Architecture Meets Computation: an Overview of the Evolution of

Computational Design Approaches in Architecture

Architecture has always embraced innovative ideas, materials, and techniques.

Contemporary architecture is no exception. The emerging computation-based
design approaches, known as Computational Design (CD), differ significantly
from the previous ones since, instead of grounding the design representation in its
geometric aspects, they base it on its computational logic. CD is causing
considerable changes in both design theory and practice, but most architects are
not yet aware of its impact. To promote a more critical view, while further
improving its future application, this paper analyses the course of CD from its
origin until today by (1) explaining its evolution since the early 60s, (2)
discussing the advancements in CD tools during that period, (3) presenting
architectural projects and events that explored CD, and (4) providing a
chronology of the literature on CD. It concludes that, as it happened in the past,
technological developments continue to shape architectural theory and practice
and, at the same time, are guided by their needs and aspirations.

Keywords: computation-based design; design evolution; design theory; design

research; computational design thinking.

1. Introduction

Throughout time, architecture, as a creative practice, has strived to embrace innovative

techniques, materials, and concepts. Contemporary architecture is no exception and,

thus, it has been exploring the latest technological advances, particularly, the new

computational means of conception and production, which offer new possibilities for

design and manufacturing, translating virtual design representations into their physical

realizations. These emerging computational-based design approaches have been

addressed by several authors and applied in several design studios to extend the

aesthetical and constructive possibilities of the projects developed. This paper provides
an extensive literature review on Computational Design (CD) approaches, organized

chronologically along different dimensions.

2. Methodology and structure

The goal of this review is to promote a more conscientious and critical view on the

evolution of CD technologies within the architectural theory and practice. To this end,

we followed a methodology based on four main phases:

1. The first one focused on studying the state-of-the-art on the use of CD in

architecture, from the 60s until today. From this literature review, we

selected works that had a major contribution to the integration of CD

approaches in the field. Simultaneously, we analysed the main

international conferences and journals responsible for publishing much

of the literature studied.

2. The second stage addressed the contextualization of the technological

evolution of the same period. We identified the emergent tools that better

suited the architectural design process, along with the technical

innovations carried out by them.

3. The third stage concentrated on making a parallelism between the

theoretical evolution, the technologies available throughout time, and the

implementation of CD techniques in real case scenarios.

4. The last stage focused on tracing two timelines on CD evolution: one

structuring the events and technological innovations that we consider

important and the other organizing relevant theoretical works on CD.

Concurrently, we conducted a critical reflexion on the evolution of CD

and its influence in architecture, evaluating not only its role in

 architectural practice and theory, but also its advantages and

disadvantages.

The paper is organized in two main parts: one presenting the literature review on CD

and the other discussing it and presenting relevant considerations. The first part

structures the state-of-the-art in three main categories:

one introducing the technological background that contributed to the emergence

of CD methods and to their integration in architecture;

another focusing on the research background, discussing scientific events that

were important for debating (1) theoretical issues and social concerns, (2)

emergent tools and techniques, (3) the latest research, and (4) the existing

environmental problems;

a last one addressing the theoretical background, dividing it into three

generations of thought: (1) the embryonic-generation, from the early 60s to the

early 90s; (2) the first-generation, or - the early

90s to the early 00s; and (3) the second-generation, from the early 00s until

today.

The second part presents two timelines, one containing important events and

technological innovations and the other organizing relevant theoretical works on CD.

We conclude the paper with a critical discussion on both the state-of-the-art and the

timelines presented.

3. Literature review on CD

3.1 Technological background

CD is a design process that takes advantage of the

capabilities. In this section, we contextualize it by presenting (1) the evolution of CD

tools, and (2) the CD design techniques mostly used by architects.

3.1.1 Evolution of design tools

In the 21st century, the use of digital technologies is already part of the architectural

design practice. For Rocker (2006), CD processes have become a means of design

exploration, extending the capacity of traditional processes, while challenging and,

therefore, changing the design conventions and praxis. In this scenario, the development

of CD tools for architectural design, namely Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Building

Information Modelling (BIM), analysis, and simulation tools, played an important role.

Regarding CAD tools, in 1982 Autodesk released AutoCAD, a 2D digital

drafting tool suitable for architecture, project management, and engineering. In 1985, it

was extended to integrate a 3D kernel. In 1985, BentleySystems launched Microstation,

an application similar to AutoCAD, with a limited interface supporting only basic 2D

drawings. A decade later, 3D modelling was incorporated.

Another step forward occurred in 1987, with Pro/ENGINEER, a tool developed

by Samuel Geisberg for mechanical engineering that allowed users to associate 3D

parametric components, which not only reduced the cost of design changes, but also

overcame the rigid constraints of 3D modelling at the time (Tedeschi 2014).

In 1998, Robert McNeel & Associates launched Rhinoceros 3D, a commercial

3D CAD tool based on the NURBS (non-uniform rational basis spline) mathematical

model (Rogers and Adams 1990) that focused on producing a mathematically precise

representation of curves and freeform surfaces.

In 2000, @Last Software developed the 3D modelling software SketchUP, an

easy-to-use tool that gave architects more design freedom. In 2006, Google acquired the
company, extending the tool under the name of Google Sketchup. In 2012, Trimble

Navigation (currently Trimble Inc.) purchased the tool to continue its development.

Programming environments to automate and extend the modelling tools were

also proposed early on. Autodesk released AutoLISP in 1986, promoting the use of

algorithmic-based approaches. In 2007, Bentley announced GenerativeComponents,

allowing the user to manipulate geometry by applying rules/relationships between

elements or by using algorithms. In 2008, the visual programming tool Grasshopper

was added to Rhinoceros 3D, which became very popular among architects due to its

ease of use and ability to create complex parametric models.

Regarding BIM tools, Graphisoft started developing BIM in 1982 and made it

available to architects when it launched ArchiCAD in 1987: it produced 3D models

whose elements were parametrically/associatively connected, while including the

corresponding construction information. Following earlier experiments regarding the

use of the aeronautics design software CATIA in architecture (Brown 1986), in the mid-

90s, Gehry Technologies adapted it, originating Digital Project. In 2000, Revit

Technology Corporation released Revit, which supported the design and documentation

of buildings by creating parametric models containing both geometry and construction

information. In 2002, Autodesk purchased the company and enriched the tool, creating

Revit Structure (2005), Revit MEP (2006), and the visual programming tool Dynamo

(2011). Further BIM tools include BentleySystems AECOsim and s

Tekla Structures.

Alongside CAD and BIM tools, it has also been noticeable the use of (1)

simulation tools, to model the behaviour of buildings, (2) analysis tools, to evaluate

their performance, and (3) optimization tools, to search for the best values of the design

parameters. EnergyPlus (for energy consumption simulation), Ecotec (for daylight

analysis), Robot (for structural analysis), Radiance (for lighting simulation), and

Galapagos (for optimization) constitute some examples.

3.1.2 Design Techniques Generations

For Aish and Bredella (2017), the CD evolution is a progression from 2D drawing to 3D

BIM and, then, to design computation. Ironically, after several years developing tools

suitable for non-coders, the design field increasingly felt the need to integrate

programming environments into such tools, because the latter did not satisfy all the

design practice needs.

The evolution of computational tools went through different generations,

reflecting their capabilities and the way these were used by architects. For Dorst and

Dijkhuis (1995), the first generation (60s-80s) was influenced by technical systems

theories, therefore reducing the design process to a system. The resulting CAD software

had many shortcomings, including a deterministic and linear design approach, a limited

scope to solve functional problems, and the lack of a Graphical User Interface (GUI)

(Reffat 2006). These limitations, along with a steep learning curve and large cost,

demotivated architects from using such tools.

Later, with the spread of personal computers and the improvements in GUIs,

CAD software became accessible to a larger architectural community. The resulting

association between computation-based and design processes rapidly matured as a

design medium and, for the first time, most computer users were non-coders

(McCullough 2006). For Asanowicz (1999), this originated the second CD generation

that, according to Reffat (2006), was marked by the improvement of the designers

communication with the computer, since software packages already enabled them to

draw on computer screens without any programming knowledge. Some authors named

this generation as 2D Drafting Era (Aish and Bredella 2017), Electronic Drawing
Board Era and first generation in the architectural offices (Achten 2009), since it used

advanced technology to emulate the traditional 2D design process. In fact, it replaced

traditional drawing tools with more efficient and precise ones but without taking

advantage of the available computational power (Terzidis 2006); a scenario where the

use of CAD tools was mostly associated with the idea of Computer Aided Drafting

(Asanowicz 1999; Burry 2011). Nevertheless, Reffat (2006) recognized that the use of

computational approaches was positive for architectural design in facilitating the

exploration and documentation of more complex forms.

In the 21st century, the advancements in 3D modelling tools enriched the design

exploration, visualization, and documentation processes. This evolution first culminated

in the BIM era, in which, according to Aish and Bredella (2017), architects already

created and extracted drawings from 3D models but still resorting to limited

construction processes. Then, it reached the Algorithmic Design (AD) and generative

levels, enabling architects to overcome the limitations of their design tools and to

directly connect their design representations with the construction phases.

For Achten (2009), the architectural design process

round of imitating and supporting traditional pr , as the use of computers has

prompted several changes in the architectural design workflow. This originated another

generation in which the computer acts as a device fully integrated in the design process

(Asanowicz 1999). For Leach (2009), the nature of the architect has evolved from the

results from the combination of the

capabilities of computer tools.

3.2 Research background

The scientific events of the last decades promoted important debates on (1) theoretical
and practical issues, e.g., the architectural practice state, the impact of emerging tools

and techniques, and the applicability of scientific research, and (2) social concerns, e.g.,

current environmental problems and emerging living needs. These discussions

contributed to guide the application of CD.

3.2.1 Academic and scientific events

We can evaluate the theoretical relevance of CD by the number of scientific events over

time. Therefore, we present a timeline (Figure 1) of the international scientific events on

CD that, somehow, influenced the architectural design theory.

The Conference on Design Methods in 1962 is considered the embryonic

conference, having as main goals (1) designing better by understanding the design

process, (2) externalizing the design process to allow collaborative work from early to

later and more complex stages, and (3) using the computer to automate repetitive design

tasks. According to Celani and Veloso (2015), th Design Methods movement is

closely related to CAD origins.

In 1972, the 1st International Congress on Performance brought a new design

perspective resulting from the computer scientists in both systematic design

methods and design science, concepts based on which they evaluated buildings

performance as a means to scientifically justify design decisions.

During the 80s, the number of international conferences greatly increased: in

1981, Mitchell, Eastman, and Yessios founded the north-American Association for

Computer-Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA) conference to discuss the role of

computation in Architecture, while encouraging innovation in the architectural design

practice (Celani and Veloso 2015). In 1983, the conference Education and Research in

Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe (eCAADe) was first held, introducing

education as a new research focus. Established in 1985, the CAADFutures conference

embraced all continents aiming at fomenting CAD advancements envisioning the

quality of the built environment; the conference Artificial Intelligence in Design

(renamed as Design Computing and Cognition in 2004) focused on using Artificial

Intelligence techniques in design; and the bi-annual International IBPSA Building

Simulation conference aimed at improving the design, construction, operation, and

maintenance of both new and existing buildings. In 1989, the International Conference

on Computational and Cognitive Models of Creative Design explored the advancement

During the 90s, the Association for Computer-Aided Architectural Design

Research in Asia (CAADRIA) conference was founded (1996) to promote teaching and

research in CAD in Asia. Settled in 1997, the Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica

Digital (SIGraDi) aimed at debating the application and potentialities of the new digital

technologies.

Already in 2001, the Arab Society for Computer Aided Architectural Design

(ASCAAD) conference was founded, as were, two years later, the Smart Geometry

Conference, focusing on capturing CD to architecture (Peters and Peters 2014), and the

Performative Architecture Symposium, investigating the gap between geometry and

analysis and the influence of performance in architectural design. In 2008, the Advances

in Architectural Geometry Conference was organized to address the new geometrical

developments in architecture and engineering, and, in 2009, the Digital Architecture

London Conference was held to discuss the role of technology in society. Settled in

2010, the Symposium on Simulation for Architecture and Urban Design (SimAUD)

aimed at building a collaborative simulation framework to support sustainability, and, in

2013 the BIM Conference focused on evidencing the benefits of BIM in design and

construction.
 Likewise, scientific journals were critical for the dissemination of CD

approaches. Some journals, such as Design Studies (1979) and Architectural Design

(AD), started exploring the role of CD in architecture and manufacturing in the mid-80s

(Carpo 2012). Other journals were created specifically to address CD, e.g., Automation

in Construction (1992), Journal of Architectural Engineering (1995), Nexus Network

Journal (1999), Construction Innovation Journal (2001), International Journal of

Architectural Computing (2003), Journal of Building Performance Simulation (2008),

Building Simulation: An International Journal (2008), and Frontiers of Architectural

Research Journal (2012). Finally, journals with a high impact factor on building science

and technology fields often incorporate articles exploring CD techniques, especially

those on building simulation, e.g., Solar Energy (1957), LEUKOS: The Journal of the

Illuminating Engineering Society (1972), Building and Environment (1976), and Energy

and Buildings (1977).

Figure 1 temporally organizes both the conferences and journals previously

presented. Its analysis reveals a tendency to establish new conferences/journals with the

emergence of new terms or design approaches.

3.2.2 Architectural production

The role of architectural practice is critical in design paradigm changes. This section

presents a set of architectural projects that took advantage of CD methods at a

representational, modelling, or construction level, constituting therefore important

milestones due to their aesthetical rupture or level of innovation. The selected projects

were, therefore, pioneers in integrating (1) new design methods and tools, (2) original

aesthetical discourses, and (3) never before used design/construction strategies.

The Sydney Opera House, by Jørn Utzon, challenged the means of architectural

production of its time, justifying the long period between its design (1959) and its actual
construction (1973). It was a pioneer project in resorting to computers to execute

structural analysis to understand the loads over the roof shells and the assembly of the

arches.

Institute du Monde Arabe (1987) is considered the first building

with a kinetic façade composed of several mechanical light-sensitive units that control

the amount of light entering the building. Although kinetic design approaches were little

explored during the following decade, this project paved the way for several other

buildings to take advantage of kinetics potentialities.

The International Terminal at Waterloo Station by Nicholas Grimshaw and

Partners (1993) was one of the first projects to technically apply parametric design: the

roof structure was composed of 36 dimensionally different but identically configured

arches placed along the tracks. Instead of modelling each arch separately, the architects

created a parametric model based on the underlying design rules (Kolarevic

2003), proving the applicability of a parametric approach in a real context, evidencing

its advantages for architectural practice.

In 1995, Future Systems Project ZED was one of the first buildings resulting

from a Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) analysis: it incorporated photovoltaic cells

and a wind turbine to become self-sufficient regarding its energy needs. Resorting to

CFD analysis, the architects could determine the optimal performance of the building

envelope by channelling the wind towards the turbine (Kolarevic 2003). This project

demonstrated that, using CD methods, it was possible to combine the creative process

with the search for a better performing solution.

One of the greatest catalysts in theorizing new design directions and in

postulating novel design, materialization, and manufacturing methods, was Frank

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997). The architects used aerospace modelling

software to model and guide the fabrication of the double curved surface panels.

Actually, had been exploring digital technologies in architecture since

the late 80s: with the Walt Disney Concert Hall project (1989) and the Fish project for

Barcelona (1991).

Lastly, the design of the Southern Cross Railway Station roof (Grimshaw and

Partners, 2002) used performance to guide the definition of its final shape. The roof had

to, simultaneously, act as an umbrella/sunshade, be visually interesting, and extract stale

air from the diesel trains. Its final design resulted from wind analysis, promoting the

natural extraction of stale air, while shaping the roof in an organic way.

More recently, we find numerous other examples that heavily use CD, such as

Museo Soumaya (2011) by FR-EE, Huangzhou Tennis Center (2015) by NBBJ and

CCDI, Raffles City Hangzhou (2017) by UNStudio, Louvre Abu Dhabi (2017) by Jean

Nouvel, and Morpheus Hotel (2018) by Zaha Hadid Architects, among others.

These examples demonstrated the advantages of using CD methods in

architectural design. Moreover, due to their different aesthetic expressiveness, they

became urban landmarks, representing important turning points in architecture that not

only inspired future projects, but also encouraged the architectural practice shift. On the

other hand, the intake of CD processes meant several changes in design studios,

specially the adoption of collaborative design processes involving differently skilled

professionals, which, for Hensel and Nilsson (2016), constitute a recent research focus

within several design studios, like Perkins+Will, White Architects, Woods Bagot,

UNStudio, and SHoP.

3.3 Theoretical background

CD methods changed the architectural design practice. Lately, such techniques became

important subjects of architectural design theory.

 To evaluate its theoretical evolution, we present a timeline (Figure 2) with CD

literature organized into three generations of thought (the last two proposed by Oxman

and Oxman [2014]): the embryonic-generation, embracing works until the early 90s; the

first-generation, -folding Period , i.e., the decade after Folding

in Architecture (Lynn 1993); and the second-generation, starting at the 00s.

In the next sections, we contextualize the reader with the historical background

of each generation, while presenting the scientific corpus that best characterizes each

one.

3.3.1 Embryonic-generation (the 60s early 90s)

Since the early integration of computation-based methods in architecture, the design

theory has undergone several transformations. For Koutamanis (2005), the first steps

happened in the 60s, a period in which the literature had as inspiration the modernist

thinking, the occurring technological explorations, and other scientific fields theories,

namely, artificial intelligence and mathematics. The resulting theory viewed

architectural design as a rational activity, or as thinking before acting (Papamichael and

Protzen 1993), that handled the design problems in an argumentative way. This

theoretical shift was encouraged by works like Theory and Design in the first Machine

Age (Banham 1960), es (1964),

Towards a Humanism Through Machines (Negroponte 1969)

ideas on design variation methods, design constraints, and parametric instances

(Ahlquist and Menges 2011).

The following decades witnessed an increase in the number of scientific

publications and in the popularity of certain generative systems, such as Space

Allocation techniques (Dietz 1974) and Shape Grammars (Stiny 1980). The 70s were

marked by works like Computer-Aided Architectural Design (Mitchell 1977) and A

Pattern Language (Alexander et al. 1977), the publication of the first Ph.D. theses on

CD (Yessios 1973; Akin 1979), and overviews on the CD ambitions of the time (March

and Steadman 1971; Eastman 1975; Mitchell 1977).

In the 80s, CD gained recognition in the architectural field due to the

convergence of the different approaches/techniques used, allowing it to evolve more

coherently and to cover both the architectural and construction domains. Outstanding

works of this decade include Introduction to Shape Grammars (Stiny 1980), How

Designers Think (Lawson 1980), and Computational Compositions (Novak 1988).

The early 90s brought an increase in the popularity of computers among students

and practitioners, which resulted from the design efficiency improvements of the new

tools available. Also, an explosion of conferences, journals, and theoretical works on

CD occurred during this decade, from which stand out The Electronic Design Studio

(McCullough, Mitchell, and Purcell 1990), Logic of Architecture (Mitchell 1990),

Digital Design Media (Mitchell and McCullough 1991), and Visions Unfolding

(Eisenman 1992).

3.3.2 First-generation (early 90s the 00s)

This generation is characterized by (1) a discursive interrelationship with philosophy

and mathematics, (2) an attempt to characterize the new architecture being produced,

and (3) a concern to correctly apply CD techniques in architecture while stimulating its

use.

Starting with Folding in Architecture (1993), a new paradigm based on

"smooth transformations" was proposed, aiming at replacing Post-modernism and

Deconstructivism in a visual and mathematical sense. In Evolutionary Architecture

(1995), Frazer extends the Anticipatory Architecture of Cedric Price (Fox and Kemp

2009), defending an architecture that acts as a living evolving system. With Animate
Form (1999), Lynn proposes the use of animation software as a medium for form

generation. Lastly, in Architecture in the Digital Age (2003) Kolarevic explores the

impact that CD had in both architecture and construction fields, presenting some of the

new terms resulting from it, like performance-based design and morphogenetic design.

3.3.3 Second-generation (the 00s today)

In this generation, the paradigm shift became more accentuated. Previously, formulating

new design theories required the understanding and reinterpretation of prior concepts,

however, the emerging design paradigms of this period had no precedent (Terzidis

2004). The rapid evolution of design tools triggered a revolution in architectural theory,

which considered the new perspective of design as research (Oxman and Oxman 2014),

enabling architects to view design as a medium for knowledge production, promoting a

theoretical shift following a more scientific, computation-based direction. In this

scenario, human intuition becomes the starting point of design exploration, augmented

by CD, which gives the means for exploring and experimenting in an alternative realm,

potentiating human creativity instead of replacing it (Terzidis 2004).

For R. Oxman (2017), the use of CD in architecture is increasingly embracing

more processes and techniques, e.g., scripting, optimization algorithms, and digital

fabrication, which, in turn, originate new related terms, such as Parametric Design

(Woodbury 2010), Generative Design (McCormack, Dorin, and Innocent 2004),

Performative Design (Kolarevic and Malkawi 2005), Performance-based Design

(Oxman 2008a), and Biomimetic Design (Oxman and Oxman 2014),, among others.

The result is an increase in the ramification of CD into multiple research perspectives

and specializations; a variety of thoughts quite evident in the literature of this period,

which we will describe in the following sections.

[Link] Intelligence in design. The idea that intelligence can inform and guide the design

process emerged in the early 00s. Speaks (2002a) presented the after theory idea in

which intelligence had replaced theory as a guiding architectural concept. Although in

theory changed the practice of architecture according to Speaks, it no longer

has any consequences for the practice of architecture (2002b). Works sharing a similar

perspective include Digital Architecture as a Challenge for Design Pedagogy

(2008b) Digital Architecture (2010) The Digital Turn in

Architecture 1992-2012 (2012).

[Link] Performance in design. The notion of performance became quite popular in the

early 00s. This notion emerged during the 40s-50s with the performative turn

movement, which aimed at theorising performance as a social and cultural element

(Hensel 2013), and reached its peak in the early 00s: resorting to simulation,

optimization, form-finding, and evolutionary methods, authors such as Whitehead,

Bollinger, Kolarevic (2005), Tschumi (1996), Kronenburg (2007), Oxman (2008a),

Leatherbarrow (2009), and Picon (2012) studied the engagement of analysis processes

with architectural design to understand how the environmental context can inform the

design process.

[Link] Morphogenesis/evolutionary designs. In the past decade, the design paradigm

natural morphogenesis emerged, focusing on applying the biological principles behind

the development of organisms (Ahlquist and Menges 2011) and biological structures.

The notion of morphology was introduced by Goethe (1790) in distinguishing form

from formation, while focusing on form-guiding processes inspired by natural

processes. Thompson (1961) continued studying this idea by focusing on the geometric

laws behind organic structures and transformations. Recently, similar methods were
explored and integrated in architecture as morphogenetic or even evolutionary design

paradigms: e.g., Migayrou (2003) explored design processes in which geometry and

production occurred simultaneously (naming it as mutations of form) and applied

principles of natural morphogenesis to integrate differentiation processes in

architecture; Hensel, Menges, and Weinstock (2004) analysed the differences between

emergent properties in life and computation and the gap between nature and machinic

production; Menges (2006) studied material systems performing through deformation or

that self-organize to resist external forces. Still, for Ahlquist and Menges (2011), the

full knowledge on biological formation was achieved only with the consolidation of

genetics, thereby originating a third paradigm, biomimetics, using the principles of

biological organisms to guide the design process (Oxman and Oxman 2014).

[Link] Algorithmic strategies. Architecture has also embraced methods from the

computer science field, especially algorithmic techniques. The design paradigm

algorithmic architecture was proposed by Terzidis (2006), who believed that the use of

algorithms in architectural design should be further explored due to the advantages it

entailed in automating tedious tasks and exploring generative processes, among others.

Similarly, Burry (2011) introduced the idea of programming as a culture and identified

three scripting cultures in architecture, one for productivity, another for research, and

yet another for creative exploration. Still within this perspective, we highlight the works

of Woodbury (2010), Jabi (2013), and Schumacher (2009; 2012).

[Link] Material tectonics. The field of tectonics also gained prominence in architecture,

with several authors studying the design-tectonics relationship, i.e., the relation between

the structure of materials and architectural forms, e.g., Architecture and the

Virtual/Towards a New Materiality? (Picon 2004), Materialising Complexity (Scheurer

2010), Design Robotics: A new Paradigm in Process-Based Design (Bechthold 2014),

Informed tectonics in material-based design (R. Oxman 2012), and Made by Robots

(Gramazio and Kohler 2014). Another example is the AD Magazine Versioning issue

(SHoP 2002), which anticipated the agenda of the BIM software being developed at the

time.

[Link] Material fabrication processes. The universe of material fabrication constitutes

another research topic studied by authors who focused on linking CD methods to the

growing sophistication of both materialization and fabrication technologies: e.g., Lisa

Iwamoto (2009), Willmann et al. (2012), and N. Oxman (2015; 2012; 2017). This

connection is also evident in the latest buildings resulting from advanced fabrication

processes, whose application differs from studio to studio, e.g., Design to Production,

Gehry Systems, and Zaha Hadid Architects,

[Link] Interactive design. The idea of a design capable of interacting with both the

users and the environment is the basis of responsive, interactive, or dynamic design

approaches. This notion was already addressed in the mid-20th century by Chareau and

Bijvoet with Maison de Verre (1932), by Fuller with his Dymaxion houses (1930 and

1945), and by Archigram with their utopian projects (1964); and later by Rogers and

Piano with the Centre Pompidou (1977), by Nouvel with the Institute du Monde Arabe

(1988), and by Toyo Ito with the Tower of Wind (1991). Current works on this design

perspective are authored by, for example, Beesley, Hirosue, and Ruxton (2006) and

Oosterhuis (2011), not only enhancing the behaviour of responsive materials by

resorting to parametric control mechanisms, but also exploring new related terms, e.g.,

, , etc.
[Link] Patterns of knowledge. Although mathematics has always been a part of

architecture, only recently did architects recognized the importance of studying

mathematics, geometry, and computer science. Pottmann (2010) evidenced the

importance of architectural geometry and CD in creating design knowledge, claiming

that architects are now more engaged with design research. Lately, the design field has

been witnessing the application of more mathematical methods, resulting from the

increasingly complex requirements of both architectural design and construction. An

example is the use of rationalization processes to adjust a geometrically complex design

towards a feasible and affordable solution, a research area addressed by Andrade,

Harada, and Shimada (2017), Eigensatz et al. (2010; 2010), Flöry and Pottmann (2010),

Fu and Cohen-or (2010), and Son et al. (2017), among others. Another example is the

development of architectural design patterns, i.e., the reuse of known strategies or

solutions in solving design problems (Qian, Chen, and Woodbury 2008), a subject

explored by authors such as Woodbury, Aish, and Kilian (2007), Qian (2009),

Woodbury (2010), Hudson (2010), Larson (2012), Chien, Su, and Huang (2015), Yu

and Gero (2015), and Su and Chien (2016), who aimed at facilitating the programming

task by promoting the reuse of knowledge in the search of new design solutions; a

scenario that not only avoided repeated reinvention, but also reduced the development

time of algorithmic solutions.

4. Final considerations and conclusion

The growth of architectural theory is closely linked to both social and technological

issues. These have been constantly evolving and, at the same time, influencing the

design field. The brought new social and environmental concerns, to which

architects have become quite sensitive, motivating the need for performance analysis

and optimization. At the same time, the design field has been increasingly embracing
methods and approaches from other fields, namely biology, mathematics, mechanics,

physics, and, more frequently, computer science, enriching both the design practice and

theory.

To promote a more critical view on the evolution of CD within architecture, we

summarized its evolution over the last decades, organizing it into three main

perspectives: the technological, the research, and the theoretical. We also presented two

timelines, one based on CD technological and scientific events, and the other on CD

publications. Finally, from the analysis of these timelines, we now draw considerations

on the CD evolution in the architectural field.

Firstly, we note the profound impact that technology can have on architecture.

The advances in the digital computer made Sketchpad possible and this, in turn, caused

a revolution in the architectural practice. Secondly, it is also the case that the design

limitations felt by the architectural community end up causing the development of new

technologies and design paradigms that address them. With time, these technologies

become commercially viable and are embraced by the architectural practice. This cycle

has been recurrent and, on each iteration, many related research directions are pursued,

as is visible in the scientific publications and international conferences associated with

the technologies of the time.

As a case in point, consider BIM, which was developed to overcome the

limitations of 2D technical drawings, incorporating additional dimensions for improving

the coordination between the different specialties. Similarly, programming was a

frequent request that motivated CAD vendors to develop dedicated programming

languages, such as AutoLisp and, later, Generative Components, for visual

programming. Still, it was the release of Grasshopper that made the interest in AD
techniques intensify among the architectural community, mostly because it provided an

attractive, more intuitive, and, most importantly, economically accessible solution.

As another example, the development of simulation and analysis tools made

performance analysis possible and triggered the interest of architects, particularly, due

to the growing concerns regarding the environmental impact of architecture. The

combination between AD and analysis then made optimization desirable and promoted

the emergence of tools that considerably simplified its exploration (e.g., the

combination Rhinoceros/Grasshopper/Galapagos). This led to a vast research on design

approaches (e.g., evolutionary, performative, morphogenetic, responsive, and

embryologic, among others) that seek for solutions with good performance regarding

different criteria, such as, energy, daylight, and thermal.

The interdependency between CD and technology will continue in the future

and, thus, we should expect new developments in architecture caused by the current

technological advances. Robotics deeply changed the automotive and aerospace

industries and, despite its application in architecture being still in the embryonic

research phases, when the technology becomes more accessible, it will become

widespread (Gramazio and Kohler 2014). Similarly, machine learning is starting to

have a large impact in many different areas and activities, from medicine to driving, and

we preview that it will also affect the architectural field (Tamke, Nicholas, and

Zwierzycki 2018; Belém, Santos, and Leitão 2019). At the very least, it will force

architects to adapt to new design techniques, as it happened with the introduction of

CAD (Ebel and Ulrich 1987).

Despite initial fears that CD methods would replace , we

verify that, instead, they address and support his creative needs. In fact, their use in

architecture has proven to empower architects with further design knowledge, a wider
range of design possibilities, more advanced design and construction methods, and a

higher conscience and control over the design conception.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
(FCT) with references UID/CEC/50021/2019 and PTDC/ART-DAQ/31061/2017, by the PhD
grant under contract of FCT with reference SFRH/BD/128628/2017, and by the PhD grant
under contract of University of Lisbon (UL), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST) and the research
unit Investigação e Inovação em Engenharia Civil para a Sustentabilidade (CERIS).

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Figure 1. Timeline on CD technological and scientific events.
Figure 2. Timeline on CD literature.