TLB’S Biology Classes

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

PART 1
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WHAT IS EXCRETION ?

• Metabolism of different chemical substances produce nitrogen

containing waste products such as ammonia , urea and uric acid etc .
• The process of elimination of nitrogenous waste products are called
excretion.
Based on the mode of nitrogen excretion there are three type of excretion.
• Ammonotelism
• Ureotelism
• Uricotelism

Ammonotelism

• The process of excretion of nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia

is called ammonotelism.
• The animals which excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic .
Ammonotelism is seen in aquatic animals. Why ?

• Ammonia is highly toxic and water soluble .

• A large amount of water is required for its elimination .
• So ammonotelism is seen in aquatic animals.

Ureotelism
• The process of excretion of nitrogenous waste in the form of urea is
called ureotelism.
• The animals which excrete urea is called ureotelic .
• Urea is less toxic and highly soluble in water than ammonia.

• Eg . man and other mammals ,terrestrial amphibians , marine fishes

etc.
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Uricotelism
• The animals which excrete the nitrogenous waste in the form of uric
acid are called uricotelism.
• Uric acid is less soluble in water and hence it does not require water for
its excretion .
• So uricotelism is exhibited by animals which require water
conservation.
Eg . reptiles , birds , insects land snails etc

EXCRETORY ORGANS OF INVERTEBRATES

1. Protonephridia (flame cells)
• These are the excretory structures of platyhelminthes (flat
worms)
• eg. Planaria, rotifers , some annelids and cephalochordates eg.
Amphioxus.
2. Nephridia

• These are the excretory structures of the earthworms and other

annelids.
3. Malphigian tubules

• These are excretory structures of most insects like cockroach.

4. Antennal glands or green glands

• These are excretory structures of crustaceans like prawn.

 TLB’S Biology Classes

EXCRETORY ORGANS OF VERTEBRATES

Kidneys
• Fishes / Amphibians / Reptiles / Birds / Mammals have complex
tubular organs for excretion called kidneys.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretory system of man consists of
• A pair of kidneys
• A pair of uretes
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
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STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY

• Each kidney is bean shaped and reddish brown structures

situated on either side of the vertebral column.
• It measures 10- 12 cm in length , 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness ,
120-170 g weight in adults .
• Outer surface of the kidney is convex and inner surface is concave.
• On the concave side there is a longitudinal opening called hilum.
• Through hilum ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.
• Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal
pelvis with projections called calyces.
• Outer layer of the kidney is renal cortex and inner layer is medulla .
• Medulla projects into the pelvis called medullary pyramids or renal
pyramids.

• The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids called Columns

Of Bertini.
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NEPHRON

• Each kidney has nearly one million tubular nephrons.

• Nephrons are the structural & functional units of kidney.

Parts Nephron

1. Bowman’s capsule
• At the proximal end nephron is curved and expand inwardly to form
double walled cup shaped structure called bowman’s capsule.
2. Glomerulus
• The network of capillaries within the bowman’s capsule is glomerulus.
3. Malpighian corpuscle

• Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is called the malpighian

body or renal corpuscle.

4. Proximal convoluted tubule(PCT)

• The coiled portion of nephron after the malpighian corpuscle is
proximal convoluted tubule .
5. Afferent arteriole
• The artery through which the blood enters the glomerulus is afferent
arteriole
 TLB’S Biology Classes

6. Efferent arteriole
• The artery from which the blood leaves the glomerulus is efferent
arteriole.
7. Loop of Henle
• A hairpin shaped tubular portion in between proximal and distal
convoluted tubule is Loop of Henle.
• It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb .
8. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• The highly coiled tubular portion after the ascending limb is distal
convoluted tubule.
9. Collecting duct
• The distal convoluted tubule of many nephrons open into a straight
tube called Collecting duct .

Types of nephron
• Based on the length of Loop of Henle two types of nephrons are there
1. Cortical nephrons
• In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and extends only
very little into the medulla. Such nephrons are called cortical nephrons.
2. Juxta medullary nephrons
• In some nephrons Loop of Henle is very long and runs deep into the
medulla .
• These nephrons are called Juxta medullary nephrons .

Peritubular capillaries
• Efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus form a fine capillary
network around the renal tubule is called peritubular capillaries.

Vasa recta

• Minute vessels of the peritubular capillaries of nephrons run parallel to

Loop of Henle forming a ‘ U’ shaped network of blood vessels called
vasa recta.
• Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.
TLB’S Biology Classes
 TLB’S Biology Classes

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

PART 2
For watching video, click the link below
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URINE FORMATION
• Urine is formed in the nephrons .
• It involves 3 steps
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
Glomerular Filtration
• It occurs in the malpighian corpuscles.
• When blood flows under high pressure through the glomerular
capillaries , water and dissolved substances of blood filter out into the
lumen of the bowman’s capsule .
• The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood
through 3 layers –

• the endothelium of glomerular blood vessel ,

• the epithelium of bowman’s capsule and
• a basement membrane between these two layers.

• The epithelial cells of bowman’s capsule called podocytes are arranged

in an intricate manner so as to leave some minute spaces called
filtration slits or slit pores.

• This fluid is known as glomerular filtrate.

• The glomerular filtrate contains all the constituents of blood except

blood corpuscles and plasma proteins .
• It contains glucose , urea , creatinine , mineral salts etc. .
• Therefore it is known as ultra filtration.
 TLB’S Biology Classes

• The volume of glomerular filtrate formed in bowman’s capsule per unit

time is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
• In man GFR rate is 125ml/ minute or about 180L/ day

2.Tubular reabsorption

• Out of 180L of glomerular filtrate formed , only 1.5 L of urine is

released .
• So 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed .
• Proximal and distal convoluted tubules , the loop of henle and
collecting duct are involved in reabsorption.
• Sugar , vitamins , organic nutrients and water are reabsorbed.

3.Tubular secretion

• It is the final step in urine formation and it involves the active secretion
of some substances from the blood into the filtrate.
• Proximal and distal convoluted tubules are the main parts of tubular
secretion.
• It helps in the maintenance of acid – base balance of the body.
FUNCTIONS OF THE TUBULES

1.Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT)

• PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium which
increases the surface area for reabsorption.
• Nearly all of the essential nutrients,
• 70-80 per cent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this
segment.
• PCT also helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids
by selective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions
–
into the filtrate and by absorption of HCO3 from it.
2. Descending limb of loop of henle
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but almost
impermeable to electrolytes.
• This concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.
 TLB’S Biology Classes

3. Ascending limb of loop of henle

• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of
electrolytes actively or passively.
• Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due
to the passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
4.Distal convoluted tubule

• Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in this segment.

–
• DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3 and selective secretion of
hydrogen and potassium ions and NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-
potassium balance in blood.
5. Collecting Duct
• This long duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts
of the medulla.
• Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region to
produce a concentrated urine.
• This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea into the
medullary interstitium to keep up the osmolarity.
• It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood
+ +
by the selective secretion of H and K ions
 TLB’S Biology Classes

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

PART 3
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MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

• The Henle’s loop and vasa recta play a significant role in this.

• The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in opposite

directions and thus forms a counter current.

• The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a

counter current pattern.

• The nature of arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa recta, as well as

the counter current in them help in maintaining an increasing

osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300

mOsmol/L in the cortex to about 1200 mOsmol/L in the inner medulla.

• This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea.

• Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water

from the collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine).

• The transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement of

Henle’s loop and vasa recta is called the counter current mechanism.
 TLB’S Biology Classes

REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION

1. Control By Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

2. Control By Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA)
3. Control By Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)

1. Control By Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

• ADH is also called vasopressin .

• It is secreted by hypothalamus and released into blood by pituitary.
• An excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate Osmoreceptors of
hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
from the neurohypophysis.
• When body fluid decreases, ADH is secreted and more water is
reabsorbed in the kidney tubules .
• Deficiency of ADH leads to the impermeability of tubules and excretion
of large amont of hypotonic urine .
• This diseases is Diabetes insipidus.
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2. Control By Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA)

• When the blood pressure in the afferent arteriole decreases JGA
releases an enzyme known as renin into the blood .
• Renin converts a plasma protein , angiotensinogen to a hormone
known as angiotensin II.
• Angiotensin II , constricts the arterioles and blood pressure is increased
and there by GFR.
• Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone.

• Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal

parts of the tubule.
• This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.
• This complex mechanism is generally known as the Renin-Angiotensin
mechanism.
 TLB’S Biology Classes

3. Control By Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)

• An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release
of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
• ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and thereby
decrease the blood pressure.
• ANF mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin
mechanism.
 TLB’S Biology Classes

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

PART 4
For watching video, click the link below
https://youtu.be/kJCIeQZ8c7o

MICTURITION
• The elimination of urine from the urinary bladder is known as
micurition .
• This is done by simultaneous contraction of the smooth muscles of the
urinary bladder and the relaxation of the skeletal muscles around the
opening of the urethral sphincter.
• The tendency for urination is generated by the stretch receptors in the
bladder and it send signals to the CNS.
• The CNS passes on motor messages to the respective muscles .
• This is the micturition reflex.

URINE
• Human adult produces around 1 to 1.5 liters of urine per day.
• It is slightly acidic – pH is 6
• It is pale yellow in colour , but colour ,volume and composition may
change with the nature of dietary intake.
• Analysis of urine helps to identify many metabolic disorders including
malfunctioning of kidney.
• Eg . Glycosuria - presence of glucose , Ketonuria - presence of ketone
bodies indicate diabetes mellitus.
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ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

• Other than the kidneys,

• lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of excretory
wastes.
Lungs
• Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (approximately
200mL/minute) and also significant quantities of water every day.
Liver
• Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing substances
like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones,
vitamins and drugs.
• Most of these substances ultimately pass out along with digestive
wastes.
Skin
• The primary function of sweat is to facilitate a cooling effect on the
body surface, it also helps in the removal of NaCl, small amounts of
urea, lactic acid, etc.
• Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum.
• This secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.

DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

UREMIA

• The accumulation of urea in blood due to the malfunctioning of kidneys

is uremia.
HAEMODIALYSIS
• It is the process which is used to purify blood of persons suffering from
kidney failure.
• In haemodialysis blood is taken out from an artery and mixed with an
anticoagulant ,heparin .
• Then the blood is pumped to the apparatus called artificial kidney
[haemodialyser]
• The artificial kidney contains a cellophane tube , bathed in a fluid with
ionic concentration similar to plasma.
• The porous cellophane membrane allows the passage of molecules
based on concentration gradient
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• As the blood passes through the cellophane tube the wastes diffuses
from the blood.
• The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after
adding anti –heparin to it .

KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
• Diseased kidney may be replaced with healthy ones by a process known
as kidney transplantation.
• Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute
renal failures (kidney failure).
• A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor,
preferably a close relative, to minimise its chances of rejection by the
immune system of the host.

RENAL CALCULI:

• Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed

within the kidney.

GLOMERULONEPHRITIS
• Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney