Capacitance and Dielectrics

5.1 Introduction

A capacitor is a device which stores electric charge. Capacitors vary in shape and size,
but the basic configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges (Figure
5.1.1). Capacitors have many important applications in electronics. Some examples
include storing electric potential energy, delaying voltage changes when coupled with
resistors, filtering out unwanted frequency signals, forming resonant circuits and making
frequency-dependent and independent voltage dividers when combined with resistors.
Some of these applications will be discussed in latter chapters.

Figure 5.1.1 Basic configuration of a capacitor.

In the uncharged state, the charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is zero.
During the charging process, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other one,
giving one conductor a charge +Q , and the other one a charge −Q . A potential
difference ∆V is created, with the positively charged conductor at a higher potential than
the negatively charged conductor. Note that whether charged or uncharged, the net charge
on the capacitor as a whole is zero.

The simplest example of a capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area A , which
are parallel to each other, and separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure 5.1.2.

Figure 5.1.2 A parallel-plate capacitor

Experiments show that the amount of charge Q stored in a capacitor is linearly

proportional to ∆V , the electric potential difference between the plates. Thus, we may
write

Q = C | ∆V | (5.1.1)

5-3
where C is a positive proportionality constant called capacitance. Physically,
capacitance is a measure of the capacity of storing electric charge for a given potential
difference ∆V . The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F) :

1 F = 1 farad = 1 coulomb volt = 1 C V

A typical capacitance is in the picofarad ( 1 pF = 10− 12 F ) to millifarad range,

( 1 mF = 10− 3 F=1000 µ F; 1 µ F = 10− 6 F ).

Figure 5.1.3(a) shows the symbol which is used to represent capacitors in circuits. For a
polarized fixed capacitor which has a definite polarity, Figure 5.1.3(b) is sometimes used.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.1.3 Capacitor symbols.

5.2 Calculation of Capacitance

Let’s see how capacitance can be computed in systems with simple geometry.

Example 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Consider two metallic plates of equal area A separated by a distance d, as shown in

Figure 5.2.1 below. The top plate carries a charge +Q while the bottom plate carries a
charge –Q. The charging of the plates can be accomplished by means of a battery which
produces a potential difference. Find the capacitance of the system.

Figure 5.2.1 The electric field between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor

Solution:

To find the capacitance C, we first need to know the electric field between the plates. A
real capacitor is finite in size. Thus, the electric field lines at the edge of the plates are not
straight lines, and the field is not contained entirely between the plates. This is known as

5-4
edge effects, and the non-uniform fields near the edge are called the fringing fields. In
Figure 5.2.1 the field lines are drawn by taking into consideration edge effects. However,
in what follows, we shall ignore such effects and assume an idealized situation, where
field lines between the plates are straight lines.

In the limit where the plates are infinitely large, the system has planar symmetry and we
can calculate the electric field everywhere using Gauss’s law given in Eq. (4.2.5):

qenc
∫∫ E ⋅ d A =
S
ε0

By choosing a Gaussian “pillbox” with cap area A′ to enclose the charge on the positive
plate (see Figure 5.2.2), the electric field in the region between the plates is

qenc σ A' σ
EA' = = ⇒ E= (5.2.1)
ε0 ε0 ε0

The same result has also been obtained in Section 4.8.1 using superposition principle.

Figure 5.2.2 Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field between the plates.

The potential difference between the plates is

−
∆V = V− − V+ = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = − Ed (5.2.2)
+

where we have taken the path of integration to be a straight line from the positive plate to
the negative plate following the field lines (Figure 5.2.2). Since the electric field lines are
always directed from higher potential to lower potential, V− < V+ . However, in
computing the capacitance C, the relevant quantity is the magnitude of the potential
difference:

| ∆V |= Ed (5.2.3)

and its sign is immaterial. From the definition of capacitance, we have

5-5
 Q ε A
C= = 0 ( parallel plate) (5.2.4)
| ∆V | d

Note that C depends only on the geometric factors A and d. The capacitance C increases
linearly with the area A since for a given potential difference ∆V , a bigger plate can hold
more charge. On the other hand, C is inversely proportional to d, the distance of
separation because the smaller the value of d, the smaller the potential difference | ∆V |
for a fixed Q.

Interactive Simulation 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor

This simulation shown in Figure 5.2.3 illustrates the interaction of charged particles
inside the two plates of a capacitor.

Figure 5.2.3 Charged particles interacting inside the two plates of a capacitor.

Each plate contains twelve charges interacting via Coulomb force, where one plate
contains positive charges and the other contains negative charges. Because of their
mutual repulsion, the particles in each plate are compelled to maximize the distance
between one another, and thus spread themselves evenly around the outer edge of their
enclosure. However, the particles in one plate are attracted to the particles in the other, so
they attempt to minimize the distance between themselves and their oppositely charged
correspondents. Thus, they distribute themselves along the surface of their bounding box
closest to the other plate.

Example 5.2: Cylindrical Capacitor

Consider next a solid cylindrical conductor of radius a surrounded by a coaxial

cylindrical shell of inner radius b, as shown in Figure 5.2.4. The length of both cylinders
is L and we take this length to be much larger than b− a, the separation of the cylinders,
so that edge effects can be neglected. The capacitor is charged so that the inner cylinder
has charge +Q while the outer shell has a charge –Q. What is the capacitance?

5-6
 (a) (b)

Figure 5.2.4 (a) A cylindrical capacitor. (b) End view of the capacitor. The electric field
is non-vanishing only in the region a < r < b.

Solution:

To calculate the capacitance, we first compute the electric field everywhere. Due to the
cylindrical symmetry of the system, we choose our Gaussian surface to be a coaxial
cylinder with length < L and radius r where a < r < b . Using Gauss’s law, we have

λ λ
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = EA = E ( 2π r ) = ε
S 0
⇒ E=
2πε 0 r
(5.2.5)

where λ = Q / L is the charge per unit length. Notice that the electric field is non-
vanishing only in the region a < r < b . For r < a , the enclosed charge is qenc = 0 since
any net charge in a conductor must reside on its surface. Similarly, for r > b , the enclosed
charge is qenc = λ − λ = 0 since the Gaussian surface encloses equal but opposite
charges from both conductors.

The potential difference is given by

b λ b dr λ ⎛b⎞
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr = − ∫a =− ln ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.6)
a 2πε 0 r 2πε 0 ⎝ a ⎠

where we have chosen the integration path to be along the direction of the electric field
lines. As expected, the outer conductor with negative charge has a lower potential. This
gives

Q λL 2πε 0 L
C= = = (5.2.7)
| ∆V | λ ln(b / a ) / 2πε 0 ln(b / a )

Once again, we see that the capacitance C depends only on the geometrical factors, L, a
and b.

5-7
Example 5.3: Spherical Capacitor

As a third example, let’s consider a spherical capacitor which consists of two concentric
spherical shells of radii a and b, as shown in Figure 5.2.5. The inner shell has a charge
+Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and the outer shell an equal but opposite
charge –Q. What is the capacitance of this configuration?

Figure 5.2.5 (a) spherical capacitor with two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b.
(b) Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field.

Solution:

The electric field is non-vanishing only in the region a < r < b . Using Gauss’s law, we
obtain

Q
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = Er A = Er ( 4π r 2 ) = (5.2.8)
S
ε0
or

1 Q
Er = (5.2.9)
4πε o r 2

Therefore, the potential difference between the two conducting shells is:

b Q b dr Q ⎛1 1⎞ Q ⎛ b−a ⎞
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr = − ∫ =− ⎜ − ⎟=− ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.10)
a 4πε 0 a r 2
4πε 0 ⎝ a b ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ab ⎠

which yields

Q ⎛ ab ⎞
C= = 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.11)
| ∆V | ⎝ b−a ⎠

Again, the capacitance C depends only on the physical dimensions, a and b.

An “isolated” conductor (with the second conductor placed at infinity) also has a
capacitance. In the limit where b → ∞ , the above equation becomes

5-8
 ⎛ ab ⎞ a
lim C = lim 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = lim 4πε 0 = 4πε 0 a (5.2.12)
b →∞ b →∞
⎝ b−a ⎠ b →∞ ⎛ a⎞
⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ b⎠

Thus, for a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R, the capacitance is

C = 4πε 0 R (5.2.13)

The above expression can also be obtained by noting that a conducting sphere of radius R
with a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface has V = Q / 4πε 0 R , using infinity
as the reference point having zero potential, V (∞) = 0 . This gives

Q Q
C= = = 4πε 0 R (5.2.14)
| ∆ V | Q / 4πε 0 R

As expected, the capacitance of an isolated charged sphere only depends on its geometry,
namely, the radius R.

5.3 Capacitors in Electric Circuits

A capacitor can be charged by connecting the plates to the terminals of a battery, which
are maintained at a potential difference ∆V called the terminal voltage.

Figure 5.3.1 Charging a capacitor.

The connection results in sharing the charges between the terminals and the plates. For
example, the plate that is connected to the (positive) negative terminal will acquire some
(positive) negative charge. The sharing causes a momentary reduction of charges on the
terminals, and a decrease in the terminal voltage. Chemical reactions are then triggered to
transfer more charge from one terminal to the other to compensate for the loss of charge
to the capacitor plates, and maintain the terminal voltage at its initial level. The battery
could thus be thought of as a charge pump that brings a charge Q from one plate to the
other.

5-9
5.3.1 Parallel Connection

Suppose we have two capacitors C1 with charge Q1 and C2 with charge Q2 that are
connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 5.3.2.

Figure 5.3.2 Capacitors in parallel and an equivalent capacitor.

The left plates of both capacitors C1 and C2 are connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and have the same electric potential as the positive terminal. Similarly, both right
plates are negatively charged and have the same potential as the negative terminal. Thus,
the potential difference | ∆V | is the same across each capacitor. This gives

Q1 Q2
C1 = , C2 =
| ∆V | | ∆V | (5.3.1)

These two capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq with a total
charge Q supplied by the battery. However, since Q is shared by the two capacitors, we
must have

Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1 | ∆V | +C2 | ∆V |= ( C1 + C2 ) | ∆V | (5.3.2)

The equivalent capacitance is then seen to be given by

Q
Ceq = = C1 + C2 (5.3.3)
| ∆V |

Thus, capacitors that are connected in parallel add. The generalization to any number of
capacitors is

N
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + + C N = ∑ Ci (parallel) (5.3.4)
i =1

5-10
5.3.2 Series Connection

Suppose two initially uncharged capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series, as shown
in Figure 5.3.3. A potential difference | ∆V | is then applied across both capacitors. The
left plate of capacitor 1 is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and becomes
positively charged with a charge +Q, while the right plate of capacitor 2 is connected to
the negative terminal and becomes negatively charged with charge –Q as electrons flow
in. What about the inner plates? They were initially uncharged; now the outside plates
each attract an equal and opposite charge. So the right plate of capacitor 1 will acquire a
charge –Q and the left plate of capacitor +Q.

Figure 5.3.3 Capacitors in series and an equivalent capacitor

The potential differences across capacitors C1 and C2 are

Q Q
| ∆ V1 | = , | ∆ V2 | = (5.3.5)
C1 C2

respectively. From Figure 5.3.3, we see that the total potential difference is simply the
sum of the two individual potential differences:

| ∆ V | = | ∆ V1 | + | ∆ V2 | (5.3.6)

In fact, the total potential difference across any number of capacitors in series connection
is equal to the sum of potential differences across the individual capacitors. These two
capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq = Q / | ∆ V | . Using the fact
that the potentials add in series,

Q Q Q
= +
Ceq C1 C2

and so the equivalent capacitance for two capacitors in series becomes

1 1 1
= + (5.3.7)
Ceq C1 C2

5-11
The generalization to any number of capacitors connected in series is

N
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =∑ ( series ) (5.3.8)
Ceq C1 C2 C N i =1 Ci

Example 5.4: Equivalent Capacitance

Find the equivalent capacitance for the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 5.3.4(a)

Figure 5.3.4 (a) Capacitors connected in series and in parallel

Solution:

Since C1 and C2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance C12 is given by

C12 = C1 + C2

Figure 5.3.4 (b) and (c) Equivalent circuits.

Now capacitor C12 is in series with C3, as seen from Figure 5.3.4(b). So, the equivalent
capacitance C123 is given by

1 1 1
= +
C123 C12 C3

or

C123 =
C12C3 ( C + C2 ) C3
= 1
C12 + C3 C1 + C2 + C3

5-12
5.4 Storing Energy in a Capacitor

As discussed in the introduction, capacitors can be used to stored electrical energy. The
amount of energy stored is equal to the work done to charge it. During the charging
process, the battery does work to remove charges from one plate and deposit them onto
the other.

Figure 5.4.1 Work is done by an external agent in bringing +dq from the negative plate and
depositing the charge on the positive plate.

Let the capacitor be initially uncharged. In each plate of the capacitor, there are many
negative and positive charges, but the number of negative charges balances the number of
positive charges, so that there is no net charge, and therefore no electric field between the
plates. We have a magic bucket and a set of stairs from the bottom plate to the top plate
(Figure 5.4.1).

We start out at the bottom plate, fill our magic bucket with a charge + dq , carry the
bucket up the stairs and dump the contents of the bucket on the top plate, charging it up
positive to charge + dq . However, in doing so, the bottom plate is now charged to − dq .
Having emptied the bucket of charge, we now descend the stairs, get another bucketful of
charge +dq, go back up the stairs and dump that charge on the top plate. We then repeat
this process over and over. In this way we build up charge on the capacitor, and create
electric field where there was none initially.

Suppose the amount of charge on the top plate at some instant is + q , and the potential
difference between the two plates is | ∆V |= q / C . To dump another bucket of charge
+ dq on the top plate, the amount of work done to overcome electrical repulsion is
dW =| ∆V | dq . If at the end of the charging process, the charge on the top plate is +Q ,
then the total amount of work done in this process is

Q Q q 1 Q2
W = ∫ dq | ∆ V |= ∫ dq = (5.4.1)
0 0 C 2 C

This is equal to the electrical potential energy U E of the system:

1 Q2 1 1
UE = = Q | ∆ V |= C | ∆ V |2 (5.4.2)
2 C 2 2

5-13
5.4.1 Energy Density of the Electric Field

One can think of the energy stored in the capacitor as being stored in the electric field
itself. In the case of a parallel-plate capacitor, with C = ε 0 A / d and | ∆V |= Ed , we have

1 1 ε0 A 1
( Ed ) = ε 0 E 2 ( Ad )
2
UE = C | ∆ V |2 = (5.4.3)
2 2 d 2

Since the quantity Ad represents the volume between the plates, we can define the electric
energy density as

UE 1
uE = = ε0E2 (5.4.4)
Volume 2

Note that uE is proportional to the square of the electric field. Alternatively, one may
obtain the energy stored in the capacitor from the point of view of external work. Since
the plates are oppositely charged, force must be applied to maintain a constant separation
between them. From Eq. (4.4.7), we see that a small patch of charge
∆q = σ (∆A) experiences an attractive force ∆F = σ 2 (∆A) / 2ε 0 . If the total area of the
plate is A, then an external agent must exert a force Fext = σ 2 A / 2ε 0 to pull the two plates
apart. Since the electric field strength in the region between the plates is given by
E = σ / ε 0 , the external force can be rewritten as

ε0
Fext = E2 A (5.4.5)
2

Note that Fext is independent of d . The total amount of work done externally to separate
the plates by a distance d is then

⎛ ε E2 A ⎞
Wext = ∫ Fext ⋅ d s = Fext d = ⎜ 0 ⎟d (5.4.6)
⎝ 2 ⎠

consistent with Eq. (5.4.3). Since the potential energy of the system is equal to the work
done by the external agent, we have uE = Wext / Ad = ε 0 E 2 / 2 . In addition, we note that the
expression for uE is identical to Eq. (4.4.8) in Chapter 4. Therefore, the electric energy
density uE can also be interpreted as electrostatic pressure P.

Interactive Simulation 5.2: Charge Placed between Capacitor Plates

This applet shown in Figure 5.4.2 is a simulation of an experiment in which an aluminum

sphere sitting on the bottom plate of a capacitor is lifted to the top plate by the
electrostatic force generated as the capacitor is charged. We have placed a non-

5-14
conducting barrier just below the upper plate to prevent the sphere from touching it and
discharging.

Figure 5.4.2 Electrostatic force experienced by an aluminum sphere placed between the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor.

While the sphere is in contact with the bottom plate, the charge density of the bottom of
the sphere is the same as that of the lower plate. Thus, as the capacitor is charged, the
charge density on the sphere increases proportional to the potential difference between
the plates. In addition, energy flows in to the region between the plates as the electric
field builds up. This can be seen in the motion of the electric field lines as they move
from the edge to the center of the capacitor.

As the potential difference between the plates increases, the sphere feels an increasing
attraction towards the top plate, indicated by the increasing tension in the field as more
field lines "attach" to it. Eventually this tension is enough to overcome the downward
force of gravity, and the sphere is lifted. Once separated from the lower plate, the sphere
charge density no longer increases, and it feels both an attractive force towards the upper
plate (whose charge is roughly opposite that of the sphere) and a repulsive force from the
lower one (whose charge is roughly equal to that of the sphere). The result is a net force
upwards.

Example 5.5: Electric Energy Density of Dry Air

The breakdown field strength at which dry air loses its insulating ability and allows a
discharge to pass through is Eb = 3 × 106 V/m . At this field strength, the electric energy
density is:

1 1
( )( 3 ×10 V/m )
2
uE = ε 0 E 2 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N ⋅ m 2 6
= 40 J/m3 (5.4.7)
2 2

Example 5.6: Energy Stored in a Spherical Shell

Find the energy stored in a metallic spherical shell of radius a and charge Q.

Solution:

5-15
The electric field associated of a spherical shell of radius a is (Example 4.3)

⎧ Q ˆ
⎪ r, r > a
E = ⎨ 4πε 0 r
2
(5.4.8)
⎪ 0, r<a
⎩

The corresponding energy density is

1 Q2
uE = ε 0 E 2 = (5.4.9)
2 32π 2ε 0 r 4

outside the sphere, and zero inside. Since the electric field is non-vanishing outside the
spherical shell, we must integrate over the entire region of space from r = a to r = ∞ . In
spherical coordinates, with dV = 4π r 2 dr , we have

∞ ⎛ Q2 ⎞ Q2 ∞ dr Q2 1
UE = ∫ ⎜ 4 ⎟
4π r dr =
2
∫ = = QV (5.4.10)
⎝ 32π ε 0 r ⎠ 8πε 0 8πε 0 a 2
2 2
a a r

where V = Q / 4πε 0 a is the electric potential on the surface of the shell, with V (∞) = 0 .
We can readily verify that the energy of the system is equal to the work done in charging
the sphere. To show this, suppose at some instant the sphere has charge q and is at a
potential V = q / 4πε 0 a . The work required to add an additional charge dq to the system
is dW = Vdq . Thus, the total work is

Q ⎛ q ⎞ Q2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ Vdq = ∫ dq ⎜ ⎟ = (5.4.11)
⎝ 4πε 0 a ⎠ 8πε 0 a
0

5.5 Dielectrics

In many capacitors there is an insulating material such as paper or plastic between the
plates. Such material, called a dielectric, can be used to maintain a physical separation of
the plates. Since dielectrics break down less readily than air, charge leakage can be
minimized, especially when high voltage is applied.

Experimentally it was found that capacitance C increases when the space between the
conductors is filled with dielectrics. To see how this happens, suppose a capacitor has a
capacitance C0 when there is no material between the plates. When a dielectric material is
inserted to completely fill the space between the plates, the capacitance increases to

C = κ eC0 (5.5.1)

5-16
where κ e is called the dielectric constant. In the Table below, we show some dielectric
materials with their dielectric constant. Experiments indicate that all dielectric materials
have κ e > 1 . Note that every dielectric material has a characteristic dielectric strength
which is the maximum value of electric field before breakdown occurs and charges begin
to flow.

Material κe Dielectric strength (106 V / m )

Air 1.00059 3
Paper 3.7 16
Glass 4−6 9
Water 80 −

The fact that capacitance increases in the presence of a dielectric can be explained from a
molecular point of view. We shall show that κ e is a measure of the dielectric response to
an external electric field. There are two types of dielectrics. The first type is polar
dielectrics, which are dielectrics that have permanent electric dipole moments. An
example of this type of dielectric is water.

Figure 5.5.1 Orientations of polar molecules when (a) E0 = 0 and (b) E0 ≠ 0 .

As depicted in Figure 5.5.1, the orientation of polar molecules is random in the absence
of an external field. When an external electric field E0 is present, a torque is set up and
causes the molecules to align with E0 . However, the alignment is not complete due to
random thermal motion. The aligned molecules then generate an electric field that is
opposite to the applied field but smaller in magnitude.

The second type of dielectrics is the non-polar dielectrics, which are dielectrics that do
not possess permanent electric dipole moment. Electric dipole moments can be induced
by placing the materials in an externally applied electric field.

5-17
 Figure 5.5.2 Orientations of non-polar molecules when (a) E0 = 0 and (b) E0 ≠ 0 .

Figure 5.5.2 illustrates the orientation of non-polar molecules with and without an
external field E0 . The induced surface charges on the faces produces an electric field E P
in the direction opposite to E0 , leading to E = E0 + E P , with | E | < | E0 | . Below we show
how the induced electric field E P is calculated.

5.5.1 Polarization

We have shown that dielectric materials consist of many permanent or induced electric
dipoles. One of the concepts crucial to the understanding of dielectric materials is the
average electric field produced by many little electric dipoles which are all aligned.
Suppose we have a piece of material in the form of a cylinder with area A and height h,
as shown in Figure 5.5.3, and that it consists of N electric dipoles, each with electric
dipole moment p spread uniformly throughout the volume of the cylinder.

Figure 5.5.3 A cylinder with uniform dipole distribution.

We furthermore assume for the moment that all of the electric dipole moments p are
aligned with the axis of the cylinder. Since each electric dipole has its own electric field
associated with it, in the absence of any external electric field, if we average over all the
individual fields produced by the dipole, what is the average electric field just due to the
presence of the aligned dipoles?

To answer this question, let us define the polarization vector P to be the net electric
dipole moment vector per unit volume:

5-18
 N
1
P=
Volume
∑p
i =1
i (5.5.2)

In the case of our cylinder, where all the dipoles are perfectly aligned, the magnitude of
P is equal to

Np
P= (5.5.3)
Ah

and the direction of P is parallel to the aligned dipoles.

Now, what is the average electric field these dipoles produce? The key to figuring this
out is realizing that the situation shown in Figure 5.5.4(a) is equivalent that shown in
Figure 5.5.4(b), where all the little ± charges associated with the electric dipoles in the
interior of the cylinder are replaced with two equivalent charges, ±QP , on the top and
bottom of the cylinder, respectively.

Figure 5.5.4 (a) A cylinder with uniform dipole distribution. (b) Equivalent charge
distribution.

The equivalence can be seen by noting that in the interior of the cylinder, positive charge
at the top of any one of the electric dipoles is canceled on average by the negative charge
of the dipole just above it. The only place where cancellation does not take place is for
electric dipoles at the top of the cylinder, since there are no adjacent dipoles further up.
Thus the interior of the cylinder appears uncharged in an average sense (averaging over
many dipoles), whereas the top surface of the cylinder appears to carry a net positive
charge. Similarly, the bottom surface of the cylinder will appear to carry a net negative
charge.

How do we find an expression for the equivalent charge QP in terms of quantities we

know? The simplest way is to require that the electric dipole moment QP produces,
QP h , is equal to the total electric dipole moment of all the little electric dipoles. This
gives QP h = Np , or
Np
QP = (5.5.4)
h

5-19
To compute the electric field produced by QP , we note that the equivalent charge
distribution resembles that of a parallel-plate capacitor, with an equivalent surface charge
density σ P that is equal to the magnitude of the polarization:

QP Np
σP = = =P (5.5.5)
A Ah

Note that the SI units of P are (C ⋅ m)/m3 , or C/m 2 , which is the same as the surface
charge density. In general if the polarization vector makes an angle θ with n̂ , the
outward normal vector of the surface, the surface charge density would be

σ P = P ⋅ nˆ = P cos θ (5.5.6)

Thus, our equivalent charge system will produce an average electric field of magnitude
EP = P / ε 0 . Since the direction of this electric field is opposite to the direction of P , in
vector notation, we have

E P = −P / ε 0 (5.5.7)

Thus, the average electric field of all these dipoles is opposite to the direction of the
dipoles themselves. It is important to realize that this is just the average field due to all
the dipoles. If we go close to any individual dipole, we will see a very different field.

We have assumed here that all our electric dipoles are aligned. In general, if these
dipoles are randomly oriented, then the polarization P given in Eq. (5.5.2) will be zero,
and there will be no average field due to their presence. If the dipoles have some
tendency toward a preferred orientation, then P ≠ 0 , leading to a non-vanishing average
field E P .

Let us now examine the effects of introducing dielectric material into a system. We shall
first assume that the atoms or molecules comprising the dielectric material have a
permanent electric dipole moment. If left to themselves, these permanent electric dipoles
in a dielectric material never line up spontaneously, so that in the absence of any applied
external electric field, P = 0 due to the random alignment of dipoles, and the average
electric field E P is zero as well. However, when we place the dielectric material in an
external field E0 , the dipoles will experience a torque τ = p × E0 that tends to align the
dipole vectors p with E0 . The effect is a net polarization P parallel to E0 , and therefore
an average electric field of the dipoles E P anti-parallel to E0 , i.e., that will tend to
reduce the total electric field strength below E0 . The total electric field E is the sum of
these two fields:

5-20
 E = E0 + E P = E0 − P / ε 0 (5.5.8)

In most cases, the polarization P is not only in the same direction as E0 , but also linearly
proportional to E0 (and hence E .) This is reasonable because without the external field
E0 there would be no alignment of dipoles and no polarization P . We write the linear
relation between P and E as

P = ε 0 χeE (5.5.9)

where χ e is called the electric susceptibility. Materials they obey this relation are linear
dielectrics. Combing Eqs. (5.5.8) and (5.5.7) gives

E0 = (1 + χ e )E = κ e E (5.5.10)

where

κ e = (1 + χ e ) (5.5.11)

is the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant κ e is always greater than one since
χ e > 0 . This implies

E0
E= < E0 (5.5.12)
κe

Thus, we see that the effect of dielectric materials is always to decrease the electric field
below what it would otherwise be.

In the case of dielectric material where there are no permanent electric dipoles, a similar
effect is observed because the presence of an external field E0 induces electric dipole
moments in the atoms or molecules. These induced electric dipoles are parallel to E0 ,
again leading to a polarization P parallel to E0 , and a reduction of the total electric field
strength.

5.5.2 Dielectrics without Battery

As shown in Figure 5.5.5, a battery with a potential difference | ∆V0 | across its terminals
is first connected to a capacitor C0, which holds a charge Q0 = C0 | ∆V0 | . We then
disconnect the battery, leaving Q0 = const.

5-21
Figure 5.5.5 Inserting a dielectric material between the capacitor plates while keeping the
charge Q0 constant

If we then insert a dielectric between the plates, while keeping the charge constant,
experimentally it is found that the potential difference decreases by a factor of κ e :

| ∆ V0 |
| ∆ V |= (5.5.13)
κe

This implies that the capacitance is changed to

Q Q0 Q0
C= = = κe = κ eC0 (5.5.14)
| ∆ V | | ∆ V0 | / κ e | ∆ V0 |

Thus, we see that the capacitance has increased by a factor of κ e .The electric field within
the dielectric is now

| ∆ V | | ∆ V0 | / κ e 1 ⎛ | ∆ V0 | ⎞ E0
E= = = ⎜ = (5.5.15)
d d κ e ⎝ d ⎠⎟ κ e

We see that in the presence of a dielectric, the electric field decreases by a factor of κ e .

5.5.3 Dielectrics with Battery

Consider a second case where a battery supplying a potential difference | ∆V0 | remains
connected as the dielectric is inserted. Experimentally, it is found (first by Faraday) that
the charge on the plates is increased by a factor κ e :

Q = κ eQ0 (5.5.16)

where Q0 is the charge on the plates in the absence of any dielectric.

Figure 5.5.6 Inserting a dielectric material between the capacitor plates while
maintaining a constant potential difference | ∆V0 | .

5-22
The capacitance becomes

Q κQ
C= = e 0 = κ eC0 (5.5.17)
| ∆ V0 | | ∆ V0 |

which is the same as the first case where the charge Q0 is kept constant, but now the
charge has increased.

5.5.4 Gauss’s Law for Dielectrics

Consider again a parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 5.5.7:

Figure 5.5.7 Gaussian surface in the absence of a dielectric.

When no dielectric is present, the electric field E0 in the region between the plates can be
found by using Gauss’s law:

Q σ
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = E A = ε
S
0
0
, ⇒ E0 =
ε0

We have see that when a dielectric is inserted (Figure 5.5.8), there is an induced
charge QP of opposite sign on the surface, and the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface is Q − QP .

Figure 5.5.8 Gaussian surface in the presence of a dielectric.

Gauss’s law becomes

5-23
 Q − QP
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = EA =
S
ε0
(5.5.18)

or

Q − QP
E= (5.5.19)
ε0 A

However, we have just seen that the effect of the dielectric is to weaken the original field
E0 by a factor κ e . Therefore,

E0 Q Q − QP
E= = = (5.5.20)
κe κ eε 0 A ε0 A

from which the induced charge QP can be obtained as

⎛ 1 ⎞
QP = Q ⎜ 1 − ⎟ (5.5.21)
⎝ κe ⎠

In terms of the surface charge density, we have

⎛ 1 ⎞
σ P = σ ⎜ 1− ⎟ (5.5.22)
⎝ κe ⎠

Note that in the limit κ e = 1 , QP = 0 which corresponds to the case of no dielectric

material.

Substituting Eq. (5.5.21) into Eq. (5.5.18), we see that Gauss’s law with dielectric can be
rewritten as

Q Q
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = κ ε
S e 0
=
ε
(5.5.23)

where ε = κ eε 0 is called the dielectric permittivity. Alternatively, we may also write

∫∫
S
D ⋅ dA = Q (5.5.24)

where D = ε 0κ E is called the electric displacement vector.

5-24
Example 5.7: Capacitance with Dielectrics

A non-conducting slab of thickness t , area A and dielectric constant κ e is inserted into

the space between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor with spacing d, charge Q and
area A, as shown in Figure 5.5.9(a). The slab is not necessarily halfway between the
capacitor plates. What is the capacitance of the system?

Figure 5.5.9 (a) Capacitor with a dielectric. (b) Electric field between the plates.

Solution:

To find the capacitance C, we first calculate the potential difference ∆V . We have

already seen that in the absence of a dielectric, the electric field between the plates is
given by E0 = Q / ε 0 A , and ED = E0 / κ e when a dielectric of dielectric constant κ e is
present, as shown in Figure 5.5.9(b). The potential can be found by integrating the
electric field along a straight line from the top to the bottom plates:

− Q Q
∆ V = − ∫ Edl = − ∆ V0 − ∆ VD = − E0 ( d − t ) − ED t = − (d −t )− t
+ Aε 0 Aε 0κ e
(5.5.25)
Q ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
=− ⎢ d − t ⎜ 1− ⎟ ⎥
Aε 0 ⎢⎣ ⎝ κ e ⎠ ⎥⎦

where ∆VD = ED t is the potential difference between the two faces of the dielectric. This
gives
Q ε0 A
C= = (5.5.26)
| ∆V | ⎛ 1 ⎞
d − t ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ κe ⎠

It is useful to check the following limits:

(i) As t → 0, i.e., the thickness of the dielectric approaches zero, we have

C = ε 0 A / d = C0 , which is the expected result for no dielectric.

(ii) As κ e → 1 , we again have C → ε 0 A / d = C0 , and the situation also correspond to the

case where the dielectric is absent.

5-25
(iii) In the limit where t → d , the space is filled with dielectric, we
have C → κ eε 0 A / d = κ eC0 .

We also comment that the configuration is equivalent to two capacitors connected in

series, as shown in Figure 5.5.10.

Figure 5.5.10 Equivalent configuration.

Using Eq. (5.3.8) for capacitors connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is

1 d −t t
= + (5.5.28)
C ε 0 A κ eε 0 A

5.6 Creating Electric Fields

Animation 5.1: Creating an Electric Dipole

Electric fields are created by electric charge. If there is no electric charge present, and
there never has been any electric charge present in the past, then there would be no
electric field anywhere is space. How is electric field created and how does it come to fill
up space? To answer this, consider the following scenario in which we go from the
electric field being zero everywhere in space to an electric field existing everywhere in
space.

Figure 5.6.1 Creating an electric dipole. (a) Before any charge separation. (b) Just
after the charges are separated. (c) A long time after the charges are separated.

5-26
(4) Calculate C 2πε 0l
ε0 A ⎛ ab ⎞
using C= C= C = 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟
C = Q / | ∆V | d ln(b / a ) ⎝ b−a ⎠

5.10 Solved Problems

5.10.1 Equivalent Capacitance

Consider the configuration shown in Figure 5.10.1. Find the equivalent capacitance,
assuming that all the capacitors have the same capacitance C.

Figure 5.10.1 Combination of Capacitors

Solution:

For capacitors that are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is

1 1 1 1
= + + =∑ (series)
Ceq C1 C2 i Ci

On the other hand, for capacitors that are connected in parallel, the equivalent
capacitance is

Ceq = C1 + C2 + = ∑ Ci (parallel)
i

Using the above formula for series connection, the equivalent configuration is shown in
Figure 5.10.2.

Figure 5.10.2

5-39
Now we have three capacitors connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance is given
by

⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 11
Ceq = C ⎜1 + + ⎟ = C
⎝ 2 3⎠ 6

5.10.2 Capacitor Filled with Two Different Dielectrics

Two dielectrics with dielectric constants κ1 and κ 2 each fill half the space between the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor as shown in Figure 5.10.3.

Figure 5.10.3 Capacitor filled with two different dielectrics.

Each plate has an area A and the plates are separated by a distance d. Compute the
capacitance of the system.

Solution:

Since the potential difference on each half of the capacitor is the same, we may treat the
system as being composed of two capacitors connected in parallel. Thus, the capacitance
of the system is

C = C1 + C2
With

κ iε 0 ( A / 2)
Ci = , i = 1, 2
d
we obtain

κ 1ε 0 ( A / 2) κ 2ε 0 ( A / 2) ε0 A
C= + = (κ 1 + κ 2 )
d d 2d

5.10.3 Capacitor with Dielectrics

Consider a conducting spherical shell with an inner radius a and outer radius c. Let the
space between two surfaces be filed with two different dielectric materials so that the

5-40
dielectric constant is κ 1 between a and b, and κ 2 between b and c, as shown in Figure
5.10.4. Determine the capacitance of this system.

Figure 5.10.4 Spherical capacitor filled with dielectrics.

Solution:

The system can be treated as two capacitors connected in series, since the total potential
difference across the capacitors is the sum of potential differences across individual
capacitors. The equivalent capacitance for a spherical capacitor of inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2 filled with dielectric with dielectric constant κ e is given by

⎛ rr ⎞
C = 4πε 0κ e ⎜ 1 2 ⎟
⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠

Thus, the equivalent capacitance of this system is

1 1 1 κ c(b − a) + κ1a(c − b)
= + = 2
C 4πε 0κ1ab 4πε 0κ 2bc 4πε 0κ1κ 2 abc
(b − a ) (c − b)
or

4πε 0κ1κ 2 abc

C=
κ 2c(b − a) + κ1a(c − b)

It is instructive to check the limit where κ1 , κ 2 → 1 . In this case, the above expression
reduces to

4πε 0 abc 4πε 0 abc 4πε 0 ac

C= = =
c(b − a ) + a (c − b) b(c − a ) (c − a)

which agrees with Eq. (5.2.11) for a spherical capacitor of inner radius a and outer radius
c.

5-41