Applied Mathematics I 2017/2025

CHAPTER 1
LIMIT AND CONTINUITY
Informal Definition of a Limit
The precise definition of limit is somewhat technical, so it's easier to start with an informal
definition.
Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for all 𝑥 near 𝑐, (but not equal to 𝑐 itself) and let Lbe any real
number. Then, we call that L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches c if f(x) becomes close to
Land we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

 Note that, the limit definition has nothing to do with the value of f(x) when 𝑥 = 𝑐(which may
or may not exist). That is, the definition is that the value of f(x) approaches the number L as x
approaches the number c (on either side of c), but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐.
Notation: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 which is usually read f(x) approaches L as x approaches c.
𝑥→𝑐

Example. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5. determine the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches to 2.

Solution: The value of 𝑓(𝑥) as x approaches to 2 listed in the following table.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

From the above tables, we can conclude
f(x) 8.6 8.9601 8.9960 9.004 9.04 9.4
that
𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 2 + 5) = 9
𝑥→2

NOTE: The limit of the function does not depend on the value of the function at the point for
which the limit is computed.
𝑥 2 −1
Example: How does the function 𝑓(𝑥) = behave near x = 1?
𝑥−1

Solution: The given formula defines 𝑓 for all real numbers 𝑥 except at 𝑥 ≠ 1 (we cannot divide
by zero). For any x ≠ 1, we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and
Canceling common factors:
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 1
The graph of ƒ is thus the line with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is shown as a
“hole” in Figure 1.1. Even though ƒ(1) is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of

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ƒ(x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1 and we say that f(x) approaches
the limit 2 as x approaches 1 and we write,
𝑥2 − 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1

Figure 1.1
The graph of 𝑓 is identical with the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 except at 𝑥 = 1 where 𝑓 is not defined.
Formal Definition of Limits
Let 𝑓 be a function defined at each point of some open interval containing 𝒂, possibly
at 𝒂 itself,then a number L is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 (or is the limit of 𝑓 at 𝒂) if for
every number ε > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that
𝐼𝑓 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀.
If L is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝒂 then we write 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Let us look at the following graph and let us also assume that the limit does exist

Figure 1.2
What the definition is telling us is for any number ε > 0 that we pick we can go to our graph and
sketch two horizontal lines at L + ε and L − ε as shown on the graph above. Then somewhere out
here in the world is another number δ >0. Which we will need to determine that will allow us to
add in two vertical lines to our graph at 𝑎 + 𝛿 and 𝑎 − 𝛿.
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Now, if we take any x in the pink region, i. e, between 𝑎 + 𝛿 and 𝑎 − 𝛿, then this x will be close
to a than either of 𝑎 + 𝛿 and 𝑎 − 𝛿 or |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.
If we now identify the point on the graph that our choice of x gives, then this point on the graph
will lie in the intersection of the pink and yellow region. This means that this functional value of
𝑓(𝑥) will be close to L than either of L + ε and L − ε, or |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀.
So, if we take value of x in the pink region then the graph for those values of x will lie in the yellow
region.
Example: Use the definition of limit to prove the following limit
lim 4x − 7 = 5
x→3

Solution: We need to show that given 𝜀 > 0 then there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
if 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 | (4𝑥 − 7) − 5| < 𝜀
To choose an appropriate 𝛿 we start with | (4𝑥 − 7) − 5| < 𝜀 then we have
|4x-12| < 𝜀  4|𝑥 − 3| < 𝜀
𝜀
Now we can Choice 𝛿 = 4
𝜀
Assume 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 = 4 and we have
4𝜀
|(4𝑥 − 7) − 5| = |4𝑥 − 12| =4|𝑥 −3| < 4𝛿 = =𝜀
4

|(4𝑥 − 7) − 5| < 𝜀
Therefore, lim 4𝑥 − 7 = 5.
𝑥→3

Example: Prove that lim 𝑥 2 = 9

𝑥→3

Solution: Let 𝜀 > 0 be given, we have to find a number a 𝛿 > 0, such that If 0 < |𝑥 − 3| <
𝛿 then |𝑥 2 − 9| < 𝜀
To connect |𝑥 2 − 9| with |𝑥 − 3| we write |𝑥 2 − 9| = |(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)|. Then we want
If 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 then |𝑥 + 3| |𝑥 − 3| < 𝜀.
Notice that if we can find a positive constant C such that |𝑥 + 3| < 𝐶 then
|𝑥 + 3||𝑥 − 3| < 𝐶|𝑥 − 3|
𝜀
And we can make 𝐶|𝑥 − 3| < 𝜀 by taking |𝑥 − 3| < 𝐶 = 𝛿.

We can find such a number 𝐶 if we restrict x to lie in some interval centered at 3.In fact . since
we are interested only in values of x that are close to 3,it reasonable to assume that x is within a
distance I from 3, that is , |𝑥 − 3| < 1. then 2 < 𝑥 < 4, so

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5 < 𝑥 + 3 < 7. Thus we have |𝑥 + 3| < 7, and so 𝐶 = 7 is a suitable choice for the constant .
But now there are two restrictions on |𝑥 + 3|, namely
𝜀 𝜀
|𝑥 − 3| < 1 and |𝑥 − 3| < =
𝐶 7

To make sure that both of these inequalities are satisfied , we take 𝛿 to be the small of the two
𝜀 𝜀
numbers 1 and 7. The notation for this is 𝛿 = min {1, 7}. This shows that lim 𝑥 2 = 9.
𝑥→3

Exercises
1. Use 𝜀 − 𝛿 definition proves the following limits.
𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥 + 3 = 7 𝑒) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 2 = 16
𝑥→2 𝑥→4

b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑥 − 1 = 3 f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→10 𝑥→𝑘

c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑥 = √𝑎 If 𝑎 > 0 g) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 11 = 9

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→4
|𝑥−𝑎|
[𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑈𝑠𝑒 |√𝑥 − √𝑎| = .] h) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 − 4) = 0
√𝑥+√𝑎 𝑥→4
1 1
d). 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 2
𝑥→2 𝑥

2. Find the number 𝛿 such that

a) If |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿 , then |4𝑥 − 8| < 𝜀, where 𝜀 = 0.1
b) Repeat part (a) with 𝜀 = 0.01

Basic Limit Theorems

Theorem:
i. If the limit of a function 𝑓 at 𝑎 exists, then this limit is unique.
ii. If 𝐿 and 𝑀 are both limits of 𝑓 at 𝑎 then 𝐿 = 𝑀.
Theorem: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exists and c is any constant.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

i.e. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐾 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 Then

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐾 + 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐾 − 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. lim 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑐𝐾.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

4. lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐾𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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𝑓(𝑥)
5. If lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐾

𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
6. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐾 𝑛 , where n is a positive integer.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

7. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 and lim 𝑥 = 𝑎

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

8. lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , where n is a positive integer

𝑥→𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
9. lim √𝑥 = √𝑎 , where n is positive integer (if n is even, we assume that 𝑎 > 0)
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛
10. lim √𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥), where n is positive integer (if n is even. We assume that 𝑎 > 0)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
11. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑒𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)|
12. 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥→𝑎 for 𝑓(𝑥) > 0
𝑥→𝑎

Example. Suppose lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = −2, then find;
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)
a) lim (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) b) lim (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) c) lim (𝑔(𝑥)) d) lim 4(𝑔(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. Evaluate the following limits.

𝑥2 −4
1−√𝑥
a) lim 𝑒 𝑥−2 b) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 1−𝑥 ) c) lim (2 + cos 𝑥)sin 𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→1 𝑥→𝜋/2

𝑥2 −4 𝑥2 −4
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥+2
Solution. a) lim 𝑒 𝑥−2 = 𝑒 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 = 𝑒 𝑥→2 = 𝑒 4.
𝑥→2
1−√𝑥 1−√𝑥 1−√𝑥 1
b) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 1−𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (lim ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (lim (1− ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (lim 1+ 𝑥) =
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 1−𝑥 𝑥→1 √𝑥)(1+√𝑥) 𝑥→1 √

1 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2) = = 30°.
6
𝑙𝑖𝑚 sin 𝑥 𝑙𝑛|2+cos 𝑥| 𝑙𝑖𝑚 sin 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑛|2+cos 𝑥|
c) lim (2 + cos 𝑥)sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥→𝜋/2 = 𝑒 𝑥→𝜋/2 𝑥→𝜋/2 = 𝑒 ln 2 = 2.
𝑥→𝜋/2

Theorem (squeezing theorem)

Assuming that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the some open interval I about 𝑎 except
possible 𝑎 itself. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿, Then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) exists 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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Exercises
1. Given that, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = −3 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ(𝑥) = 8
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Find the limits that exist if the limit does not exist, explain why.
2𝑓(𝑥)
a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑓(𝑥))2 e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)
c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √ℎ(𝑥) f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit laws.
√𝑥 2 +1
a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 9) e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 + √16 − 𝑥 2
𝑥→−2 𝑥→3 𝑥+4
2𝑥 2 + 1
b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(1 + 𝑥 2 )(2𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 𝑥→2

c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑡 2 + 1)3 (𝑡 + 3)5

𝑡→−1
3
d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(1 + √𝑥 ) (2 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )
𝑥→8

3. Evaluate the limit if it exists.

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑡 2 −9
a) 𝑖𝑚 e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑡→−3 2𝑡 2+7𝑡+3
𝑥 3 −1
b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑢4 + 3𝑢 + 6
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑢→−2
(4+ℎ)2 −16 1+3𝑥 3
c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 g) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1+4𝑥 2 +3𝑥 4 )
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→1

√1+ℎ−1
d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 h) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑡 2 + 1)3 (𝑡 + 1)5
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑡→−1

4. Use the squeezing theorem

a) If √5 − 2𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ √5 − 2𝑥 2 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 find lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0

b) If 2 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 for all x, find lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→0

One sided (left and right) limits

 If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on some interval (𝑎, 𝑏)extending to the left of 𝑥 = 𝑏 or right of 𝑥 = 𝑎,
and if we can ensure that 𝑓(𝑥) is as close as we want to 𝐿 by taking 𝑥 to the right of 𝑎or
the left of 𝑏and close enough to 𝑎 or 𝑏, then we say 𝑓(𝑥)has right limit 𝐿 or left limit 𝐿 at
𝑥 = 𝑎 or 𝑥 = 𝑏 respectively, and we write
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑏

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 A function 𝑓(𝑥) has limit 𝐿 at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if and only if it has both left and right limits there
and these one-sided limits are both equal to 𝐿:
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ⟺ 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example: Evaluate the following limits

|𝑥−2|
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6, find; 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Solution 1. Observe that |𝑥 − 2| = 𝑥 − 2 if 𝑥 > 2, and |𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥 − 2) if 𝑥 < 2. Therefore,

𝑥−2 𝑥−2 1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ (𝑥−2)(𝑥+3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥+3 = 5and
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
−(𝑥−2) −(𝑥−2) −1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− (𝑥−2)(𝑥+3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑥+3 = − 5 .
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Since 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥), the limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑥 2 +4𝑥−12
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2
2. Estimate the value of the limit lim 𝑔(𝑥) where 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥 2 −2𝑥
𝑥→2
6 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
Solution: we’ve given a value for 𝑥 = 2 ,so let’s first note that 𝑔(2) = 6
To find the limit as x approaches 2 not exactly at 2 you must simplify the given functions
𝑥 2 +4𝑥−12
By using factorization and taking common factor where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥
(𝑥+6)(𝑥−2)
Now calculate the limit lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥(𝑥−2)
𝑥+6
= lim cancellation law
𝑥→2 𝑥

=4
Exercises
1. Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.
1 1
a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(2𝑥 + |𝑥 − 3|) e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( − |𝑥|)
𝑥→3 𝑥→𝑜 + 𝑥
2𝑥+12 2𝑥−1
b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 − |3𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 |
𝑥→−6 |𝑥+6| 𝑥→0.5
1 1 𝑥 𝑥
c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚− (𝑥 − |𝑥|) g) 𝑙𝑖𝑚− |𝑥| and 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ |𝑥|
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
2−|𝑥| 𝑥
d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 h) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 |𝑥|
𝑥→−2 2+𝑥 𝑥→0

4 − 𝑥2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 2
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { Does 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exist?
𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2 𝑥→2

𝑥 2 −1
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥−1| . then find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

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−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −1
4. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = {1 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 Then evaluate the limit ,if it exists.
𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓𝑥 > 1

a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) c) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→0

d) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒) lim 𝑓(𝑥) f ) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→−1− 𝑥→−1+ 𝑥→−1

Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits

Limits at infinity: - Suppose that the function 𝒇 is defined on an interval (𝒂, ∞) and if we can
ensure that 𝒇(𝒙) is as close as we want to the number 𝑳 by taking 𝒙 large enough, then we say
that 𝑓(𝑥)approaches the limit 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches infinity, and we write
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→∞

If 𝑓 is defined on an interval (−∞, 𝑏) and if we can ensure that 𝑓(𝑥)is as close as we want to the
number 𝑀 by taking 𝑥 negative and large enough in absolute value, then we say that
𝑓(𝑥)approaches the limit 𝑀 as 𝑥 approaches negative infinity, and we write
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑴
𝒙→−∞

Example. Evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) for

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
𝑥
𝑎. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 . b. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − √𝑥 + √𝑥
+1

Solution 1.Rewrite the expression for 𝑓(𝑥) as follows:

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 = = = .
+1 1
√𝑥 2 (1+ 2 )
1
√𝑥 2 √1+ 2
1
|𝑥|√1+ 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑥 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
Now, we have that |𝑥| = { .
−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑥 1
Therefore, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = 1 and similarly lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −1.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ |𝑥|√1+ 1 𝑥→∞ √1+ 1 𝑥→−∞
𝑥2 𝑥2

b. We are trying to find the limit of the difference of two functions, each of which becomes
arbitrarily large as 𝑥 increases to infinity. We rationalize the expression by multiplying the
numerator and the denominator (which is 1) by the conjugate expression √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥:
(√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥)(√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥) 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2
li𝑚 (√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥) = li𝑚 = li𝑚
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥→∞
√𝑥 2 (1 + 1) + 𝑥
𝑥

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𝑥 1 1
= li𝑚 = li𝑚 = .
𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 2
𝑥√1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 √1 + 1 + 1
𝑥
Limits at Infinity for Rational Functions
 The only polynomials that have limits at ±∞ are constant ones, 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑐. Recall that a
rational function is a quotient of two polynomials.
 The way to do limits at positive infinity and negative infinity (if they exist ) is to divide the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of 𝑥 appearing in the denominator.
 The limits of a rational function at positive infinity and negative infinity either both fail to
exist or both exist and are equal.
2𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2 +1 √4𝑥 2 +2 5𝑥+2
Example. Evaluate the following limits a. lim b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 . lim
𝑥→±∞ 6𝑥 4 +𝑥 3 −3𝑥 3𝑥+1 𝑥→±∞ 2𝑥 3 −1

Solution a: Divide the numerator and the denominator by 𝑥 4 , the highest power of 𝑥 appearing in
the denominator:
2𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2 +1 2−3/𝑥 2 +1/𝑥 4 lim 2− lim 3/𝑥 2 + lim 1/𝑥4 2 1
lim = lim = 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
= 6 = 3.
𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 4 +𝑥 3 −3𝑥 𝑥→∞ 6+1/𝑥−3/𝑥 3 lim 6+ lim 1/𝑥− lim 3/𝑥 3
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

2 2 2 2
√4𝑥 2 +2 √𝑥 2 (4+ 2 ) √4+ 2 √ lim (4+ 2 ) √ lim 4+ lim 2 )
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞𝑥 √4+0 2
b. lim = lim 1 = lim 1 = 1 = 1 = = 3.
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥+1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥(3+ )
𝑥
𝑥→∞ 3+
𝑥
lim (3+ )
𝑥
lim 3+ lim ) 3+0)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞𝑥

Infinite Limits at Infinity

The notation 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ is used to indicate that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) become large as
𝑥→∞
𝑥 becomes large. Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ , 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ , 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
Example: Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 3 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 3 .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
Solution: When 𝑥 becomes large, 𝑥 3 also becomes large, For instance.
103 = 1000 1003 = 1,0000,000 10003 = 1,000,000,000
In fact ,we can make 𝑥 3 as big as we like by taking 𝑥 large enough.
Therefore we can write
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 3 = ∞
𝑥→∞

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Similarly, when 𝑥 is large negative, so is 𝑥 3 . Thus 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 3 = −∞
𝑥→−∞

Infinite Limits
1
Infinite limits can also be defined in a precise way. Let us look again at the function 𝑓(𝑥) = as
𝑥

𝑥 → 𝑜+ the values of f grow with out bound, that is

1
𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1
And as x → 0− , the values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 become negative, that is
1
𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− =−∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
1 1
Example: Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥−1 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑥−1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
1 1
Geomeric solution: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 shifted 1 unit to the right
1 1
(see Figure 1.21) therefore 𝑦 = 𝑥−1 be haves near 1 exactly the way y = 𝑥 behaves near 0.
1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥−1 = ∞ and 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑥−1 = −∞
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Exercises
Determine the infinite limit.
1 2−3𝑦 2 5
𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥+3 b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 5
𝑥→∞ 𝑦→−∞ 5𝑦 2 +4𝑦 𝑥→0

1−𝑥−𝑥 2 3𝑥+5 2
𝑑) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 1⁄4
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥−4 𝑥→0
𝑡 2 +2 𝑥+2
𝑔) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 i) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5 )
𝑡→−∞ 𝑡 3 +𝑡 2 −1 𝑥→−∞ √9𝑥+1 𝑥→−∞

−𝑢4 +𝑢 √9𝑥 6−𝑥

𝑗) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 −2)(2𝑢2 −1)
𝑘) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) 𝑙) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑢→−∞ (𝑢 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 3 +1

√9𝑥 6−𝑥
𝑚) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 3 +1

Continuity
Continuity of a function at a point: Let 𝑓 be a function on a subset of the real numbers and let
𝑎 be a point in the domain of 𝑓. Then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). i.e.
𝑥→𝑎

𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 if it satisfies the following three conditions:

1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined 2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) is exist 3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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One Sided Continuity
i. A function 𝑓 is continuous from the right at a number 𝑎 if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

ii. A function 𝑓 is continuous from the left at a number 𝑎 if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

Continuity in an interval
a) 𝑓 is said to be continuous in an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if it is continuous at every point in this
interval.
b) 𝑓 is said to be continuous in the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if 𝑓 is continuous in (𝑎, 𝑏), such
that lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑏

Discontinuity at a point
The function f will be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 in any of the following cases:
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) exist but not equal
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎

b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are equal but not equalto 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎

c. 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined.

𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
Example: 1. Find the point (s) of discontinuous of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−2

2. Show that the following functions are continuous or not at indicated point
1 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥2 at 𝑥 = 0. b) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 at 𝑥 = 2.
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −16𝑥+20
,𝑥 ≠ 2
3. If 𝑓(𝑥) = { (𝑥−2)2 is continuous at 𝑥 = 2, find the value for 𝑘.
𝑘, 𝑥=2
Solution Given 𝑓(2) = 𝑘. Now,
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −16𝑥+20 (𝑥+5)(𝑥−2)2
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim(𝑥 + 5) = 7.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)2 𝑥→2 (𝑥−2)2 𝑥→2

As 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 2, we have lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2) ⟹ 𝑘 = 7.

𝑥→2

Remark: a) Polynomial functions, Rational functions, Root functions, Trigonometric functions,

Inverse functions, Exponential functions and Logarithmic functions are continuous on their
domain.
b) If f(x) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝒂, then | 𝑓(𝑥)| is also continuous at 𝑥 = 𝒂.
c) If lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑏, thenlim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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Exercises
1. Determine whether 𝑓 is continuous or discontinuous at 𝑎.if 𝑓 is discontinuous, determine
whether 𝑓 is continuous from the left at 𝑎, is continuous from the right at 𝑎.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 13 :𝑎 = −√13
3𝑥 − 4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 2
𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑎=2
3𝑥 + 4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 2
|𝑥−4|
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 4
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−4
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 = 4
2. Find the values for the constant k, that makesthe following functions are continuous at 𝑥 =
0 or continuous every where.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝑥
, 𝑥≠0 , 𝑥<0
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥
𝑘 , 𝑥=0 2
3𝑥 + 2𝑘 , 𝑥>0

7𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 < 1 𝑘𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑐) 𝑓(𝑥) = { d) 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑘𝑥 2 , 𝑥 > 1 2𝑥 + 𝑘, 𝑥 > 2
𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘, 𝑥 ≤ −1
2
e )𝑓(𝑥) = {2𝑥 + 3𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 −1 ≤𝑥 ≤ 1
4 𝑥>1
3. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions with 𝑓(3) = 5 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚[2𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = 4
𝑥→3

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑔(3).

Intermediate value theorem

Suppose that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and let 𝑁 be any number between 𝑓(𝑎)
and 𝑓(𝑏), so that 𝑓(𝑎) ≤ 𝑁 ≤ 𝑓(𝑏) or 𝑓(𝑏) ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑓(𝑎). Then, there exists a number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏)
such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑁.
Example: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑛 [−2, 1]. Show that there exists some
𝑐 [−2, 1] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 4.
Solution: 𝑓 is continuous on [−2, 1] with 𝑓(−2) = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(10) = 8. Since 2  4  8, it
follows, by the Intermediate Value Theorem that there exists 𝑐 [−2, 1] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 4. i.e.
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑐 3 + 2𝑐 2 + 𝑐 + 4 = 4. In this case we can find such c by solving
c3 + 2c2 + c + 4 = 4 ⇔ c3 + 2c2 + c = 0 ⇔ c(c2 + 2c + 1) = 0 ⇔ c ( c + 1)2 = 0 , which
gives either c = 0 or c = -1
Since both of these values are in [-2, 1], for this particular case we have two values in [-2, 1] with
image under 𝑓 equal to 4.

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One of the most important applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem is given in the
following theorem.
Theorem: Suppose 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and assume that
𝑓(𝑎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs. Then there is at least one 𝑐  (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓(𝑐) =
0.
Example: Show that the expression 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5 has at least one root between -1 and
2
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5. we are lookig for a solution of the given equation ,
that is a number c between -1 and 2 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0. Therefore ,we take 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 2 and
𝑁 = 0 by the theorem, we have
𝑓(−1) = −4 − 5 + 10 + 5 = 6 > 0
𝑓(2) = 16 − 20 − 20 + 5 = −19 < 0
Thus 𝑓(−1) < 𝑓(2); that is 𝑁 = 0 is a number between 𝑓(−1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(2).Now 𝑓 is continuous
since it is polynomial, so the intermediate value theorem says there is a number c between −1 and
2 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.
Exercises
Use the intermedaite value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in the
specified interval.

a) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0, (1,2) b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥, (0,1) c) 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , (1,2)

3
d) √𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 , (0,1) e) 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1 , (0,1)

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CHAPTER 2
DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
Definition of the Derivative
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
Let 𝑎 be a number in the domain of a function 𝑓. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 exists, we call this limit the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑎 and write it 𝑓 ′ (𝑎).

Derivative of a function
Given any number 𝑥 for which the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is exists, we assign to x the number 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). So
we can regard 𝑓′(𝑥) as a new function, called the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) and defined by
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Example: Use definition of derivative to evaluate 𝑓′(𝑥) if
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1
1−𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − √𝑥 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2+𝑥.
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) (𝑥+ℎ)3 −𝑥 3
Solution: a. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ2 +ℎ3 −𝑥 3 3𝑥 2 ℎ+3𝑥ℎ2 +ℎ3

= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 = 3𝑥 2 .
ℎ→0

Some common alternative notations for the derivative are as follows:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ = = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The symbols 𝐷and 𝑑/𝑑𝑥 are called differentiation operators because they indicate the operation
of differentiation, which is the process of calculating a derivative
Differentiability: Let a function 𝑓 be defined in open interval containig the point c. The function
is differentaible at c if and only if the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists. If 𝑓 is differentaile at every point
of its domain we say simply that 𝑓 is differentaible.
Example. Examine the differentiability of the function 𝑓 defined by
2𝑥 + 3, 𝑖𝑓 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 < −2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 − 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 .
𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
Solution: The only doubtful points for differentiability of 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = – 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0.
Differentiability at 𝑥 = −2: Now

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𝑓(−2+ℎ)−𝑓(−2) 2(−2+ℎ)+3−(−2+1) 2ℎ
𝐿 𝑓 ′ (−2) = lim− = lim− = lim− = 2.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓(−2+ℎ)−𝑓(−2) −2+ℎ+1−(−2+1) ℎ
and 𝑅 𝑓 ′ (−2) = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ ℎ = 1. Thus, 𝐿𝑓 ′ (−2) ≠
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

𝑅𝑓 ′ (−2). Therefore 𝑓 is not differentiable at 𝑥 = −2.

Theorem: If 𝑓 differentaible at point 𝑎, then it is continuous at 𝑎.
Proof: To prove that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎, we have to show that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎

We do this by showing that the difference 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) approaches 0.

The given information is that 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑎, that is
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓′(𝑎) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 exists.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Now divide and multiply 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) by 𝑥 − 𝑎 (which we can do when x ≠ 0)

Taking the limit on both side of equation,we get
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
lim( 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
= lim lim (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(0)

 lim𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Therefore, 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎.
The converse of this theorem is not true ; that is ,there are functions that are continuous at a point
but may not differentaible at that point.
Example: Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous at 0, but not differentiable at 0.
Solution: The function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| continuous at 0, since
𝑙𝑖𝑚 |𝑥| = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+|𝑥| = 0 = 𝑓(0)
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

If we compute the derivatives, we obtain

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(0) |𝑥| 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 using absolute value property |𝑥| = {
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥 −𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑥→0
|𝑥| 𝑥
For 𝑥 > 0 lim+ = lim+ 𝑥 = 1 and
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
|𝑥| −𝑥
For 𝑥 < 0 lim− = lim− = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
|𝑥|
Thus 𝑙𝑖𝑚 does not exists, because the right and the left hand side limits are not equal.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Therefore, 𝑓 is not differentaible at 0.

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Definition: The tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑝(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is the line through 𝑝
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
with slope 𝑚 = lim provided that this limit exists. And the tangent line is given by
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) which is called point-slope form equation of line.

Example: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point 𝑝(1,1).
Solution: Here we have 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , so the slope is
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(1)
𝑚 = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

𝑥 2 −1
= lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
= lim = lim(𝑥 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1

Using the point slope form of the equation of the line, we find that an equation of the tangent line
at 𝑝(1,1) is 𝑦 − 1 = 2(𝑥 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
Remark! The slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is
equal to the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑎.
Rules of differentiation
If f and 𝑔 are both differentiable, and 𝑐 is constant, then the following differentiation rules are
valid
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
a. [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥) (Sum and difference rule).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
b. 𝑐𝑓(𝑥)=𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) (Constant Multiple Rule)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
c. [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)′ (Product
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Rule)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
d. [ ]= [𝑔(𝑥)]2
= (𝑔) (𝑥) = if 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 (Quotient
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2

rule)
Derivatives of Functions
Derivative of constant function.
𝑑 𝑑
If 𝑓 has the constant value 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) = 0.
𝑑𝑥

Power rule: If n is any real number and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑓 is defferentaible on the set of real
numbers ℝ and is given by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
Proof: if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 then by definition of derivative at a point, we get

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′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−1 )
𝑓 = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 .
=⏟
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑛−1
Hence 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 .
Example: Differentiate the following
1 3 1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 b. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 c. 𝑔(𝑥) =
√𝑥+2

𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝜋 3 e. ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 − 1) f. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 +6

Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Example. Using definition of derivative find derivative of sin 𝑥
Solution. From the definition of a derivative, we have
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) cos(ℎ) + cos(𝑥)sin(ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) cos(ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) cos(𝑥)sin(ℎ)
= lim ( + )
ℎ→0 ℎ h
cos(ℎ) − 1 cos(𝑥)sin(ℎ)
= lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) ( ) + lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 h
cos(ℎ)−1 sin(ℎ)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) lim ( ) + cos(𝑥)lim = sin 𝑥 ∙ 0 + cos 𝑥 ∙ 1 = cos 𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 h

Similarly derivative of others trig-functions are

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
a. (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 c. 𝑑𝑥 (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑒. (cot 𝑥) = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
b. (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 d. 𝑑𝑥 (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
sec 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
Example: Differentiate the following a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−tan 𝑥. b) 𝑓(𝜃) = 1+𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

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Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Given exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 . Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln(𝑎).
In case we are using the natural exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
2. Given logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, we have
𝑑 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑎
𝑙𝑛𝑥
In case of natural logarithm 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 = ln𝑥, we have
𝑑 1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑥

Exercises 1: Differentiate the following

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 2. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 3. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
1 1 1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 5. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑢 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 + 𝑐𝑢) 6. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑥
7. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 8. 𝑦 = 4−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 9. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
10. 𝑓(𝑡) = √𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 11. 𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 12. 𝑦 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
13. 𝑦 = 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 4𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 14 . 𝑓(𝜃) = 1+𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 15. 𝑦 = ln𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥)
1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
16. 𝑦 = 17. 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 18. 𝑦 = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 4𝑥+3
19. 𝑦 = 20 . 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 21. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑥2

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2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
a) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥, (𝜋⁄3, 3) b) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, (0,1)
1
c). 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, (0,1) d) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , (0,1)

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 1
Definition: sin ℎ𝑥 = csc ℎ𝑥 = sin ℎ𝑥
2
ex +e−x 1
cos ℎ𝑥 = sec ℎ𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑥
2
sin ℎ𝑥 1
tan ℎ𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑥 cot ℎ𝑥 = tan ℎ𝑥

Their derivative are given by:

𝑑 𝑑
1. (sin ℎ𝑥) = cos hx 4. (csc ℎ𝑥) = − csc ℎ𝑥 cot ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
2. (cos hx) = sin ℎ𝑥 5. (sec ℎ𝑥) = sec ℎ𝑥 tan ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
3. (tan ℎ𝑥) = sec h2 x 6. (cot ℎ𝑥) = −csc ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −(−𝑒 −𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 )
Proof : 1) (𝑠𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 ( )= = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
2) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 ( )= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2

The remaining proof are left as exercise.

The Chain Rule
If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are both differentiable and 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is the composite function defined by 𝐹(𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), the 𝐹 is differentiable and 𝐹′ is given by the product 𝐹′(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
In Leibniz notation, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) are both differentiable functions, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Note: In using the chain rule we work from the outside to the inside.
Example 1: Find derivative of the following.
2
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 c) 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 1)99 (𝑥 2 − 10)4 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 −
4
Solution: a). Note that 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥 = (sin 𝑥)2 . Here the outer function is the squaring
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
function and the inner function is the sine function. So 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥)2 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
2 𝑑 2 2 𝑑 2
b) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 ln 4 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) = 4𝑥 (2𝑥) ln 4.

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𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
c) 𝑑𝑥 [(𝑥 3 − 1)99 (𝑥 2 − 10)4 ] = (𝑥 2 − 10)4 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 1)99 + (𝑥 3 − 1)99 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 10)4 =

297𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 − 1)98 (𝑥 2 − 10)4 + 8𝑥(𝑥 3 − 1)99 (𝑥 2 − 10)3

1 𝑑(𝑥 3 +3𝑥−4) 3𝑥 2 +3
d) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 +3𝑥−4 = 𝑥 3 +3𝑥−4.
𝑑𝑥

Exercises
1. Find the derivative of the function
7⁄ −7⁄ 3 𝑡−2 10
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 −𝑥 6 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 g) 𝑔(𝑡) = (2𝑡+1)

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 e) 𝑦 = 𝑎3 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 h) 𝑓(𝑥) =

√𝑥 + √𝑥 + √𝑥

√𝑥 3 −1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = f) 𝑔(𝑡) = (6𝑡 2 − 5)3 (𝑡 2 − 2)4 i) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2

√tan √𝑥
2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given point
2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑒 −𝑥 at the point (0,1)

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√2 − 𝑥 2 , find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

3. If 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑓(−2) = 8, 𝑓 ′ (−2) = 4, 𝑓 ′ (5) = 32 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔′ (5) = 6,
𝑔(5) = −2 find 𝐹 ′ (5)
4. If 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), where 𝑓(−2) = 8, 𝑓 ′ (−2) = 4, 𝑓 ′ (5) = 3 𝑔(5) = −2 and
𝑔′ (5) =6 find 𝐹 ′ (5).
5. If 𝑔(𝑥) = √4 + 3𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(1) = 7 and 𝑓 ′ (1) = 4. find 𝑔′ (1)
Higher order derivatives
If 𝑓 is a differentiable function, then its derivative 𝑓′ is also a function, so 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) may have a
derivative of its own, denoted by (𝑓 ′ )′ (𝑥) = 𝑓"(𝑥) = 𝐷2 (𝑥). This new function 𝑓" is called the
second derivative of 𝑓. Again the derivative of this second derivative is yield another new
function which is called third derivative of f which is (𝑓")′(𝑥) = 𝑓′′′(𝑥) = 𝐷3 𝑓(𝑥). The process
can be continued. In general, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 (𝑛) and is obtained from 𝑓 by
differentiating 𝑛 times. And write as

(𝑛) (𝑛) 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑦 =𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛
= 𝐷𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

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Example 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1. Find the successive derivative of.
Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 + 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 − 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 − 6 + 0
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 24
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 0
.
.
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 0 (𝑛 ≥ 5)
1
2. Find a formula for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥.
1 2
Solution: By applying the quotient rule, 𝑓′(𝑥) = (1−𝑥)2, 𝑓′′(𝑥) = (1−𝑥)3, 𝑓′′′(𝑥) =
6
(1−𝑥)4
.
𝑛!
So by proceeding in this way we obtain𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)𝑛+1

Exercise: 1. Evaluate a) 𝐷 4 (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 8 b) 𝐷128 (sin 𝑥) c) 𝐷27 (cos 𝑥) d)

𝐷4 (𝑒 2𝑥 )
𝑑4 𝑦 6
𝑒) 𝑦 ′′′ (0), where 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 3 f) | , where 𝑦 = 𝑥 4
𝑑𝑦 4 𝑥=1

2. Find the higher order or nth derivatives of the following

1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥
𝑥

Implicit differentiation
Implicit differentiation is a technique for differentiating functions that are not given in the usual
form𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). In general, although an equation of the form
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 (1)
𝒅𝒚
Usually defines y as a function of x implicitly. To find , we may differentiate both sides of (1)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
with respect to 𝑥 and solve for (in terms of x and y). This method is called
𝒅𝒙

implicitdifferentiation.
This implies that we can have two methods to find the derivative of such functions:
1. Rewrite the given functions in the form of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) (if it is possible).

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2. Differentiate both side with respect to independent variable, 𝑥, and simplifies the solution for
𝑑𝑦
. (NB. Here we can use the Chain Rule & Power Rule by treating 𝑦 as a function of x).
𝑑𝑥

Example Find the slope of the line tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 at the point (√2, √2).
Soln. First rewrite the equation of the circle in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and we get; 𝑦 = ±√4 − 𝑥 2 .
But this doesn’t give a function since certain value of x gives two values of y. Note that the point
(√2, √2) lies on the upper semi-circle. To consider the required slope, we take 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 2 .
Secondly, differentiate both side with respect 𝑥 by treating 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as a function of x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 −𝑥
= (√4 − 𝑥 2 ) = . (4 − 𝑥 2 ) = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2√4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √4 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 −√2
The slope of the tangent at (√2, √2) is | = = −1.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=√2 √2
𝒅𝒚
Example 1: Find given that a) 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑦 2 − 7 = 𝑦 3 b) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 c) 𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑥 =
𝒅𝒙

𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1
d) 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎 𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦) e) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑓) 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Soln. a) Since to solve y as a function of x explicitly, we assume that y is a function of x and
differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to x, we get
𝑑 3 𝑑 3 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦 2 − 7 ) = (𝑦 ) ⇔ 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 8𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Then solving for 𝑑𝑥 , we get

2 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2
2
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = (3𝑥 − 8𝑥𝑦) ⟹ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦
2. Using implicit differentiation find 𝑑𝑥 2 if 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1

Solution: Differentiating both sides of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 with respect to x implicitly yields

𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦 −𝑥
⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦

Again applying implicit differentiation for the second time, we get

𝑑2 𝑦 (−1)𝑦−(−𝑥)𝑦′ −𝑥
= (𝑦 ′ = )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦
−𝑥
−𝑦+𝑥 1
𝑦
= 𝑦2
= − 𝑦3 ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1)

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3 3
3. Find the equation of tangent line to the functions 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑥𝑦 at (2 , 2)

Exercises
𝑑𝑦
1. Find 𝑑𝑥 by implicit differentiation.

a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 68 f) 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑥 = 3
𝑥⁄
b) 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 1 g) 𝑒 𝑦 =𝑥−𝑦
𝑥+𝑦
c) 𝑥 2 = 𝑥−𝑦 h) 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑦 2 )
𝑦
d) √𝑥𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 i) √𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1+𝑥 2

e) 𝑒 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑦)
2. For each of the following curves represented by the given equations, find the slope at the
indicated point. a) 2𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 = 0, (3, 1) b) 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 2 = 1 at (1, 0)
c) 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 2𝑦 2 − 𝑥 + 1, (3, 1) d) 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑒 𝑦 − 3, (1, 0)
Logarithmic differentiation
Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions of the form𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑢(𝑥))𝑣(𝑥) , where both 𝑓 and 𝑢 need to be positive functions for this technique to make sense.
Steps in Logarithmic Differentiation
1. Take natural logarithms both sides of an equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and use the Laws of Logarithms
and simplify.
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
3. Solve the resulting equation for 𝑑𝑥

Example. Find the derivative of the following functions. a) 𝑦 = (2𝑥 4 + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 b) 𝑦 =

(ln 𝑥)𝑥
Solution: a) Take natural logarithms both sides of a given equation as
ln 𝑦 = ln[(2𝑥 4 + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ] ⟹ ln 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ln(2𝑥 4 + 1).
𝑑 ln 𝑦 𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ln(2𝑥 4 +1)) 1 𝑑𝑦
Differentiate implicitly wrt 𝑥; = ⟹ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ln(2𝑥 4 + 1) +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

8𝑥 3
tan 𝑥 (2𝑥 4 +1)
𝑑𝑦
Solve the resulting equation for 𝑑𝑥

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𝑑𝑦 8𝑥 3
= 𝑦 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ln(2𝑥 4 + 1) + tan 𝑥 (2𝑥 4 +1)] = (2𝑥 4 + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ln(2𝑥 4 + 1) +
𝑑𝑥
8𝑥 3
tan 𝑥 (2𝑥 4 +1)].

b) Take natural logarithms both sides of a given equation; ln 𝑦 = ln[(ln 𝑥)𝑥 ] ⟹ ln 𝑦 =

𝑥 ln(ln 𝑥).
𝑑 ln 𝑦 𝑑(𝑥 ln(ln 𝑥)) 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 1 1
Differentiate implicitly wrt 𝑥; = ⟹ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ln(ln 𝑥) + ln(𝑥) 𝑥 = ln(ln 𝑥) + ln(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
Solve the resulting equation for 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 [ln(ln 𝑥) + ln(𝑥)] = (ln 𝑥)𝑥 [ln(ln 𝑥) + ln(𝑥)].
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Exercise. 1. Find 𝑑𝑥 for the equation a) 𝑦 = √𝑥 b) 𝑦 = (sin 𝑥)cos 𝑥 c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 csc 𝑥 d) 𝑦 =
𝑥√2𝑥+1
𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ln 𝑥
2. If 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 , prove that 𝑑𝑥 = (1+ln 𝑥)2 .

Inverse functions and their derivatives

Definition. Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions such that the domain of 𝑔 is the range 𝑓 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 if
and only if 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 and for all 𝑦 in the range of 𝑓. then 𝑔 is the
inverse function of f and denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔−1 (𝑥).
Theorem: A function 𝑓 is said to be invertible iff it is one to one.
Steps to find inverse of a function
Step 1. Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). step 2. Interchange place 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦. step 3. Solve for 𝑦 in
terms of 𝑥 in step 2. Step 4. Write 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) for 𝑦.
Example. Find the inverse of a) f(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 7 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑒 𝑥 + 1 c)f(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(3𝑥 + 2)
𝑥+2
d) f(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 9 e) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ ,𝑥 > 0
𝑥

𝑥 7 𝑥 7
Soln:𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 7 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2. 𝑥 = 3𝑦 + 7. 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3 𝑦 = 3 − 3 . 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 4𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 3 − 3

Derivative of Inverse function

Theorem. Suppose that 𝑓 has an inverse and it is continuous on an open interval containing 𝑎
assume also 𝑓′(𝑎) exist and 𝑓′(𝑎) ≠ 0, and 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐, then(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐) exist and (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐) =
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑎)

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 + 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2, then find (𝑓 −1 )′(−2).

Solution: Let us find the value of 𝑎 for which 𝑓(𝑎) = −2 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = −2, so 𝑎 = 0. Since

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1
𝑓′(𝑥) = 7𝑥 6 + 24𝑥 2 + 4. It follow that 𝑓 ′ (0) = 4 ⇒ (𝑓 −1 )′ (−2) = 𝑓′ (0) = 1/4.

Exercise. a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 2, then find (𝑓 −1 )′(2) b) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥,then find
(𝑓 −1 )′(0)
1 1 𝑑𝑥
Note: Putting 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ (𝑓 −1 )(𝑦) = 𝑥 then find (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑦) = 𝑓′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 +1
Example: Find (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑦) if a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑒 𝑥 + 1 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 3 + 2) c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝑒𝑥 1
Solution: a) (𝑥) = √𝑒 𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2√𝑒 𝑥 +1. Since (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑦) = 𝑓′ (𝑥) , then

1 2√𝑒 𝑥 +1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑦) = 𝑒𝑥 = .
𝑒𝑥
2√𝑒𝑥 +1

Definition: If f has an inverse and the value of 𝑓 −1 varies over an interval on which 𝑓 has a
nonzero derivative, then 𝑓 −1 is differentiable and the derivative is given by the formula:
1
(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥) =
𝑓′(𝑓 −1 (𝑥))
This formula is an immediate consequence of the definition of an inverse function and the chain
rule:
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 ⟹ [𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥))] = ⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) ∗ (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥)) = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
⟹ (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑓−1 (𝑥)).

Example: Find the inverse and its derivative of (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑛 (0, ∞) (𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥+1)
Soln:(a) we have 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥 and also 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 2√𝑥. thus
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) = =
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) 2√𝑥
b) General way to starting this is 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥. For this problem,
−1 (𝑥)+1)
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥 + 1)) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑓 = 𝑥 ⟹ 10𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) + 1 ⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 10𝑥 − 1. Thus,
1 1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥+1)𝑙𝑛10 ⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = (10𝑥 −1+1)𝑙𝑛10 = 10𝑥 𝑙𝑛10 hence using the formula
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) = = 1 = 10𝑥 𝑙𝑛10.
𝑓 ′ (𝑓−1 (𝑥))
10𝑥 𝑙𝑛10

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Finding the inverse of a logarithmic function.
If the logarithmic function is one to one, its inverse exists. The inverse of a logarithmic function
is an exponential. Steps to find the inverse of a logarithm
Step 1: replace the function notation 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑦.
Step 2: switch the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Step 3: Isolate the log expression on one side of the equation.
Step 4: Convert the log equation into its equivalent exponential.
Step 5: Solve for the exponential equation for 𝑦 to get the inverse. Then replace 𝑦 by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
Ex. Find the inverse and its derivative of the function
(2𝑥−1)
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 −7 b ) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 − 7) + 3
Soln: a) Let begin by changing the 𝑓(𝑥) int 𝑦, and swapping the 𝑥 and 𝑦.
(2𝑥−1) (2𝑦−1) (2𝑦−1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 − 7 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 − 7 ⇒ 𝑥 + 7 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5
5(𝑥+7) +1 5(𝑥+7) +1 5(𝑥+7) ln 5
5(𝑥+7) = 2𝑦 − 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = . Then, (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) =
2 2 2

Derivatives of Inverse trigonometric functions

By using implicit differentiation, we can find the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions,
assuming that these functions are differentiable. Now, recall that the definition of the arcsine
−𝝅 𝝅
function: 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙means 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥 and ≤ 𝒚 ≤ 𝟐 . Differentiating𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚 = 𝒙 implicitly with
𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝑑𝑦 1 −𝝅 𝝅
respect to 𝑥, we obtain 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑦. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 ≥ 𝟎, since 𝟐 ≤ 𝒚 ≤ 𝟐, so cos 𝑦 =
𝒅𝒚 𝟏 𝟏
√1 − sin2 𝑦 = √1 − x 2 . Hence, 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 = .
√𝟏−𝐱 𝟐

𝒅 𝟏
Therefore, 𝒅𝒙 (𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙) = .
√𝟏−𝐱 𝟐

Similarly, if 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 we mean that 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥. Then differentiating implicitly with respect to
𝑥, we have
𝒅𝒚 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒚 =1⇒ = = = .
𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑦 1 + 𝑥 2
𝑑 1
Hence, (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥) = . and the derivative of others inverse trigonometric functions are
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

derived in similarly manners and we get

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𝑑 1 𝜋 3𝜋 𝑑 1 𝜋
(𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ (0, 2 ] ∪ (𝜋, ] and 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1𝑥) = |𝑥|√𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ ( 2 , 𝜋 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1 2 −1
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) = − , (𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥) = − , and 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥) = − 1+𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑥 √1−x2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√x2 −1

Example. Find the derivative of the function;

(a) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2𝑥 − 1), 𝑥𝜖(0, 1) (b) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑒 2𝑥 )
1
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 √𝑥 2 + 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 d) 𝑦 = 𝑥tan−1 (cos 𝑥).
𝒅𝑦 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟐 𝟏
Soln: (a) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2𝑥 − 1)) = (2𝑥 − 1) = = , 𝑥𝜖(0, 1) .
𝑑𝑥 √𝟏−(2𝑥−1)𝟐 𝑑𝑥 √𝟒𝐱−𝟒𝒙𝟐 √𝐱−𝒙𝟐

Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
(sinh 𝑥) = ( )= = cosh 𝑥 , (cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥 , (tanh 𝑥) = sech2 𝑥,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥) = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 , (𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 , (𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Exercises. Find derivative of (a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (𝑙𝑛 𝑥) (b )𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑥
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ √1 + 𝑥 2 d) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
 Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥, then 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦 and from hyperbolic identity cosh2 𝑦 − sinh2 𝑦 = 1 with
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 > 0, cosh 𝑦 = √1 + sinh2 𝑦 = √1 + x 2 and 𝑒 𝑦 = cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑦 = 𝑥 +

√1 + x 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + √1 + x 2 ) . ∀𝑥 ∈ |𝑅.

 Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥, then 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0 so 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 = √cosh2 𝑦 − 1 = √x 2 − 1 and

𝑒 𝑦 = cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √x 2 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 + √x 2 − 1) 𝑥 ≥ 1.

2
 Let, 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑒 −𝑦 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑒 𝑦 )2 + 𝑥 − 2𝑒 −𝑦 =
1±√1−𝑥 2 1−√1−𝑥 2
0 ⇔ 𝑒𝑦 = . But 𝑦 > 0 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑦 > 1. This rules out the minus sign because >
𝑥 𝑥

1 ⇔ 1 − √1 − 𝑥 2 > 𝑥 ⟺ 1 − 𝑥 > √1 − 𝑥 2 ⟺ 1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 > 1 − 𝑥 2 ⟺ 𝑥 2 > 𝑥, but 𝑥 =

1+√1−𝑥2 1+√1−𝑥2
sech 𝑦 ≤ 1. Thus, 𝑒 𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln ( ).
𝑥 𝑥

Similarly the inverse of other Hyperbolic function is

1 1+𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 1 𝑥+1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln ( ), 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln ( + ), 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥 𝑥 |𝑥| 2 𝑥−1

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Derivative of inverse Hyperbolic Functions
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 ⇒ csch 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 (csch 𝑦) = − csch 𝑦 coth 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − csch 𝑦 coth 𝑦

coth 𝑦 = ±√𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑦 + 1 = ±√𝑥 2 + 1. If 𝑥 > 0, then coth 𝑦 > 0, so coth 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1. If 𝑥 <

𝑑𝑦 1 1
0, then coth 𝑦 < 0, so coth 𝑦 = −√𝑥 2 + 1. In either case we have 𝑑𝑥 = − csch 𝑦 coth 𝑦 = |𝑥|√𝑥 2 ’
+1

Similarly, derivative of other inverse Hyperbolic Functions are

𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥) = , (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥) = (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥) = − , (𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2

𝑥
Example: Find derivative of 𝑎) 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (sin 𝑥) 𝑏) 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 √𝑥 2 + 1 c) 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 (3) − √9 + 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1
Soln: 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (sin 𝑥)) = 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 = sec 𝑥.

Application of derivative
Extreme Values of Functions
 A function 𝑓 has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 is
near 𝑐. [This means that for all x in some open interval containing c.] Similarly, f has a local
minimum at c if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 is near 𝑐.
 A function f has an absolute maximum (or global maximum) at c if f(c) ≥ f(x) for all x in
D , where D is the domain of f. The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D .
Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) ≤ f(x) for all x in 𝐷 and the number f(c) is
called the minimum value of f on D. The maximum and minimum values of f are called the
extreme values of 𝑓.
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , then 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥. therefore, 𝑓(0) = 0 is the absolute and also local
minimum value of 𝑓. This corresponds to the fact that the origin is the lowest point on the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . However, there is no highest point on the parabola and so this function has no maximum
extreme value.
Example: Find local and absolute extreme value of a) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
The Extreme Value Theorem:
If 𝑓is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓attains an absolute maximum value 𝑓(𝑐) and
an absolute minimum value 𝑓(𝑑) at some numbers 𝑐and 𝑑in [𝑎, 𝑏].

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This theorem says that a continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum value and a
minimum value, but it does not tell us how to find these extreme values.
Fermat’s Theorem:
If 𝑓 has a local maximum or minimum at 𝑐, and if 𝑓′(𝑐) exists, then 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0.
Caution: The converse of Fermat’s theorem is false in general. However, it suggests that we
should start looking for extreme values at numbers where the derivative is zero or does not exist.
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either 𝒇′ (𝐜) = 𝟎 or
𝑓′(c) does not exist.
Exercises. Find the critical numbers of the following
𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 1.
1+𝑥 2

Rephrase Fermat’s Theorem

If 𝑓 has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f
The Closed Interval Method
To find the absolute Extreme values of a continuous function 𝑓on a closed interval [a,b]:
1. Find the values of 𝑓 at the critical numbers of 𝑓in (𝑎, 𝑏)
2. Find the values of 𝑓at the endpoints of the interval.
3. The largest of the values from Steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of
these values is the absolute minimum value.

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 . Find the extreme values of 𝑓 on [0,1] and determine at which
numbers in [0,1] they occur.

Solution: First we find the critical points of 𝑓. We know 𝑓 has extreme values because it is
continuous on [0,1], as 𝑓 is differentiable.

𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 1 − 3𝑐 2 = 0
√3 √3
𝑐=± . Since − is not in the interval [0,1], the only critical number in our
3 3
√3
focus is .
3

We compute the corresponding value of 𝑓,

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√3 2
𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = 0, 𝑓 ( 3 ) = 9 √3

Consequently, the minimum value of 𝑓 on [0,1] is 0 and it occurs at 0 and 1. The maximum
2 √3
value of 𝑓 on [0,1] is 9 √3 and it occurs at .
3

Exercise. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum values of f on the given interval
4⁄
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 (𝑥 − 4)2 , [−2, 2 ] e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 , [0, 1]
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2/3 − 2𝑥, [−1, 1] f) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 5 [0, 3]
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√9 − 𝑥 2 [−2, 2]
𝜋
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 , [0,3] 𝑔) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , [0, 3 ]

Rolle’s Theorem Let 𝑓 be a function such that

 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] .

 𝑓is differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).

 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

Then there is a number c in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0

Exercise: 1. If the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝒙 − 𝟔 satisfies conditions of Rolle’s
𝟏
Theorem in [1 , 3] and 𝒇′ (𝟐 + ) = 𝟎 , then find values of a and b respectively. Ans 𝑎 =
√𝟑

1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −6.

2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = x x  4 on [−4, 0], then find value(s) of 𝑐  (−4, 0) that satisfy the conclusion of
Roll’s theorem. Ans. 𝑐 = −8/3.
The Mean Value Theorem (MVT): Let 𝑓be a function that satisfies:
1. 𝑓is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. 𝑓 is differentiable on the open interval (a,b).
Then there is a number 𝑐in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

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Example. Find a number 𝑐 that satisfies MVT for the function
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 [0, 2]. b) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3 + √𝑥, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1.
Solution: (a) The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 is continuous and differentiable on the given interval.
Then we can find a number 𝑐 in (0, 2) such that
𝑓(2) − 𝑓(0) 6−2
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = ⟹ 3𝑐 2 − 1 = ⟹ 3𝑐 2 = 3 ⟹ 𝑐 = ±1
2−0 2
Then since −1 is not element of (0, 2), a number 𝑐 that satisfies MVT is 𝑐 = 1.
Monotonic Functions

Increasing/Decreasing Test
• If 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 on the interval I, then the function 𝑓is strictly increasing on I.
• If 𝑓′(𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 on the interval I, then the function fis strictly decreasing on I.
• If 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥 on the interval I, then the function 𝑓is constant on I.
Example: Find the critical points of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 − 5 and identify the open intervals on
which ƒ is increasing and on which ƒ is decreasing.
Solution: The function ƒ is everywhere continuous and differentiable. The first derivative
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12 = 3(𝑥 2 − 4) = 3(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) is zero at 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 2. These
critical points subdivide the domain of ƒ to create non overlapping open intervals
( −∞ , −2), ( −2, 2), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, ∞) on which ƒ′ is either positive or negative. We determine the
sign of ƒ′ by evaluating ƒ′ at a convenient point in each subinterval.

Intervals ( −∞ , −2) ( −2, 2), (2, ∞)

Sign of 𝑓′ +++++ −−−−−− +++++
Behavior of 𝑓 Increasing decreasing Increasing
The First Derivative Test for local extremum

Suppose that 𝑐 is a critical number of a continuous function 𝑓.

a) If 𝑓′changes from positive to negative at 𝑐, then 𝑓has a local maximum at 𝑐.
b) If 𝑓′changes from negative to positive at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.
c) If 𝑓′does not change sign at 𝑐 (for example, if 𝑓′is positive on both sides of 𝑐or negative on
both sides), then 𝑓has no local maximum or minimum at 𝑐.

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Example. i) Find the intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing or decreasing.
ii) Find the relative maximum and minimum values of the following function.
1 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +2
𝑥
1 3 3 3
Soln: a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 𝑥 2 − 3 = 4 (𝑥 2 − 4) = 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

Then, 𝑓(𝑥) is increase on (−∞, 2)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, ∞) and decrease on (−2, 2) and also
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) Changes sign from positive to negative at −2, so 𝑓(−2) = 4 is relative maximum value.
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) Changes sign from negative to positive at 2, so 𝑓(2) = −4 is relative minimum of f.
The Second Derivative Test: Suppose 𝑓"is continuous near c.
(a) If 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓"(𝑐) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) f 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓"(𝑐) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
𝑥2
Exercise: Let 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1, find the local extremum values

Ans. a) 𝑓 has local min at 𝑥 = −3/8. b) f has a local max. at 𝑥 = 0 and local min. at 𝑥 = 2
Concavity and Inflection points

Definition: If the graph of 𝑓 lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is called
concave upward on I. If the graph of 𝑓 lies below all of its tangents on I, then it is called
concave downward on I.
Concavity Test
a) If 𝑓"(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in , then the graph of f is concave upward on 𝐼.
b) If 𝑓"(𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼, then the graph of 𝑓 is concave downward on 𝐼.
Definition: A point 𝑝 on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is called an inflection point if 𝑓 is continuous there
and the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward
to concave upward at p.
To find inflection point we can follow the following steps;
1. Find the value of c for which 𝑓"(𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓"(𝑐) does not exist.
2. For each value of 𝑐 found in step 1 determine whether 𝑓"(𝑥) changes sign at 𝑐.

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3. If 𝑓changes sign at 𝑐, the point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) is inflection point of 𝑓.
Example. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection point (s)
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥, b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 8 c) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 𝑒𝑥
𝑑) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +2, e) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1)3 f) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 − ln 𝑥) g) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 +2 h) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥

Solution: a) 𝑓′(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12, 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 12𝑥 − 6 then 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1/2.

Intervals ( −∞ , 1/2) 1/2 (1/2, ∞)
Sign of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) −−−−− 0 +++++
concavity of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) is Concave downward 𝑓(𝑥) is Concave upward
Therefore, the graph of 𝑓 is is Concave downward on (−∞ , 1/2) and Concave upward on
(1/2, ∞) and since 𝑓 ′′ is change sign at 𝑥 = 1/2 the point (1/2, 𝑓(1/2)) is inflection point.

Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule

L’Hospital’s Rule: Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔are differentiable functions and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 near a (except
possibly at ). Suppose that
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒈(𝒙) = 0 Or 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒈(𝒙) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
0 ∞
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type 0 or ∞. Then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′(𝑥)

if the limit on the right side exists (∞ or −∞).

Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule
0 ∞
Step 1. Check that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) is an indeterminate form of type or .
0 ∞

Step 2. Differentiate 𝑓 and 𝑔 separately.

Step 3. Find the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥). If this limit is finite, +∞ or −∞.then it is equal to the limit
of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)
𝒍𝒏 (𝒙+𝟏) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙)
Example: Evaluate the following limits a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( )
𝑥→0 𝒙 𝑥→0 𝒙

𝒍𝒏 (𝒙) 𝒆𝒙 −𝒙−𝟏 𝒍𝒏 (𝒙) 𝒙𝟐

c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ ( 𝟏 ) d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( 𝒙−𝟏 ) f) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝒆𝒙 )
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝒙 𝑥→1 𝑥→∞
𝒙

𝒍𝒏 (𝒙+𝟏) 0 𝐥𝐧 (𝐱+𝟏)
Solution: a) since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 0 the we can apply L’ Hospital,s rule, thus lim ( )=
𝑥→0 𝒙 𝑥→0 𝐱
𝟏 𝐥𝐧 (𝐱+𝟏)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝒙+𝟏) = 1. Hence lim ( ) = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝐱

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Indeterminate Pro ducts:
Let 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒈(𝒙) = ±∞ then it isn’t clear what the value of 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙)𝑔(𝑥), if
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥→𝑎

any, will be. There is a struggle between f and g . If f wins, the answer will be 0 ; if g wins, the
answer will be ±∞. Or there may be a compromise where the answer is a finite nonzero number.
This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0. ∞. We can deal with it by writing
the product 𝑓𝑔as a quotient:
𝑓 𝑔
𝑓𝑔 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑔 =
1 1
𝑔 𝑓
0 ∞
This converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of type 0 or ∞so that we can use

l’Hospital’s Rule.
𝑥
Example: Evaluate a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+(𝒙𝒍𝒏 (𝒙)) b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙)𝒍𝒏 𝒙 c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Indeterminate Differences (∞ − ∞): If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞, the limit
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = ∞ − ∞ is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞.

𝑥→𝑎

Indeterminate forms of type ∞ − ∞ can sometimes be evaluated by combining the terms or by

using a common denominator, or rationalization, or factoring out a common factor and
0 ∞
manipulating the result to produce an indeterminate form of type 0 or ∞.
𝟏
Example: Evaluate the following limits a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝒙 − 𝒍𝒏 (𝒙)) b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ (𝒙 − 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝒙))
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0

Ans. a) ∞ b) 0
In determinant form of 00 , 1∞ , ∞0 and 0∞ .
Indeterminate forms of types 00 , 1∞ , ∞0and 0∞ . can sometimes be evaluated by first introducing
a dependent variable
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
and then computing the limit of 𝑙𝑛 𝑦. Since 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛[𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑙𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]
the limit of 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 will be an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞ (verify), which can be evaluated
by methods we have already studied. Once the limit of ln y is known, it is a straightforward
matter to determine the limit of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) . Or we can follow the rule that 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑔(𝑥) )
𝑒 𝑙𝑛(𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)) then we can take limit both sides

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𝟏 𝒙 𝟏
𝟐𝒙−𝟑 𝟐𝒙+𝟏
Example Evaluate a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝒙𝒙 ) b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝟏 + 𝒙) c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝒆𝒙 + 𝒙)𝒙 d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝟐𝒙+𝟓)
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
𝟏
e) 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙) 𝒙 Ans. a) 1 b) e c) 𝑒 d) 𝑒 −8 e) 0
𝑥→0

Sketching the graph

Procedure for Graphing y = ƒ(x)
1. Domain: determine the domain D of f , that is, the set of values of for which 𝑓is defined.
2. Intercepts: The y-intercept is 𝑓(0) and this tells us where the curve intersects the 𝑦-axis. To find
the 𝑥-intercepts, we set 𝑦 = 0. and solve for 𝑥.
3. Symmetry:
i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥) for all x in D, then f is an even function and the curve is symmetric about
the y-axis.
ii) If 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for all x in D, then f is an odd function and the curve is symmetric about
the origin.
iii) If 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all x in D, where p is a positive constant, then f is called a periodic
function and the smallest such number is called the period.
4. Asymptotes:
i) Horizontal Asymptotes: if either 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐿 or 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐿 then the line y = L is a
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f(x).

ii) Vertical Asymptotes: 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞ or 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞ then the line x = a is called
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

vertical asymptote of the curve y = f(x).

5. Intervals of Increase or Decrease: Use the Increasing/Decreasing Test
6. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: Use the first derivative test or the second derivative
test.
7. Concavity and Points of Inflection: Compute 𝑓"(𝑥) and use the Concavity Test.
8. Sketch the Curve: Using the information in items 1 − 7, draw the graph.
2𝑥 2
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1 by using above information

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