RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration could simply be defined as the biochemical process in

which energy is liberated from food substances (simple sugars) in
the mitochondria of living cells with the aid of enzymes,
in the presence or absence of oxygen. The production of water,
carbon (IV) OXIDE, alcohol or
other organic substances is just incidental to the basic process.
BREATHING SURFACES / ORGANS
For efficient respiration, many organisms (aerobes) need structures
or surfaces through which they can exchange the gases needed for
respiration with gases produced during aerobic respiration. For
example, aerobic organisms need to take in air containing plenty of
oxygen to quicken the rate of respiration in their body cells. They
also need to send out from their body carbon dioxide, water
vapor along sides other gases including some oxygen (e.g
mammals).
Accumulation of carbon dioxide in the body is detrimental to the
normal functioning of the body.
The oxygen taken in by aerobic organisms during respiration is
used in the mitochondria of cells to liberate all the energy stored in
simple sugars for use by the body.
The process by which an organism exchanges gases inside of it with
those in its external environment or surrounding is called gaseous
exchange or breathing in animals.
Gas exchange organs or surfaces are the specialized structures used
by fairly large organism such
As arthropods and vertebrates to exchange gases through the
process of breathing.
Breathing is a visible, mechanical, muscular action which enables
an animal to quicken the rate of gas exchange between itself and its
environment.
Plants do not actually breathe, yet they also like the animals,
exchange gases through their gas exchange organs. This is the
reason why ‘Gaseous exchange’ is commonly used for both plants
and animals, while breathing is solely used in respect of higher
animals such as arthropods and ]vertebrates.

GAS EXCHANGE ORGANS OF SOME ORGANISMS:

ORGANISMS GAS
EXCHANGE ORGANS/SURFACES
1 Unicellular organism entire
body surface
e.g Amoeba, paramecium, euglena etc.

2 Simple multicellular organism e.g. Sponges, entire

body surface
Hydra, flat worms and round worms (that are
Aquatic organism)

3 Earth worm
moist skin surface

4 Insects
Tracheae system

5 Fish Gills

6 Tadpoles Gills

7 Reptiles, birds and mammals

Lungs

8 Toads Mouth,
moist skin and lungs
9 Flowering plants Leaves/ stomata,
Lenticels in stem, and Roots

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATORY SURFACES

1 They are very thin-walled to shorten diffusion distance

2 They are often moist for easy dissolution of gases through them
3 They are permeable to allow gases pass in and out of them
4 They possess large surface area to volume ratio to ensure that
large quantities of gases
at a given time.
5 They are highly vascularized i.e well supplied with blood
capillaries for efficient transportation of gases
6 They possess delicate cells.

RESPIRATORY MECHANISM
In lower animals, the gaseous exchange surfaces are external, i.e
the surfaces form whole or part of the outer covering of the animal.
 In higher animals the gaseous exchange surfaces are internal, i.e
they are turned outside in. In these groups, oxygen containing
water or air has to be sent into the body usually through a cavity,
mouth, or nostril as the case may be.
The mechanism by which water or air rich in oxygen is sent to the
site of the gaseous exchange surfaces is called ventilation

GASEOUS EXCHANGE MECHANISM IN INSECTS

Insects and other arthropods breathe through tracheal system.

Insects have impermeable cuticle, but at intervals along the sides of
their bodies are tiny openings called spiracles through which air
enters and leaves their tracheae. The number of spiracles varies
from one insect to another.
The spiracles lead into air filled tubes called trachea which end in
very tiny hair-like structures in tissues called Tracheoles. Almost all
body cells are in contact with the tracheoles which contains certain
fluids. As the body wall of an insect contracts and expands, oxygen
in the air diffuse through the spiracle into the trachea and
tracheoles. Carbon dioxide and water produced, diffu8se out the
body through the spiracles.
The spiracles have valves and they are opened only when carbon
dioxide concentration in the tissues is above specific level.
The spiracles are closed for most of the times when an is inactive to
reduce water loss.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN FISH

Breathing or gaseous exchange in fishes occurs across the gill

surfaces. All gills possess a very high surface area to volume ratio.
The fish opens its mouth and water passes over the gill surface
inside the opercula which are then closed. As the water flows over
the gills, the dissolved oxygen in the water diffuses into the thin-
walled capillaries of the gills. At the same time, carbon (iv) oxide in
the blood diffuses out into the water. The alternate opening and
closing of the mouth and operculum allow a constant flow of water
over the gills. Oxygen is transported by the blood into every living
cell where it is used for aerobic respiration. Hence the gills are gas
exchange mechanism and not just for respiration.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION IN TADPOLE.

Tadpole: This is a larval toad or frog that hatch from eggs and can only
survive in water. Tadpoles have tiny external gill flaps that extract oxygen
from water as it passes over them. Tadpoles open their mouths as they swim
and take in water. As the mouth closes, muscles transfer the water to the
gills. These consist of thin membranes called lamellae, which take oxygen
from the water where it enters the blood stream through the process of
diffusion. Tadpoles can also rise to the surface and gulp oxygen from the air.
As tadpoles mature the gills are absorbed by the body as other respiratory
systems develop.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN TOAD

Adult amphibians (e.g toad and frog) breathe in three ways:

1 through their skin (cutaneous respiration)
2 through their mouth (buccal respiration)
3 through their lungs (pulmonary respiration).

CUTANEOUS BREATHING
For the skin to serve as breathing surface, it is kept moist always so
that gases could diffuse through it. The skin contains numerous
glands which secretes watery slime(mucus) onto the surface. The
skin is also thin-walled and well supplied with blood capillaries to
quicken the rate of diffusion of gases in and out of it.
ADAPTATIONS OF TOAD SKIN TO GASESOUS EXCHANGE
1 large surface area of the skin for easy diffusion of more gas
2 moist skin because of continuous secretion of watery slime from the mucus
gland for easy dissolution of gases,
3 there is adequate supply of blood capillaries for transportation of gases
4 and finally, the membrane serving as the skin is thin for easy diffusion of
gases
BUCCAL BREATHING
Adult Toad:
The adult toad respires in three difference ways namely: the skin, mouth,
and lungs

BUCCAL (MOUTH) GASEOUS EXCHANGE

The toad is able to utilize its mouth as a respiratory organ because of the
following:
- It is very large i.e. has a large surface area.
- It has a thin mucus membrane for easy diffusion
- It is well supplied with blood capillaries
To initiate breathing, the toad closes its mouth, the nostrils are opened and
the floor of the buccal cavity is lowered, air is drawn through the nostrils into
the buccal cavity. After this, the capillaries and the glottis close and gaseous
exchange takes place between the blood and the inhaled air. To get rid of
air, the floor of the buccal cavity is raised increasing the air pressure, and
thereby forcing the nostrils to open and air in the buccal cavity containing
carbon dioxide diffuses out.

EVALUATION
1. State the structure involved in respiration in fishes.
2. Differentiate between the mechanism of respiration in fish and that of
toad.

BREATHING THROUGH THE LUNGS (PULMONARY RESPIRATION)

The toad/frog uses its lungs for breathing on land only when it is
very active and the demand for oxygen is high. Air is drawn into the
buccal cavity and the nostrils are closed. The floor of the buccal
cavity is raised and air is forced in through the larynx into the
alveoli of the two lungs in which gas exchange occurs between the
inhaled air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries surrounding
the alveoli.
To expel air from the lungs (expiration), the floor of the buccal
cavity is lowered to create low pressure within. This causes the
buccal cavity to fill out; the glottis is then closed as the floor of the
buccal cavity is raised. This causes the valves of the nostrils to open
allowing air to be forced out of the lungs to the outside.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS.

In mammals breathing occurs mainly through the lungs. The

mammalian breathing system comprise of the air passages (nostrils,
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx and bronchi), lungs, rib cage, and
diaphragm.
The nasal cavity leads to
Air enters the nasal passage through the nostrils into the nasal
cavity where it is moistened and kept warm. The nasal cavity has
lining cells which secretes mucus that trap most of the dust
particles and micro-organisms present in the air before it diffuses
into the lungs.
The nasal cavity leads into trachea (wind pipe) which divides into
two bronchi (bronchus-singular), before it enters the lungs.
The trachea wall is made of cartilages which support the wall of
the trachea and bronchi to prevent them from collapsing when the
air pressure in them is low.
Within each lung, the bronchus divides repeatedly to form
numerous, tiny, fine tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles also
divide several times, ending in several millions of very tiny, damp
thin-walled air sacs called alveoli (alveolus-singular). Numerous
blood capillaries enclose every group of alveoli in which gas
exchange occurs. The alveoli give the lungs a very large surface
aera for gaseous exchange.
The lungs are located in thoracic cavity, which comprises of the
breast bone or sternum in front, and the back bone or vertebral
column at the back. At the sides are 12 pairs of ribs and the
intercostal muscles which are attached to the spine and the
sternum thereby forming rib cage.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle at the floor of the thorax.
BREATHING MECHANISM IN MAMMAL

In mammals, the mechanism by which air in contact with the

breathing organ or surface is renewed is also called ventilation.
Mammals breathe in two stages, namely:
Inhalation exhalation

INHALATION/INSPIRATION

For mammals to breathe in,

1 the intercostal muscles contract
2 the rib cage moves upwards and out wards
3 the diaphragm contracts and flattens out
4 the thoracic cavity volume increases and its air pressure
decreases
5 air is then forced from the outside into lungs through the air
passages.

EXHALATION/EXPIRATION

For mammals to breathe out,

1 the intercostal muscles relax
2 the rib cage is lowered
3 the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original dome-shaped
position
4 the thoracic cavity volume decreases
5 the lungs shrink
6 the lungs air pressure increases and a lot of air is expelled from
the lungs through the air passages.

GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Aquatic plants that are completely submerged (e.g., Algae) or those

floating on water surfaces (eg., water lettuce) exchange gases by
diffusion all over their body surface or through the stomata in their
leaves.
Terrestrial plants exchange gases mainly through their stomata in
their leaves, lenticels in their stems, and through roots (i.e. from air
spaces in the soil particles) around the roots.
Stomata are tiny pores found abundantly on the under surface of
the epidermis of most leaves. They also occur in the stems of young
herbaceous plants. A stoma(singular) is a tiny pore opening
enclosed by two bean-shaped guard cells. Un like the epidermal
cells, the guard cells have chloroplasts.
Each guard cell has a thick, relatively inelastic wall around the
pore, and a thin elastic outer wall.
The mechanism for opening and closing of the stomata is
associated with light intensity and osmotic pressure within the
guard cell. When the osmotic pressure in the guard cells is high,
they become turgid as a result of which the pore or the stomata
opens. When the pressure is low, the guard cells become flaccid and
the stomata is closed. The movement of gases and water vapour in
and out of the leaves is controlled by the opening and closing of the
stomata.

Weekend Assignment
SECTION A
1. The following gases except one is not exchanged during respiration.
A. Oxygen B. Hydrogen C. carbon dioxide D. None of the above.
2. Inhalation and exhalation constitute the
 A. internal respiration B. cellular respiration C. external respiration D.
pulmonary respiration.
3. For easier and faster diffusion of gases during respiration, the
respiratory surface must by …… walled.
A. thin B. fat D. fluid D. rigid
4. Lung is an organ for respiration in the following organisms except
A. man B. toad C scorpion D. cattle
5. The cartilaginous flap which prevents food from entering the wind
A. glottis B. epiglottis C. larynx D. oesophagus

SECTION B
1. Discuss the mechanism of respiration in Tilapia fish.
2. State the organ of respiration in (a) iroko tree (b) scorpion (c) snake (d)
housefly (e) bat
3 Explain fermentation.
4 Differentiate between internal and external respiration
Inhaled and exhaled air are made up of the following

Air Component Inhaled Air Exhaled Air

Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour variable saturated (higher)

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A
1. During anaerobic respiration, how many ATP are produced?
A. 2 ATP B. 3 ATP C. 4 ATP D. 5 ATP
2. The cartilaginous flap which prevents food from entering the wind
pipe is
A. glottis B. epiglottis C. larynx D. oesophagus
3. The gaseous exchange in mammals takes place in the
A. trachea B. bronchus C. alveolus D. lungs
4. When the guard cell is turgid, the stomata A. opens B. closes C.
shrinks D. breaks
5. In strenuous activities in the absence of oxygen, glucose is broken
down into
A. pyruvic acid B. carbon dioxide C. lactic acid D. alcohol
EXCRETION AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM
CONTENT
 Excretion
 Types of Excretory structures and Taste
 Excretory Structures in some Organisms

EXCRETION
Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products are removed
from the body of all living things. Excretion is different from egestion which is
the removal of solid waste (undigested food substances [Link]) through
the anus. Excretion is necessary for the following reasons:
 To avoid or prevent any harm that would be caused by any excretory
product.
 Some excretory products are poisonous to the body and should be
removed.
 To maintain water balance in the body (homeostasis).
 To avoid interference of waste products with normal metabolic
activities in the body.

EXCRETORY STRUCTURES AND WASTE IN ORGANISMS

Organism Excretory Excretory Waste Product
 Structure
Protozoa Contractile C02, ammonia and water
vacuole
Flatworm Flame cells C02, ammonia and water
Earthworm Nephridia C02, ammonia and water
Crustacean Green glands C02, ammonia and water
Insect Malpighian C02, ammonia and uric acid
tubules
Fish Kidney C02, ammonia and water
Amphibian(to Kidney H20 and salt
ad)
Reptiles Kidney H20 and salt
Birds Kidney and lungs C02 and water vapour
Mammals Kidney, lungs, C02, water, urea
skin and liver
Flowering Stomata, H20, C02, 02. tannins, gum,
plants lenticels and alkaloids, oil and latex
leaves

EVALUATION
1. List five excretory structures adapted to aquatic habitat
2. Mention four excretory waste in plants

TYPES OF EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

CONTRACTILE VACUOLE IN PROTOZOA
Contractile vacuole is a simple structure found in the cell of fresh water
protozoa. Water constantly enters the cell of a protozoan through the
selectively permeable membrane because the cell is hypertonic to its
environment. As water enters the cell, a contractile vacuole is formed which
collects the water and expands, when it reaches the maximum size, it
contracts and discharges the water through a temporary break in the cell
membrane at interval. Excretion of carbon dioxide and ammonia is by
diffusion through the cell membrane

FLAME CELL IN FLATWORMS

The excretory system consists of two longitudinal canals with branched
tubules which end in flame cells. The flame cell has a large hollow called the
cell lumen with bunch of flagella hung on it. Waste product from the
surrounding cells enters the flame cells. The flagella help to propel the fluid
into the tubules. The fluid passes into the exterior through a narrow tube
called duct.

NEPHRIDIUM IN EARTHWORM
A pair of nephridia is found on each segment of the earthworm except the
three and the last. Each nephridium consists of a ciliated funnel,
nephrostome which leads into a long-coiled tube (narrow and middle ciliated
tubes, wide non-ciliated tubes and muscular tube). The tube opens to the
exterior as nephriodiophore (excretory pore). Waste product mainly urea is
absorbed from blood capillaries surrounding the nephridia. The fluid
containing the waste through the long tube of the nephridia, salt and other
useful substances are reabsorbed through the wall of the tube. The
unabsorbed substances and water gather in the muscular tube and
discharge to the exterior through the excretory pore.
EVALUATION
1. How are excretory products removed in amoeba and earthworm?
2. Describe the excretory structure in flatworm.

MALPIGHIAN TUBULE IN INSECT

Malpighian tubules are found between the midgut (small intestine) and the
hindgut (large intestine). One end opens into the gut while the other end
closed freely floats in the haemocoel. Nitrogenous waste and water in the
haemocoel are absorbed at the distal close end into the tubule. The waste is
converted into uric acid as it passes along the malpighian tubule towards the
gut. A lot of water is also reabsorbed so that by the time the uric acid
reaches the proximal end, it is changed to solid crystals. More water is
reabsorbed in the rectum therefore concentrated urine leaves the body as
almost dried solid.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Define excretion.
2. Explain the necessity for an excretory system in animals.
3. Describe the mechanism of excretion in insects.
4. List five excretory product in plants.
5. Differentiate between excretion and egestion.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A
1. The organelle which eliminates water from the body of protozoa is A.
plasma membrane B. contractile vacuole C. cell wall D. nucleus
2. In insects, the structure that performs the same function as the kidney in
man is the A. nephridium B. flame cell C. malpighian tubule D. trachea
3. The excretory structure in earthworm is the A. malpighian tubule B.
nephridium C. kidney D. flame cell
4. Flame cells are the A. excretory systems of worms B. excretory and
respiratory systems of flatworms C. excretory systems of flatworms D.
secretory systems of flatworms
5. Which of these is a waste product of an insect? A. alkaloids B. uric acid C.
sweat D. mucilage

SECTION B
1. State the similarities and differences between excretory organs of a
mammal and earthworm
2. State three factors that leads to the opening and closing of stomata

EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS AND PLANTS

CONTENT
 Excretory system in mammals
 Structure and functions of the kidney
 Structure of the urinary tubule
 Process of urine formation
 Excretion in plants

EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

Mammalian lungs excrete water vapour, and C02, the liver excretes bile
pigment called bilirubin, the skin excretes water, salt and urea through the
sweat, and the kidney excretes water, mineral salt and urea. The excretory
system of mammals consists of a pair of kidney, ureter, bladder, renal artery
and renal vein.

STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY

The mammalian kidney is a bean-shaped, reddish-brown organ located in the
posterior end of the abdomen. The right kidney is slightly lower in the body
than the left. Cutting a kidney longitudinally, two distinct regions are
observed; an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Several narrow tubules
called urinary tubules (nephrons) pass through the two regions stated above.
The tubules open at the tips of triangular- shaped masses of tissues called
pyramids. The pyramids open into a funnel-shaped cavity called the pelvis.
The kidney has many tiny capillaries which are branches of the renal artery
and the renal vein. The pelvis continues as ureter, a long narrow tube
connecting the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Diagram of the Kidney

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY

The three major functions carried out by the kidney are as follows

Osmoregulation: This is the process by which an animal regulates the

balance between water and salt in their body fluid. When the concentration
of the blood is higher than that of the cell content through the kidney extract
or remove these substances from the blood so as to maintain normal osmotic
balance in the body and vice-versa.

Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance: The kidney excretes excess acids or

bases when either of them is more concentrated in the body. If the body's
concentration of base is higher than that of acid, more salt will be excreted
with the urine as a result, acid-base balance is maintained in the
[Link]: The kidney removes metabolic waste product from the
body in form of urine. Urine formation is made possible by the numerous
urinary tubules which are the functional units of the kidney.
EVALUATION
1. Describe briefly the mammalian excretory system.
2. What are the functions of the kidney?
STRUCTURE OF THE URINARY TUBULE (NEPHRON)
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped Bowman's capsule which opens; into
short coiled proximal convoluted tubules. The tubule continues as a U-
shaped loop, the Henle's loop in the medulla, the loop re-enters the cortex as
the distal convoluted tubule and widens as it enters the pelvis. The nephron
is associated with several networks of capillaries. The renal artery branched
in the Bowman's capsule formed a knot of capillaries called the glomerulus
which re-joins to form a blood vessel leading out of the capsule and branches
into a capillary network around the urinary tubule before joining the renal
vein.

FORMATION OF URINE
ULTRA-FILTRATION: Blood is brought to the kidney by the renal artery,
which enters the glomeruli (capillaries) in the Bowman's capsule. Water,
mineral salt, sugar and other solute are filtered from blood into the capsule.

SELECTIVE RE-ABSORPTION: The glomerular filtrate flows down the

tubules at the proximal convoluted tubular loop and the loop of Henle's
where some watery sugar, amino acid and salt useful to the body are
reabsorbed into the blood capillary by active transport. This process of
reabsorption of useful materials back into the blood is called selective
reabsorption.

HORMONAL SECRETION: As the fluid flows through distal convoluted

tubules, more water is reabsorbed by the action of anti-diuretic hormones
(ADH) and urine is finally formed. The urinary tubules empty their content
into the pelvis and from the pelvis urine trickles through the ureter into the
urinary bladder, which when full contracts and discharge urine out of the
body through the urethra.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the urinary tubule
2. Describe the process of urine formation

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants have no special excretory organs and excretory wastes are minimal.
Elimination of waste takes place through the stomata and lenticels. Main
waste products of plants are swater which is eliminated through transpiration
and guttation and carbon dioxide from respiration at night when
photosynthesis is not taking place. Other waste products in plants are
alkaloids (quinine, nicotine, cocaine, morphine) products are converted into
harmless substances, stored in some parts of the plants as useful
commercial products.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Mention five excretory structures in mammal.
2. Describe the structure of excretion.
3. Describe the function of the kidney.
4. Describe the structure of the urinary tubule.
5. List four kidney diseases, stating their effects and remedy.
6. How is urine formed in mammals?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A
1. Excess water in plants is excreted as water vapour and droplets
respectively through A. transpiration and guttation B. respiration and
guttation C. photosynthesis and guttation D. guttation and condensation
2. Which of the following is not an excretory organ? A. kidney B. skin C. leaf
D. large intestine
3. Which of the following waste products in plants is excreted through the
stomata and lenticels? A. carbon dioxide B. alkaloids C. tannins D.
anthocyanins
4. Which of the following is responsible for the removal of excess water in
human? A. small intestine B. kidney C. spleen D. bladder
5. The urinary tubule of the kidney function through A. ultra filtration and
selective reabsorption B. osmosis and diffusion C. active transport and
osmosis D. active transport and cytoplasmic strand

SECTION B
1. Differentiate between excretion in plants and animals.
2. Mention five structural parts of the excretory system in mammals and
their functions.