaranteed power output that a power station can supply
continuously over a period, even during adverse conditions like dry seasons. It is critical for reliable planning
and operation.

8. Base Load: Base Load is the minimum constant level of demand on an electrical power system over a period
of time. It is the load that is always present, regardless of the time of day or season. Supplied by base load
power plants (e.g., thermal or nuclear), which operate continuously.

9. Peak Load: Peak Load is the maximum demand on the power system during a specific time period, usually
occurring for short durations like in the morning or evening hours. Supplied by peak load plants (e.g., gas
turbines or hydropower plants) that can be quickly started.
 UNIT 3
Q. Explain the significance of hydrological data for hydropower plants.

Hydrological data is crucial for the planning, design, and operation of hydropower plants. It includes information
on rainfall, streamflow, river discharge, evaporation, sediment load, and flood patterns. This data helps in
estimating the availability and reliability of water resources at a site.

Accurate streamflow data helps in assessing the power potential and selecting suitable turbine types and
capacities. Rainfall and runoff data assist in predicting seasonal variations and ensuring continuous water supply
throughout the year. Flood data is vital for designing spillways and ensuring the safety of dams during extreme
events. Sedimentation data helps in reservoir capacity planning and maintenance scheduling. Additionally,
evaporation and seepage losses are considered while estimating the effective water storage. Overall,
hydrological data ensures efficient design, optimal operation, safety, and economic viability of hydropower
projects.

Q. Write a short note on flow duration curve.

A Flow Duration Curve is a graph that shows the percentage of time during which a given flow in a river is
equaled or exceeded over a specific period. It is a
useful tool in hydrology and water resources
management.

The curve is plotted with discharge (flow rate) on the

vertical axis and percentage of time flow is exceeded
on the horizontal axis. It helps in understanding the
variability and reliability of river flows, which is
essential for designing hydraulic structures,
managing water supplies, and planning hydropower
projects.

Q. Explain reservoir elevation area capacity curve.

The Reservoir Elevation-Area-Capacity Curve represents the relationship between the water surface elevation,
the surface area, and the storage capacity of a reservoir. Elevation refers to the height of the water surface
above a reference level (usually sea level or riverbed). Area is the surface area of the reservoir at that elevation.
Capacity is the total volume of water stored in the reservoir up to that elevation.

Explanation: As the water level (elevation) in the reservoir rises, both the surface area and the storage volume
increase. These curves are derived from topographical surveys of the reservoir basin. They are essential for
reservoir operation, water resource management, and flood control. The Elevation-Area Curve shows how the
water surface area changes with elevation. The Elevation-Capacity Curve shows how the storage volume varies
with elevation.

Importance: Helps in calculating the storage available at different water levels. Useful in predicting reservoir
behavior during filling and drawdown. Vital for flood management and planning water releases.
 UNIT 3
Q. Explain Mass Curve method with help of typical Mass Curve.

The Mass Curve method is used to analyze the

storage capacity required in a reservoir to
regulate the inflow and meet the water demand
over a period (usually a year). It helps determine
the volume of water storage necessary to
maintain continuous supply despite fluctuations
in inflow. Procedure: 1. Plot the Cumulative
Inflow: On the vertical axis, plot the cumulative
inflow volume (mass of water) over time on the
horizontal axis (days, months, or years). 2. Plot
the Cumulative Demand: On the same graph,
plot the cumulative water demand linearly over
the same period. 3. Mass Curve Construction: The vertical difference between the cumulative inflow and
cumulative demand curves at any time gives the storage volume required or excess water available. 4.
Determining Storage Capacity: The maximum vertical difference between the inflow curve and demand curve
represents the minimum reservoir capacity needed to ensure the demand is met without shortage.

Typical Mass Curve Features: 1. Rising Slope: Indicates surplus inflow. 2. Falling Slope: Indicates demand
exceeds inflow, requiring stored water. 3. Intersection Points: Indicate times when inflow equals demand.

Significance: Helps in designing reservoir capacity for irrigation, hydropower, and water supply projects. Useful
for assessing water availability and managing reservoir operations.

Q. Explain PONDAGE and discuss the significance of PONDAGE.

Pondage refers to the small storage or ponding capacity provided in a hydropower plant reservoir or forebay to
regulate the daily or short-term variations in water flow. It acts as a buffer to store water during periods of low
power demand and release it during peak demand hours.

Significance of Pondage 1. Load Management: Pondage allows the plant to operate efficiently by matching
power generation with fluctuating demand, especially in plants designed for peak load operation. 2. Smooth
Power Supply: It helps maintain a steady power supply by storing excess water when demand is low and using
it during peak hours. 3. Efficient Use of Water: Pondage prevents wastage of water by ensuring that water is not
spilled unnecessarily when power demand is low. 4. Reduces Need for Large Reservoirs: Provides operational
flexibility without requiring very large storage reservoirs, saving on construction costs and land submergence. 5.
Improves Plant Economics: By enabling power generation during high-tariff periods, pondage increases revenue
and optimizes plant profitability.
 UNIT 3
Q. What is Reservoir Sedimentation?

Reservoir sedimentation is the process by which sediments such as silt, sand, clay, and other particulate matter
carried by the river water settle down and accumulate in the reservoir behind a dam. Over time, this
accumulation reduces the reservoir’s storage capacity, affecting its ability to store water for irrigation, power
generation, and flood control.

Key Points: 1. Caused mainly due to soil erosion in the catchment area. 2. Sediments settle because the river
flow velocity decreases significantly inside the reservoir. 3. Leads to reduction in effective storage volume and
useful life of the reservoir. 4. Increases the risk of flooding and damages hydraulic structures.

Q. Explain sources of reservoir sedimentation.

Sedimentation in reservoirs occurs due to the entry of sediments carried by inflowing water. The main sources
of sediments are: 1. Soil Erosion in Catchment Area: Rainfall causes erosion of soil from hills, fields, and
riverbanks. This loose soil is washed into streams and rivers, which carry it into the reservoir. 2. Runoff from
Agricultural Land: Agricultural activities loosen the soil, increasing surface runoff and sediment load in rivers. 3.
Deforestation and Vegetation Removal: Removal of trees and plants reduces ground cover, increasing erosion
and sediment transport. 4. Construction and Mining Activities: Excavation, road building, and mining disturb
the soil and increase sediment inflow to reservoirs. 5. Bank Erosion of Rivers: Natural or flood-induced erosion
of riverbanks contributes sediments directly into the river flow. 6. Mass Wasting and Landslides: In hilly regions,
landslides and soil slippage during heavy rains add large quantities of sediment to the watercourses feeding the
reservoir.

Q. Discuss the method to control reservoir sedimentation.

Methods to Control Reservoir Sedimentation

Reservoir sedimentation reduces storage capacity and affects the lifespan of the reservoir. Several methods are
used to control or minimize sedimentation: 1. Catchment Area Treatment: Afforestation and reforestation to
stabilize soil. Contour bunding, terracing, and check dams to reduce runoff velocity and soil erosion. Proper land
use management and controlled grazing. 2. Sediment Traps and Settling Basins: Constructing small reservoirs
or basins upstream to trap sediments before water enters the main reservoir. 3. Desilting Basins and Sluicing:
Providing desilting basins near the intake to remove sediments. Sluicing involves releasing sediment-laden water
during high flow periods to flush sediments out. 4. Flushing and Dredging: Periodically flushing sediments
through low-level outlets. Mechanical dredging to remove deposited sediments. 5. Check Dams and Gabions:
Building check dams and gabions in tributaries and gullies to reduce sediment inflow. 6. River Training and Bank
Protection: Stabilizing riverbanks with vegetation or engineering structures to reduce erosion.
 UNIT 3
Q. Explain the economic life of reservoir.

The Economic Life of a Reservoir is the period during which the reservoir can function effectively and
economically to meet its intended purposes such as irrigation, power generation, or water supply. It is mainly
limited by the rate of sedimentation, which gradually reduces the reservoir's storage capacity over time.

Key Points: 1. Definition: The time until sediment accumulation reduces the reservoir’s effective storage to a
level where its operation becomes uneconomical or ineffective. 2. Factors Affecting Economic Life: Sediment
inflow rate and sediment characteristics. Initial storage capacity. Rate of water usage and operational practices.
Maintenance and sediment management measures. After the economic life ends, the reservoir may require
costly maintenance, dredging, or may become unusable. Importance: Estimating the economic life helps in
planning reservoir design, maintenance schedules, and replacement or rehabilitation decisions.

Q. Explain River flow regulation and its importance.

River flow regulation refers to the controlled management of river discharge using structures like dams,
reservoirs, barrages, and weirs to achieve a desired flow pattern. It involves storing excess water during high-
flow periods (like monsoon) and releasing it gradually during low-flow periods (like summer or dry seasons).

Importance of River Flow Regulation 1. Irrigation Supply: Ensures a consistent supply of water for agriculture,
even during dry seasons. 2. Hydropower Generation: Maintains steady flow for continuous electricity
generation. 3. Flood Control: Reduces flood peaks by storing excess water and releasing it in a controlled manner.
4. Water Supply: Provides a reliable water source for domestic, industrial, and municipal use. 5. Navigation:
Maintains minimum flow depth in rivers to support inland water transport. 6. Environmental Protection: Helps
in maintaining ecological balance by ensuring adequate flow for aquatic life and ecosystems. 7. Drought
Mitigation: Acts as a buffer during droughts by supplying stored water.

Q. Explain with neat Sketch Storage Zones of Reservoir.

A reservoir is divided into several zones based on the function and availability of stored water. These zones help
in effective management of water for flood control, irrigation,
power generation, and dead storage. 1. Dead Storage Zone:
This is the lowest part of the reservoir. Water in this zone
cannot be withdrawn under normal conditions. It is used to
collect sediments and maintain minimum pool level. 2.
Inactive Storage Zone: Water stored above the dead storage
but not regularly used. Can be used in emergency situations
or droughts.3. Active or Live Storage Zone: Lies between the
minimum drawdown level and full reservoir level. This water is
regularly used for irrigation, water supply, power generation,
etc. 4. Flood Storage Zone (also called surcharge storage): Lies
above the full reservoir level (FRL). Temporarily stores excess
floodwater during heavy rainfall to prevent downstream
flooding.
 UNIT 3
Q. Define the following:

1. Freeboard: Freeboard is the vertical distance between the maximum water level (MWL) in a reservoir and
the top of the dam or embankment. It provides a safety margin to prevent overtopping due to waves,
settlement, or unexpected floods.

2. Dead Storage: Dead Storage is the lowest portion of the reservoir storage that cannot be withdrawn by
gravity. It is located below the lowest outlet and is mainly used to trap sediments and maintain water quality.

3. Buffered Storage: Buffered Storage is a temporary storage zone designed to absorb sudden inflows or
fluctuations in demand. It helps in maintaining a steady supply and protects downstream structures from sudden
flow variations.

4. Carryover Storage: Carryover Storage is the amount of water stored in a reservoir to meet demands during
dry seasons or drought years. It is carried over from one season or year to another to ensure reliable long-term
water supply.