LITERATURE SURVEY:

What is aluminium ?
Aluminium is a 13 element of periodic table which is having silver white colour. It is most
prevailing element on the earth and availability in the earth core mass is more than 8%. After
oxygen and silicon aluminium is third most chemical element.
Pure aluminium doesn't exist in nature but its Binding nature of aluminium with another
element is easy. First time aluminium was produced in 1824 and the Common form of
aluminium are aluminium sulphate.
Aluminium sulphate is used in day-to-day life to clean water, cooking, medicine etc. and the
ores of aluminium are Bauxites and Corundum.[1]

Properties of aluminium
• it is 3 time lighter than iron.
• Durabliliy of aluminium is almost same as steel.
• The process of ductility is easy.
• Due to formation oxide layer on aluminium surface, it possesses corrosion resistant
property.

Aluminium alloy
Aluminium alloy is broadly divided into two categories

1. Cast alloy
In this type of alloy alloying element is greater than 22%. On increasing alloying element
alluminium loses its ductility and brittleness increases. It has low melting point and tensile
strength as compared to wrought aluminium. Most commonly cast aluminium alloy is
aluminium silicon in which amount of silicon is in high percentage due to this it can easily cast.
Cast alloy of aluminium are named with the help of four numbers and the first three digits
represents the alloy
and fourth digit represent form of product is as shown below table 1
Table 1: Different cast aluminum grades, with their general information shown.

Aluminum Alloying Strengthen Cracking Corrosion Finishing Joining

grade elements ing Process Resistance
 1xx.x unalloyed Non-heat- - 1 1 1
treatable
2xx.x Copper Heat- 4 4 1-3 2-4
treatable
3xx.x Silicon, Heat- 1-2 2-3 3-4 1-3
Magnesiu treatable
m, Copper
4xx.x Silicon Heat- 1 2-3 4-5 1
treatable
5xx.x Magnesiu Non-heat- 4 2 1-2 3
m treatable
6xx.x NOT USED NOT USED - - - -
7xx.x Zinc Heat- 4 4 1-2 4
treatable
8xx.x Tin, Heat- 5 5 3 5
Copper, treatable
Nickel
1xx.x alloys
1xx.x cast alloy is a pure cast aluminium alloy, unalloyed aluminium due to this it has more
corrosive resistant, high machinability and well welding property. Uses of this type of alloys are
manufacturing rotors or cladding corrosion-prone alloy.

2xx.x alloys
In these alloying elements are copper, manganese, chromium and magnesium. After heat
treatment it gains additional strength due to copper composition it has corrosion resistant
property and less ductile and more brittle. Major application of this alloy is in automobile
industry to making exhaust system and aircraft industries

3xx.x alloys
3xx.x cast alloys having silicon, copper, and magnesium. sometime nickel and beryllium are also
use. For enhancing the properties like high strength, corrosion resistant, fatigue strength, and
good machinability with the help of heat treatment. Some common applications are
automotive cylinder blocks, pumps, compressor and aircraft fittings .

4xx.x alloys
In this type of alloy only silicon alloying element are use. It is not heat treatable. It possesses
good costing quality, good welding, high strength, corrosion and wear resistance. Common
application to making casings and bridge railing support casing.

5xx.x alloys
In this type of alloy using alloying element is magnesium not heat treatable. It has a good
machinability, high corrosion resistance, aesthetic surface when anodized. Application of this
alloy is sand catted part.

7xx.x alloys
The main alloying element of this alloy is zinc and this is a heat [Link] is high rigid and good
machinable, high finishing and more corrosive.

8xx.x
8xx.x cast alloy contains tin and small amount of copper and Nickle alloying element and it is
not a heat treatable. It having low strength, well machinability and wear and corrosion
resistance. It uses to make bearing and ic-engine.

2. Wrought Alloys
Wrought aluminium alloys contains less than or equal to 4% of alloying elements. It has
excellent mechanical properties, structural integrity, better surface finish, easy to machining
and welding.
Wrought alloy of aluminium are named with the help of four numbers but they do not contain
the decimal places and the first digit represents the class of aluminium alloy that share alloying
element and The second digit, unless it is a 0, indicates a modification of the alloy and the third
and fourth digits are identification numbers for the specific alloy. is as shown below table 2

Table 2: Different cast aluminum grades, with their general information shown
[2].

Aluminum Alloying Strengthen Strength Corrosion Workabilit Joining/W

grade elements ing Process Resistance y/Formabil elding
ity
1xxx Unalloyed Strain- 5 1 1 3
(99% Al) hardening
2xxx Copper Heat- 1 4 4 5
treatable
3xxx Manganes Strain- 3 2 1 1
e hardening
4xxx Silicon Depends 3 4 1 1
on alloy
5xxx Magnesiu Strain- 2 1 1 1
m hardening
 6xxx Magnesiu Heat- 2 3 2 2
m, Silicon treatable
7xxx Zinc Heat- 1 1 4 3
treatable
8xxx Other Limited - - - -
elements

1xxx alloys
This is a 99% pure commercial aluminium in this no such alloy are adding they are good for
chemical and electrical and have high corrosion resistance and workability.

The most popular alloy of this 1xxx alloy is 1100 aluminium alloy. It has good ductility as well as
good workability.

2xxx alloys
2xxx alloys has majorly copper content and small amount of magnesium and their alloying
elements. After heat treatment it gains high strength but corrosion resistant decreases due to
its copper content.

The main use of this type alloy is for high strength and fatigue resistance example 2024
aluminium.

3xxx alloys
The main alloying element of this alloy is manganese due to this it gains strength. This type
grade is one of the best general-purpose alloys available in market. Example 3003 aluminium
This grade is used for deep drawn or spun welded or brazed.

4xxx alloys
4xxx alloy contains silicon element as major content due to this alloy having lower melting point
without affecting its ductility the main use if this alloy wire welding, brazing and join other
grade of aluminium alloys. After heat treatment it doesn't show any change in a mechanical
property. The most popular alloy is 4047 aluminium it offers good thermal and electrical
conductivity, corrosion resistant and higher melting point.

5xxx alloys
5xxx alloy contains magnesium as major alloying element. It having strain hardening, easy to
weld and high corrosion resistant in a marine environment. The application of this type of grade
is boats hulls, gangplanks and other marine equipment.
5052 aluminium is the highest strength alloys and better fatigue strength than other aluminium
grades.
6xxx alloys
6xxx series aluminium alloy the main alloying element is magnesium and silicon it is the heat
treatable alloy and after heat treatment process its strength is improved. But strength is less
than 2xxx and 7xxx alloys. This alloys mainly used for architectural marine and general-purpose
applications.
6061 and 6082 aluminium alloys have similar mechanical properties but strength of 6082 is
10%-18% higher than 6061. cost of 6061 is higher than 6082.
7xxx alloys
7xxx alloys contains zinc as an alloying element. this is light weight element as compare to all
other aluminium grades due to increase in content of zinc which decreases its workability and
machinability but increases its strength and gain high stiffness.

7075 aluminium is a normally used for application in aircraft industry, mobile equipment and
high stress component.

8xxx alloys
8xxx alloys the main alloying elements are iron and silicon and the weight percentage of .4-1.7%
and 0.05-1.1% respectively. It has characteristic of softening behavior, strength and ductility.
with the help of heat treatment, it can manage their own mechanical properties. the main uses
of this alloy to making helicopter components, aerospace application and design [5].

Aluminum Grade Specification & Selection Criteria: -

The selection criteria of aluminium alloys according to its application. For construction industry criteria is
durability and corrosion resistance for sheet metal, fabrication selection criteria are formability for heat
exchanger material should be conductive. In mechanical engineering thermochemical properties
suitability for machining are more important [6].

• Machining
• Weldability
• Corrosion resistant
• Formability or workability
• Heat treating
• strength
Table 3 selection criteria according to its applications

Applications Main selection criteria Alloys commonly Comments

of users selected by users
Sheet-metal fabrication Forming, welding 1200,1100, 1050A,
3105,3003,3004,
5049,5052,5454,
5754,5086,5083,
6082, 6061
 Mechanical Mechanical 2618A, 2024,2017A, 2030, 2011, 6012 and
applications properties, 2014, 2214,2030, 6262 are free,
machinability 2011,5086,5083, machining alloys
6005A, 6082,6061,
6012, 6262,7075,
7049A
Construction of aircraft Lightness, mechanical 2618A, 2024,2014,
and spacecraft properties, 2214, 2219,7020,
formability, 7075,7175,7475,
machinability, 7050,7010
suitability for
surface treatments,
corrosion resistance
Commercial vehicles Forming, joining 3003,3004,5052,
(welding), 5454,5754,5086,
functionalities of 5083, 6005A, 6082
semi-products,
appearance,
corrosion resistance
Shipbuilding Forming, welding, 5754,5086,5083,
corrosion resistance 6005A, 6082
Building Forming, joining, 1050A, 3105,3003, Pre-coated coil:
suitability for 3005,5005,5052, 1050A, 3105, 3003,
anodizing and 6060,6005A, 6106 3005, 5052;
painting, Preanodised
corrosion resistance coil: 5005
Outdoor installations, Forming, joining 3003,5052,5086, Tread plate: 3003,
urban amenities (welding), 5083,6005A, 6082, 5754, 5086
functionalities of 6060, 6106
semi-products,
appearance,
corrosion resistance

6xxx Series Alloy: -

The alloying elements of 6xxx series are silicon and magnesium. The properties of these alloys'
good corrosion resistance, mostly environment corrosion resistance, but mechanical
characteristic which is increase by adding silicon in excess amount. Its uses for arc welding,
brazing and electrolytic brightening for attractive surface finishing. If magnesium adding in excess
amount, then it increases corrosion resistance but decreases its mechanical properties [7]. the
wight to strength ratio offered by 6xxx alloy due to this it can use for light weight military vehicles,
aircrafts, missiles, cars and for civil purpose [8].
Table 3 Main 6xxx series alloy
Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg
AA6063 0.20 0.35 0.10 .10 .45
0.6 .9
AA6060 .3 .1 .1 .1 .35
.6 .3 .6
AA6005A .5 .35 .3 .5 .4
.9 .7
AA6082 .7 .5 .1 .4 .6
1.3 1.0 1.2
AA6016 1.0 .5 .2 .2 .25
1.5 .6

AA6061 .4 .7 .15 .15 .8

.8 .4 1.2
AA6111 .5 .4 .5 .1 .5
1.1 .9 .45 1.0
AA6013 .6 .5 .6 .2 .8
1.0 1.1 .8 1.2
AA6056 .7 .5 .5 .4 .6
1.3 1.1 1.0 1.2

AA6082 alloy can achieve high strength up to 320 to 340Mpa and high mechanical property in the T6
temper. example AA605A. The use of this type of alloy is in railway carriage, industrial vehicles, ship
building and in mechanical application

AA6016 has sufficient strength up to 220Mpa in the T4 temper.

AA6061 have medium strength of alloy up to 310Mpa in the T6 temper. and also, good corrosion resistant.
The use of this alloy is in transportation like railway carriage, pipeline, industrial vehicle, welded boiler
part.

AA6013 was evolved to replacing AA2024 at T4 temper. The uses of this type alloy aircraft industry for
making a structure of airplanes.

AA6050 has a similar mechanical property like AA2024 at T4 temper. It has good mechanical properties
corrosion resistance, welding and machinability.

AA6111 is making by addition of copper with AA6082 due to this it has an excellent strength and ductility
for automotive structure and automotive paneling, and corrosion resistance.

Alumunium alloy 6082

The main alloying element is magnesium and silicon

• Aluminium silicon alloy system

 It is an uncommon eutectic system in this two-phase present. At the time of solidification solid
phase is in eutectic into the liquid. This type of system is sensitive towards the solidification .by
changing solidification and addition of foreign elements phase can be altered.

Silicon played a vital role as alloying element in aluminium for casting because of good fluidity as
it provides relative volume is large in Al-Si eutectic. And silicon is also help in decreasing
coefficient of thermal expansion. But for performing machining process it becomes difficult as
silicon is present.

For solidification of pure Al-Si alloy it produces course type of microstructure where eutectic
consists of large plates and needle like structure of silicon in continuous of aluminium matrix. As
it is having course type of microstructure due to this its ductility is decreases but brittleness
increases. By doing rapid cooling at the time of Moulding of casting its microstructure improve
due to this its property like tensile and ductility increases.
Eutectic composition having good ductility, on adding iron content the formation of large plate
minimize. On adding manganese is good for enhancing the properties. If the percentage is less
than 8% of silicon then the ductility is not good as required.
This type of alloy is used for permanent and sand Mould casting. in this strength is not a main
factor. Examples automobile industry, pump castings and domestic cookware.

• Solidification of aluminum silicon alloys

The phase diagram of Al-Si alloy is shown in fig2. In this figure the eutectic temperature is 577
degree Celsius at this temperature the solubility of silicon in aluminium is 1.59% and 0.05% at
room temperature. the big portion of aluminium rich solvus and solidus of Al-Si alloy phase
diagram is shown in fig. 2.2. At the eutectic temperature the solid solubility of alumnium in
silicon is 0.001% [35]
Al-Si alloy produces primary aluminium with dendritic like structure in a hypoeutectic and in
eutectic silicon in the interdendritic like structure and where dendritic structure present there is
rate of solidification is a slow. In the eutectic silicon phase silicon grows as large plates like
structure. Firstly, the growth of plates is straight and after some time branches started and its
direction also changes which was observed by Chadwick.[28]
With the help of twin plane re-entrant edge mechanism, the growth of eutectic silicon can take
place in which there is change in direction and branching of silicon take place seen Kobayashi et
al [36]. In Al-Si at the time of solidification first phase is primary silicon and the left-out liquid
solidifies as primary aluminium and Al-Si eutectic. As the nucleation started of primary silicon the
composition of liquid nearby primary silicon increases and the composition of liquid goes down
the liquidus which in not expectable extension until the aluminium form. As the nucleation
started primary aluminium that is composition of liquid.
 Fig.2.1 Phase diagram of Al-Si alloy system
Fig.2.2

Alloying elements and their effects: -

In aluminium alloys mainly classified in three groups hardening alloys, work hardening, edge
hardening and casting.

Work hardening: -
Work hardening are two types.

1) Auminium-manganese based alloy at the time of formation fine grains are formed due to which
there is gradually increasing strength.
2) Aluminium-magnesium based alloy in this magnesium present in solid solution and due to
which there is large increasing in strength.

Age hardening: -
At the elevated temperature the alloying element can be dissolved and precipitated at lower
temperature due to this there is significant increase in strength. E.g., Al-Cu-Mg-Zn, Al-Mg-Zn, Al-
Si-Mg, Al-Zn-Mg.

Casting: -
 For casting alloys mainly silicon is used as main alloying element because of this mold can
completely filled as and restrict hot cracking.

• Effect of copper and magnesium

On adding copper and magnesium there is increase in strength after doing solution treatment
aging and quenching. In alloys like Al-Cu-Mg strength and ductility increases due to aging. By
doing artificial aging there is further increase in strength mainly yield strength increases. At a
time doing casting on adding magnesium there is increase in strength and decrease in ductility of
aluminium copper alloy and the corrosion resistance of aluminium copper alloy mainly depends
on which type of product and thermal treatment.

• Effect of zinc and magnesium

On adding magnesium to the aluminium zinc alloys strength increases and on adding magnesium
and zinc formation of an intermetallic compound MgZn2 Mg due to which it there is good
response on doing heat treatment. On further addition of magnesium improves strength of
wrought aluminium zinc alloys decreases the corrosion resistance of aluminium which also
controls over the microstructure.

• Effect of transition metals

In this there is addition of Mn, Cr and Zr because precipitated as a dispersion of fine intermetallic
phase particle but the diameter is less than 1μm and no dissolution during annealing and hot
working. This dispersion of fine intermetallic phase particle used to sub grain or pin grain
boundaries due to this it improves toughness, strength and corrosion resistance. Many of the
element having low solubility in aluminium and are isolated to the dendrites during casting.

• Aluminium-silicon-copper
This type of alloy is used fore casting, permanent Mould or die and heat-treated condition. These
alloys are also helping in corrosion resistance, strength and machinability. On addition of copper
ductility reduces but hardness increases of the alloys.

• Aluminium-silicon-magnesium

On adding magnesium there is greatly increases the response to heat treatment of aluminium
silicon alloys because of forming the MgSi compound due to which its solid solubility changes
with temperature, which allows considerable of heat-treating effects. On addition of magnesium
there is increase in 5-11% silicon which increases strength and hardness but elongation
decreases. The aluminium silicon magnesium having very good castability and high corrosion
resistance.

• Aluminium-silicon-magnesium-copper
This type of alloy is a multi-component of a system which produces alloys that can be heat treated
and provide very good combination of castability and strength silicon improves casting
properties. on adding copper and magnesium their strength and machinability improves after
heat treatment.

• Aluminium-silicon and other elements

On addition of Fe up to 1% has almost no effects on corrosion resistance but reduces elongation

and strength, surface shrinkages minimize and die sticking reduces. On adding zinc up to 1% in
aluminium silicon casting there is no effects on corrosion resistance but strength and hardness
increases and elongation decreases. On addition of chromium, nickel or tin up to 0.5% have
negligible or no impacts on properties of the aluminum silicon alloys.

Composite Material: -
A composite material is a combination of two material which have special properties to its
constituent's material these materials are mixture in microscopic scale and make a new material.
Composite material provides various useful properties by appropriate matrix and its
reinforcements in composite material. Specific strength and stiffness are excellent this is the
primary reason to choose the composites material. The properties of composites mainly depend
on second phase material e.g., high temperature and wear resistance properties of aluminium
improve by mixing of reinforcement material silicon carbide, silica etc. [1]

Composite material broadly classified [2] in two type on the basis of the ratio of length to
diameter of the reinforcement material.
1. Fiber reinforced composite (fibrous composites)
1.1 Single layer composites
1.1.1 Continuous fiber reinforced composites
• Unidirectional reinforcement
• Bidirectional reinforcement (woven reinforcements)
1.1.2 Discontinuous fiber reinforced composites
• Random orientation
• Preferred orientation

1.2 Multilayered composites

 1.2.1 Laminates
1.2.2 Hybrids
2. Particle reinforced composites (Particle composites)
2.1 Random orientation
2.2 Preferred orientation
Application of composite [1]: - 2.1

S. No Properties
Composites Applications
1. Al-SiC High strength to wear Piston, break & cylinder liner,
resistance, High stiffness Aerospace components
Whisker
2. Al-Al2O3 High Strength and Connecting rods & Cylinder
Stiffness blocks.
3. Al-TiC Reduced friction wear Cylinder liners & bearing
and light weight pistons.

Types of matrix according to its nature: -

1) Ceramic matrix composite (CMCs)

2) Polymer's matrix composite (PMCs)

3) Metal matrix composite (MMCs)

1) Ceramic matrix composite (CMCs): -

At elevated temperature due to chemical activity and low density combine effect of these in
ceramic increasing its strength and stability. it is a high-performance material therefore the
demand of this material is increasing for wide rang application from aerospace industry, defense
organization and biomedical company in current time. Ceramic materials are brittle, notch
sensitive and thermal shock absorbers at medium and low temperature. the increment of
toughness and strength due to diffusion of particles in the ceramic material. Due to dispersion
crack arrest point comes and effect of this fracture toughness and damping efficiency increases
which seen by Mahajan et al. [60]

2) Polymer's matrix composite (PMCs): -

In these types of composites have low ductility and stiffness which associated with high strength
and stiffness of ceramic. The disastrous effect is detracting because of polymer matrix. Boran,
graphite, Kevlar and corban are key reinforcements element material. It is used to make addition
in aramid fiber, nylon, PET which is reported by Bunsell [61].

3) Metal matrix composite (MMCs): -

In this type of composites have a combined property of both composites CMCs (toughness and
ductility) and PMCs (high modulus, high strength and high hardness) [58,59] so that it has
exquisite combination of high stiffness, high strength, good damping property, high friction, wear
and low coefficient of thermal expansion. For the synthesizing of these composites different
types of matrix used in which aluminum, magnesium, titanium, cobalt, silver and iron are
including.
Aluminum Based MMCs: -
In this type composites are used for several application to making automobile and aerospace
machine parts because of it having high strength to its rate ratio, light weight cheap cast easy
availability and grater machineability and processability present day Usses of aluminum based
MMCs in various areas such as to make space machinery structure, automobiles aerospace,
thermal control and response. for design of structure are requiring abnormally high precise
strength, high toughness and precise modulus. For commercially production of AMCs fine grain
(<10μm) of silicon carbide alumina, carbon and boron are used. Coarser grain (>20μm) of
composites materials which have magnificent tribological characteristic together with required
mechanical feature can induced for various tribological implementation. By using of hard (SiC,
SiO₂, ZrSiO₄, Al₂O₃) and soft (mica, graphite, talc) for synthesizing of AMCs. formation of antifriction
material, soft particles AMCs are uses and hard particles AMCs are used to induced seizure and
wear materials.

Table 2.2 Application of discontinuously Reinforced metals [62,63]

Non-regular reinforcement for MMCs there is specific properties of phase is used. Which are
tabulated in table 2.3. the generally reinforcement component uses in non-regular reinforced
MMCs and AMCs are Al₂O₃ [22] and SiC [23] due to their minimum production expenses, easily
manufacturing and comparably isotropic characteristic. The reinforced AMCs Al/SiC- MMCs are
used for developed automobile equipment, recreation component and sports materials the
weight of these composite comparability half then steel and also minimum vibration and noise.
The application of continuous fiber reinforcement is because of their high cost which is studied
by Bhansali et al. [65] the complicated fabrication method, expenses of continuous fibers and
deficient fabricability would prevent their practical application therefore discontinuous
reinforced composites are used for practical application. Particularly SiC reinforced composites
and staple Al₂O₃ as observed by Rohatgi et al. [24].
Table 2.3: Properties of selected phases used as discontinuous reinforcements for
MMCs
The application of non-regular fiber for diesel piston in ring portion and whisker reinforced are
uses for aerospace implementation as a selective reinforcement which is observed by Gupta et
al. [51] Reinforced practical is light weight material which is a low-cost material, high strength
and modulus, easily fabrication and high defiance to wear these characteristics make it for
commercial manufacturing. Several factors which are influence the mechanical and physical
characteristic of these composite util its crystallized because of these materials are very sensitive
various factors such as verity of reinforcement, method of manufacturing and fabrication method
of material after beginning of manufacture. Al₂O₃ and SiC reinforced material getting the more
attention, and properties of these reinforcement are mention in,
Particle Elastic Density Coefficient Specific Thermal
Modulus gm/cc of Thermal Heat Conductivity Poisons
GPa expansion Kg-1 K-1 Wm-1 K-1 Ratio
K-1

SiC 420-450 3.2 4.3x10-6 840 10-40 at 0.17

1100/oC
Al2O3 380-450 3.96 1.0x10-6 1050 5-10 at 1000/oC 0.25

PROCESSING OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

MMCs technique s are used for low viscosity posed by liquid metals due to which it is easy for
shaping and synthesizing of metal matrix composites. There are four liquid phase fabrication
technique are infiltration (centrifugal, pressure, Lorentz force, vacuum, reactive and squeeze
casting), spray co-deposition (liquid-liquid, solid-liquid, liquid-gas), mixing type (ultrasonic,
impeller, injection MHD (semi-solid) mix alloy) and in-situ fabrication (PRIMEX of Lanxide and
self-infiltration DIMOX for Zn, Al MMCs). For composite melt casting can be done using
conventional casting process like high and low pressure die casting, permanent Mould casting,
squeeze casting, sand casting, investment casting, centrifugal casting, rapid solidification and
continuous casting etc.

2.1 Infiltration Techniques: -

In this type of composites many different types of techniques are used to fabricate both high
melting point matrix composites (TiAl, NiAl, Ni3Al) fiber present on reinforcement and specifically
for Tic, Sic, TiB2 and carbon [66, 67] and low melting point matrix composites (Zn, Mg, Cu and
Pb). Mainly there is three types of techniques used for cast composites are squeeze casting,
vacuum infiltration and pressure infiltration. Some of the basic techniques are described below.

2.2 pressure infiltration: -

Some of the techniques of pressurized are shown in the below diagram fig 2.4 there is four types
of casting techniques come under this i) top-pour casting in this molten metal is poured inside
the cavity from top of Mould and after this pressure is applied so that it can fill complete cavity.
ii) Top-fill in this with the help of downward force applied on the molten metal by pressurized
inside a Mould. iii) bottom-fill casting in this type of casting from Mould filled bottom to top by
pressurized.
As the filling of molten metal completed pressure increases rapidly. After some time, uniform
state of pressure is reached throughout the Mould. And the left-out voids filled isostatically.
Bottom casting is setup with the help of fill tube and placed over molten metal the temperature
of the metal and Mould are adjust independently. Once the temperature of the molten metal
reached on desired temperature in a vacuum condition then the pressure vessel closed. With the
help of inert gas acts on vacuum outside of the Mould. Due to this pressure inside the vessel
increases and completely infiltrated. Chills are used to increase the solidification rate and to
compensate the shrinkage by adding molten metal.
Top fill casting melt chamber and Mould both are integral part of die. In this casting there is only
one furnace use. After achieving same temperature of the melt chamber and Mould. With the
help of ceramic, it separates the melting area from the area of Mould and restricts the molten
metal from entering the Mould up to the vessel pressurized.
Fig. 2.4: (a) Vacuum infiltration and (b) & (c) pressure infiltration casting in (b)
counter gravitational configuration and (c) gravity-assist configuration.

2.3 VACUUM INFILTRATION

Vacuum infiltration technique is examined by chamion [69] and Nientit [68]. it is very useful for
producing negative pressure between surrounding and the preform. This is a simple technique
and no need of expensive tool. Dupont's vacuum infiltration process fiber yarn is made of hand
able tape with the help of fugitive binders (resins).

2.4 CASTING TECHNIQUE

With the help of centrifugal casting, gravity or pressure die slurry casting done by conventional foundry
technique or by new techniques example spray co-deposition and squeeze casting. To make good
quality there should be a good choice for Mould configuration and casting techniques because of the
extra particles experience a movement due to buoyancy in the solidifying melt particles like mica,
graphite, porous aluminium, talc and empty micro-balloons. The weight of micro-balloons is less than
many of the aluminium alloys, and this collecting on the top of the gravity casting due to this at bottom
of the casting impoverished particle region. The 3D arrangement of the ceramic phase can find out the
characteristics of the cast composite. The change in phases is mainly depends on the behaviors of
molten metal particle slurry prior to casting and by the addition of variables given below.

• At a time of solidification existence of any external forces.

• Dimensions of particles like shape, size and fraction of volume.
• Thermal properties of matrix alloy and particles.
• Interaction of particles with the help of morphology of Crystaline phases and chemistry.
• Specific gravities of the melt and particles.
• Viscosity of the solidifying melt.
• On ceramics nucleation of primary phase and pushing or entrapment of particles by solidifying
interphase.

COMPOCASTING
Discrete fibers and tiny particles of Al2O3, Graphite, Nitride Sic, silicon, boron carbide etc. Can
be consolidated into excited partly solidified Al alloy slurries by this technique. The discrete
ceramic particle is mechanically entrapped between pre – eutectic phase existing in alloy slurry
which is held b/w its solids and liquid’s temperature. When we applying mechanical load on
such alloy slurry it becomes less viscous and its shear rate increases [71]. Gibson et al. [72] have
studied that squeeze cast aluminum (4-16%) silicon alloys contained (2-8%) graphite particles
which were found in the alloy formed by this technique. To avoids surface agitation of the melt
and air entrapment, a special type of rotor is used [73]. Flemming pointed out that when alloys
are vigorously agitated during solidification, solid which forms has special non-dendritic
structure.
Partially solidified metals of this structure behave as highly fluid slurries at solid fraction up to
60%. Mehrabian et al. [22] used ‘compo casting’ to describe an application of rheocasting.

Fig. 2.5: Different configuration used in Infiltration of Composite

• PRESSURE DIE CASTING

In Pressure die casting we can produce larger and more complex shapes of composites at
relatively low pressure (<15 MPa). A hydraulic ram and pressurized gas have been applied in a
die casting machine to synthesize highly dense fibre and well reinforced composites. It has been
studied that high pressure, short penetration path and columnar grain solidification toward the
gate, produce void-less composite casting. The pressure die cast particle have more uniform
particle distribution, composites show lower bulk and interfacial porosities. Quigley et al.
Reported that pressure die casting can be used to increase the concentration of fibre in the
composites and used for simultaneous 2-D alignments of the fibres. [57]
 • SQUEEZE CASTING
Squeeze casting process is also known as liquid forging process of metal matrix composites. [75,
76] In this process unidirectional pressure [70-200 MPa] is applied on molten slurry to produce
near-net-shape and void free casting of composites. Figure 2.6 shows the schematic diagram of
squeeze casting technique of composite fabrication. The processing variables governing the
enhancement of mechanical properties and microstructures in squeeze cast metal matrix
composites are following:
[Link] speed and pressure.
[Link] fibre spacing.
[Link] and melt preheat temperature.
If the fibre temperature is too low porous and poorly infiltrated castings are produced. High
temperature results uncontrolled metal reaction which degrades the casting properties. To
overcome the viscous friction of molten metal moving through reinforcements and capillary
forces a threshold pressure is required. Composites of aluminum alloy having Al2O3 and SiC
powders and silicon nitride whiskers have been casted by the squeeze casting process. Tubular
and plate composites of aluminum alloy having discontinuous or continuous fibres can also be
synthesized by this technique.

Mr. Rajgopal studied that the main process of the solidification is completed under high
pressure and melt pressure, which is several times higher than the melt pressure developed in
conventional foundry practices [77]. Tanaka et al. Reported that squeeze casting process has
been used commercially for the aerospace, automotive and other applications [78].

Fig. 2.6: Diagram showing plunger and die arrangement in a typical squeeze casting
operation
• INJECTION TECHNIQUE
In this process of forming composites, ceramic particles are converted into the melt via an inert
carrier gas. Since the metal doesn’t wet the particles because they are enclosed by gas bubbles.
The particles are transferred into the melt from the gaseous phase as the gas bubble rise
through the melt. In the gas injection technique of composite making an inert gas stream
transfer the ceramic particles from a powder feeder into the melt via a harpoon submerged
below the surface of the melt. The powder feed rate, gas pressure and melt temperature
together with the depth of immersion of the top of the harpoon are necessary process
variables. The nature of the carrier gas is crucial; it has been studied [79, 80] that argon as a
carrier gas is not successful in the injection of alumina in magnesium melt, if we use argon as a
carrier gas the ceramic particles are rejected by the melt. Although using nitrogen gas results
entrainment of particle in the melt, only a small tendency for rejection being noticed. In the
injection of Corbon particles in the aluminum the nickel coated graphite powder is applied in
the metal before injection which increase the wettability and improve graphite recovery in the
casting. Since nickel rapidly dissolve in aluminum and the light graphite particle floating in the
melt when relatively long processing times are used.

During injection the gas plume is divided into bubbles a tiny distance ahead of the submerged
portion of the harpoon. These lighter bubbles losses their forward momentum faster than the
particles sum up within the bubbles and start rise to the free surface of the melt. Then the
particles within the rising bubbles contract the bubble melt boundary reverse the direction of
motion of the bubble (Fig. 2.7). The condition for particle shifts into the melt across this bubble
melt interface are favored if the kinetic energy of the encapsulated particle is just sufficient to
overcome the force of surface tension and if the kinetic energy of the particle is less than the
threshold value, the injection technique results in a slightly inhomogeneous particle distribution
and particle clustering is at best suited to making master alloy ingot for further processing.

• STIR CASTING
In this casting technique a mechanical stirrer [81] or high intensity ultrasonic treatment [82, 83]
is used to stir the molten metal. This action distributes the reinforcing phase, that is added to
the melt surface. Then the composite melt having suspended reinforcement is solidified in a
die. Figure shown below shows the schematic diagram of the stir casting process using a stirrer
submerged into the melt. The kinetics of transfer of particles and thermodynamics or fibrous
reinforcement from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the oxide film and finally from
the liquid to the solid phase.
Fig. 2.7: Diagram showing principle of gas injection technique of introducing ceramic
particles in molten metals for synthesis of discontinuously reinforced metal-
matrix composites.

Fig. 2.8: Schematic views of stir casting process

2.5.10 Spray deposition
In this technique, the droplets are simultaneously sprayed over the particles when the melt is automized
as reported by Singer (87). This results that the automized metal collects the reinforcing
phase and is accumulated on the metallic substrate and gets solidified. The spray
Deposition process is a hybrid very fast solidification process, in this process the metal
senses a very fast transition from the liquidus to the solidus followed by a slow colling
process from solidus to room temperature. The result after this process is refined grains
and precipitated structure without any increase in solute solubility. The spray co-
deposition process is an alternate process of the basic process, where ceramic particles
are sprayed and cold deposited with the alloy droplet (88). In this process, the deposition
rate is 6-10 kg/min. ALCAN has developed this process for producing 200 kg ingots. This
process is used to produce MMC ingot by collecting particulate into the spray deposition
meal spray leading to the co-deposition with automized metal onto the substrate.
Regulation of the particulate and automizing produced 95% to 98% dense aluminium
MMC. Many aluminium alloys containing SIC can be produced by this technique.
Zhenhua et al. (89) have studied that this process combines very fast solidification and
near-net-shape fabrication. This process is an effective way to produce performs in a
single step operation directly from molten alloy.
 FIG.2.9: Spray co-deposition unit
Matrix Dispersoids Size (μm) Amount
Aluminium based Graphite flake 20-60 0.9-0.815%
Graphite granular 15-100 1-8%
Carbon microballoons 40, thickness 1-2 ---
Shell char 125 15%
Al2O3 particles 3-200 3-30%
Al2O3 discontinuous 3-6mm long, 15μm 0-23 vol.%
dia.
SiC particles 16-120 3-20%
SiC Whiskers 5-10 10%
Mica 40-180 3-10%
 SiO2 5-53 5%
Zircon 40 0-30%
Glass particles 100-150 8%
Glass beads (spherical) 100 30%
MgO 40 10%
Sand 75-120 36vol.%
TiC particles 46 15%
Boron nitride particle 46 8%
Si3N4 particle 40 10%
Zirconia, ZrO2 5-80 4%
Titania,TiO2 5-80 4%
Lead --- 10%
Copper based Graphite --- ---
Al2O3 11 0.74 vol.%
ZrO2 5 2.12 vol.%
Steel TiO2 8 ---
Cerium dioxide, CeO2 10 ---
Illite clay 753 3%
Graphite micro balloons --- --
Tin based Babbit Graphite particle --- ---
Al2O3 --- ---
Tin based Zn --- ---
Mg based Graphite fibers --- 40-60vol.%
Zn based Pb --- 7%
Table 2.4: Selected landmarks in the development in Cast Metal Matrix

Composites during 1965-2000 [90]

Period Location Composite System Technique Used Researchers

1965 Inco, USA Aluminium-Graphite Gas Injection, Badia

Aluminium-Silicon Stir casting Rohatgi
Crbide
Aluminium-Alumina
1968 IIT, Kanpur, Aluminium-Alumina Stir casting Ray, Rohatgi
India
1974 IISc, Bangalore, Aluminium-Silicon Stri casting Rohatgi
carbide
India Surappa
Aluminium-Al2O3
Nath
Aluminium-Mica
1975 MIT, USA Aluminium-Alumina Compocasting Mehrabian,
(and other particles) Sato
Flemings
1979 RRL, Aluminium-Silicate Stir casting Rohatgi, Ram
Trivandrum, Aluminium-TiO2; ZrO2 Banerjee
In
di
a
1980 Duralcan, USA Aluminium-SiC Stir casting Skibo
Schuster
1981 Hitachi, Japan Aluminium-Graphite Pressure casting Suwa
1983 Toyota, Japan Aluminium-Saffil Squeeze casting
1984 RRL, Bhopal, Aluminium- Stir casting Rohatgi, Das
Microba
India
lloons
1985 Martin Marietta Aluminium-TiC X-DTM
1986 MIT, USA Aluminium-SiC Prssure Cornie, OH
Infiltration Russel,
Flemings
1987 UWM, USA Aluminium-Hybrids Presure, Stir Rohatgi
cas
ting
1989 Lanxide, USA Aluminium-Alumina Pressureless Aghajanian
Infil
Aluminium-SiC Bruke,
trati
R
on
o
c
a
z
e
l
l
a
1990 Honda Al- Pressure
Saffil/al Infil
umina/g trati
raphite on
Fibre composite
1997 Toyota Al/SiCp Brake drum Stir casting [Link]
1999 Volkswagen Al/SiCp Brake drum Stir casting
2000 Toyota Al-Al2O3/SiO2/ Infiltration [Link]
Mullitep
Table 2.5: Selected landmarks in the development of cast metal matrix composites during 1965-

2000[90].

• Powder Metallurgy Method

The powder metallurgy method (91-93) is used for stronger interfacial bonding and more uniform
distribution as there is a problem in wetting ceramic particles with molten metal. Figure (2.10) shows
the schematic process of this method.

The following step involves in this process are:

• Blending and mixing of alloyed particle and reinforcement.

• Heating and degassing of the mixture.
• Consolidation of the mixture.
• Direct extrusion of the consolidated mixture.

The first step of this process is “Mixing”. In this step, pre-alloyed powder or metal powder is used having
size 20-40μm. The size range of the reinforcement powder is 5-20μm. The reinforcement may be a
rapidly solidified chopped ribbon or a blend of elemental powder. After proper mixing the next step
involves in this process is degassing treatment for the removal of gases and water vapour absorbed in
the particles.

In the degassing process, the mixture is heated under a vacuum at a temperature of 150°C or higher. For
maintaining the homogeneity of composites blending is required. The vacuum hotpressing strengthen
the composite to 95% dense and this step is done below the solidus temperature or in the liquid-solid
region. The process of densification is relatively faster by using liquid phase sintering. But the liquid
phase sintering perverts the microstructure of the very fast solidified powder particles generate an
intermetallic phase in the melted region. Complete solid-state strengthening enables the advantage to
be taken off the supersaturated metastable alloy compositions obtained by very fast solidification,
atomization, and ribbon casting processes.

The final wrought project is found by extrusion with an extrusion ratio of about 20:1 or higher. A higher
extrusion ratio is necessary for damaging the oxide film formed b/w the metal powder and particles
allowing the metal-to-metal contact and for the formation of good bond b/w the metal particles. A high
extrusion ratio results in a more uniform distribution of ceramic particles because the plastic flow
related to extrusion tries to spread any cluster of reinforcing particles.
The metallurgy process has the following attractive features:

• It allows any type of reinforcement used because the reaction b/w the reinforcement and
matrix can be minimized by using solid-state processing.
• It also allows any alloy to be used as matrix.
• Non-equilibrium alloys also can be used as matrix. Still, the biggest limitation of this process is to
form a large size composite component or huge quantity.

• In-Situ Fabrication Process

In this process of composite fabrication, ceramic particles are fabricated in the melt itself. The growth
technique included in this process is the following:

• The various liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, liquid-gas and mixed salt reaction.

• Lanxide's DIMOX and PRIMEX process (95).
• Martin Marietta’s exothermic XD process (96).
• Directional solidification of eutectic monotectics.
 • Reactive infiltration.
• Reactive spray forming.
• Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis SHS.

The principal advantage of In-situ composites has clean interfaces, strong interfacial bonding, uniform
directional distribution of particles and tiny particle size distribution. Further, structural changes are
affected by using secondary processes such as infiltration and controlled solidification and mechanical
working.

The Lanxide process has been developed by the Lanxide Corporation. This process includes the outward
oxidation of the molten metal to form a metal/ceramic mixture. Thus, controlled nitridation of
aluminium alloys permits the generation of AL-ALN mixture and controlled oxidation of aluminium alloys
allows generation of AL-AL2O3 mixture. Controlled nitridation of Ti and Zr alloys permits the generation
of Ti-TIN and Zr-ZrN mixture. Further reinforcement such as TiB2, B4C and Al2O3 fibres can be
additionally added into a composite by physical addition to the liquid metal during the nitridation and
oxidation process.

In Lanxide’s pleasureless infiltration process oxidation of molten metal Al having a temperature more
than 1450°C creates a continuous Al2O3 matrix having an interpenetrating 3-D network of the metal
microchannel in an in-situ composite. The growth of this “composite matrix” including reinforcing fibres
produces three following interpenetrating phases: the un-reacted metal, the reaction product, and the
fibers or particles. Alloying Al with Zn or Mg produces a metastable surface that oxides during composite
growth and this oxidation process slow down the activeness of the melt and controls the oxygen supply
at the reaction interface. By adding proper alloying element structural refinement during growth can be
achieved. Although the Lanxide composite having some common defects like large particle size, micro-
porosity and it increases the loss of toughness as a result of extra oxidation of the metal. Composite
produced by in-situ process shows high porosity that avoided by promoted composite growth.

In-situ ceramic particles are produced in the melt (98) by a patented manufacturing method by Martin
Marietta Corporation U.S.A. (96). The ceramic particles can be produced up to 20% having ultrafine
(1μm or less) size. In this process, the powder elemental component of the ceramic phase is heated in
the presence of a metallic phase to be reinforced above the melting point: to producing the required
reinforcing particle, the elemental components of the ceramic phase have to react exothermally with
the melt. This method is applicable to a vast range of matrix material including Al Fe, Ni, Cu, Ti and of 2nd
phase particles together with carbides, nitrides, borides and a mixture of these (99).

The particles are consistently single crystal and should have clean and interfaces must be unoxidized.
The size of the reinforcement particle lies b/w 0.2 to 1μm while the alloying material size lies b/w 0.25
to 1.5μm. Some studies have been done on the processing characteristic of the in-situ composite. It has
the attraction of producing particles that should be inherently wetted by the matrix and this gives
greater interfacial strength. But the fine particle size is produced by viscous melt, which makes handling
and dilution difficult. There is an ample variety of composite production process present in varying
degree of commercial development, and the appropriate choice depends on the acceptable cost and
application.
2.6 Parameter for selection of Particles [Dispersoid]
Parameter for selection of ceramic reinforcement contains
1. Tensile strength,

2. Density,
3. Thermal stability,
4. Size and shape,
5. Elastic constant,

6. Melting temperature,
7. Coefficient of thermal expansion,
8. Cost,
9. Compatibility with matrix material.

Some elected properties of frequently used ceramic reinforcement materials are indicate in
Table 2.6 [100-102]. Density, tensile strength and elastic constant is responsible nonstructural
efficiency of non-regular reinforced MMCs.
Table 2.6 properties of Ceramic Reinforcement [100-102]

Ceramic Density Expansivity Strength Elastic

modules

Al2O3 3.98 7.92 221 [10900C] 379 [10900C]

AIN 3.26 4.84 2069 [240C] 310 [10900C]

BeO 3.01 7.38 24 [10900C] 190 [10900C]

B4C 2.52 6.08 1759 [240C] 448 [240C]

C 2.18 -1.44 - 690

CeO2 7.13 12.42 589 [240C] 185 [240C]

HfC 12.20 6.66 - 317 [240C]

MgO 3.58 11.61 41 [10900C] 317 [10900C]

MoSi2 6.31 8.91 276 [10900C] 276 [12600C]

Mo2C 8.90 5.81 - 228 [240C]

 NbC 7.60 6.84 - 338 [240C]

Si 2.33 3.06 - 112

SiC 3.21 5.40 - 324 [10900C]

Si3N4 3.18 1.44 - 207

SiO2 2.66 1.8 - 73

TaC 13.90 6.46 - 366 [240C]

TaSi2 - 10.80 - 338 [12600C]

ThO2 9.86 9.54 193 [10900C] 200 [10900C]

TiB2 4.50 8.28 - 414 [10900C]

TiC 4.93 7.60 55 [10900C] 269 [240C]

UO2 10.96 9.54 - 172 [10900C]

VC 5.77 7.16 - 434 [240C]

WC 15.63 5.09 - 669 [240C]

WSi2 9.40 9.00 - 248 [10900C]

ZrB2 6.09 8.28 - 503 [240C]

ZrC 6.73 6.66 90 [10900C] 359 [240C]

ZrO2 5.89 12.01 83 [10900C] 132 [10900C]

During fabrication and end-to-end application chemical compatibility and stability of

reinforcements along the matrix material are significant which is observed by Justice et al.
[103]. The thermal strain(e) within matrix material and reinforcement is a necessary evolution
for composites material that will be disclosed by thermal cycle. Strain(e) depend on the
difference of their coefficient of thermal expansion (Δα) of the matrix and reinforcements
which follow the following equation
e= Δα ΔT
Where ΔT is a temperature difference. To reduce the residual strain Δα should be minimum. Crystal
structure influences by the process of manufacturing of the reinforcement material, e.g., in
powder metallurgy operations SiC crystal structure may be BCC or a mixture of BCC and HCP
[Link] MMCs. The selection of the suitable SiC dimension to the matrix powder dimension
for the powder metallurgy operation [106,107]

2.6.1 Selection of Matrix material: -

Series 6xxx and 7xxx aluminium alloys generally used as matrices. It is important for existence
of thermodynamics stable dispersoids for use of MMCs in high temperature application. For
using alloy dispersed system, the main requirement is interfacial energy, elemental solubility
and solid-state diffusivity are minimum, by which minimizing interfacial reactions and
coarsening [108]. For example, addition of titanium in aluminium is very attractive because of
they encourage the participation of Al-Ti phase.
The structural efficiency and thermal stability of matrix are increases due to presence of AlTi
phase in aluminium as effect of low diffusivity (1.69 ✕ 10−14 cm2 s− 1), low density (3.3 g/cm^3)
and high temperature (1330) [109,110].
Magnesium and aluminum alloys are mainly used for matrix due to its high thermal conductivity
and low density. Addition of alloying element in MMCs their increases toughness, ductility and
strength, these results observed by various studies [111,112]. Mn and Cr are a mirror alloying
element normally used as grain filters are irrelevant in discrete reinforced MMCs in wrought
alloys [111]. Furthermore, these inclusions should be prevented because of formation of coarse
intermetallic compound at the time of consolidation and successive processing consequently
diminishing the ductility and tensile strength of the composite.
Microstructures: -
The main aspect of microstructure of aluminium alloy composite and aluminium alloy is the
reinforcement particle distribution in the matrix and the interface in middle of ceramic phase
and matrix. Fabrication method and processing influences the microstructure properties. Due
to use of many alloying element for controlling the strength, grain structure or corrosion
resistance results 2xxx or Aluminium-copper alloys are complex. Alloy 2024 ( aluminium +
magnesium + silicon +iron +copper + manganese) possess an ingot structure in multiphase and
contain of (FeMn)3SiAl12, Al2CuMg, CuAl2 and MgSi, and somewhen (Fe, Mn) or (Mn, Fe) Al6.
Afterwards heating dissolves high amount of copper and magnesium but quit some Al2CuMg
and may be CuAl2 without silicon.
Alloy 2024 has a less magnesium content and higher silicon content which make this alloy differ
from 2014. The iron-rich phase in (Mn, Fe) SiAl12 where silicon content is in high amount.
Quaternary phase Cu2Mg8Si6Al5 and CuAl2 are being in soluble form, and Cu2Mn3Al2O
dispersoid probably increases when Mn3SiAl2 coming out from the solution. The result of
highly extended recrystallized grains due to dispersoid higher concentration and in cast iron
structure strong bonding inherited.
Aluminium-zinc alloys (7xxx), in aluminum zinc is highly soluble by itself. Aluminum and MgZn2
makes spurious binary eutectic and 7075 alloy forms or more alternative of (Fe, Cr)3SiAl2,
Mg2Si in cast ingot. Copper + aluminium is containing in later phase which is an alternative for
zinc and can be write down as Mg (Zn, Cu, Al)2. Iron rich phases converts into Al7Cu2Fe after
successive heat treatment. Mg2Si is comparatively not soluble and move to spheroidize up to
the certain limit, formation of Al2CuMg precipitates at that time when Mg (Zn, Cu, Al)2 fatly
start to dissolve, for entirely soluble requires more soaking time and high temperature.
Alloy 7050 possesses higher zinc and copper contains more Al2CuMg to be liquefy in solutioning
temperature. Maximum dilute alloy can fatly dissolve at all phases of zinc rich. Indication of
overheating in alloys 7xxx are generally related to separate regions with uncommon Al2CuMg
concentration. Due to the fast-heating rate dissolution of phase comes as a result before
reaching its eutectic temperature. The dimension and quantity depend on the ingle
composition of dispersoid. The shape and size of recrystallized grains and the degree of
recrystallization and recovery depends on heating rate and also the factor discussed above

2.7.1 Reinforcement distribution

In the matrix composition the distribution of the particle mainly depends on the wettability with
in the ceramic phase and liquid phase normally the bad quality of wettability within the melt and
the particle brings to high tendency of depressant because of presence of density difference with
in liquid alloy matrix and the particles normally inhomogeneous distribution is not required. For
controlling the solidification parameter and liquid metal properties uniform distribution of
particles is required. Number of atoms done [115-118] done for the properties the distribution
of particles of ceramic such as zircon graphite and shell char form these studies gives information
that there is a close gap between average main particle spacing and inter particle spacing which
indicates the uniform distribution of particles of ceramic.
Presence of particles of silicon carbide in aluminium matrix which controls the characteristics of
the as- cast composites produced by stir casting. Effect of solidification condition and holding
time on distribution and differentiation of the aluminium particle and the silicon carbide in the
aluminium matrix has been research by several researchers [115 ,116]. Some particle trap or
reject because of moving of solid-liquid interphase at the time of solidification will give the
understanding distribution of particles and also mechanical properties of aluminium silicon
composite. Some of the following reasons cause distribution of particles.

• Coagulation of Al₂O₃/Sic particles in the powder.

• Coagulation and distribution of Al₂O₃/Sic particles during and after drop out into the melt.
• Movement of an amalgamate particle in the melt.
• Distribution of Al₂O₃/Sic particles because of density difference at a time of solidification.

Distribution of Al₂O₃/Sic particles at a time of remelt and poor wettability during final
solidification distribution of Al₂O₃/Sic particles at time of holding, re-solidification and remelting
below multi directional, rapid solidification and also awaited because due to bad wettability. To
optimize the characteristics of melt there should be improve in stirring time, distribution of
particles and melt. Some of the different alloying elements like copper, magnesium etc. Are used
to improve the wettability of the melt with the matrix of ceramic. It is examined that Al/Sic
particles and the ratio of 0.7 to 1 which is more than uniform distribution of ratio 0.24.
For mixing molten metal composite process is used for making more complicated several factors
effects the reinforcement distribution.

➢ With the help of stirring speed and mixing time distribution in the liquid is done.
➢ Before solidification and after mixing distribution in the liquid is possible.
➢ After solidification redistribution is happening.

2.7.2 Grain structure

Re-crystalline of the matrix in the composite after fabrication. Diameter some particles larger
than 1μm will form deformation zone which is enough to form re-crystalized nucleation with the
help of reinforcing particles which produces high density of nuclei. If the distance between the
particle is very small, there is a chance of intersection on a deformation zone and for re-
crystallization green growth is necessary. Ratio of volume fraction of particles to diameter of
particle is a function of re-crystallization of matrix microstructure. If this ratio greater than 0.1
then the matrix gets promptly re-crystallized [119].

If the ratio is less than 0.1 then the re-crystallization matrix is very slow. The size of the grain after
re-crystallization can be find out by assumption that diameter of a particle is dp which acts as
spherical grain D at a time of nucleation and the equation is given by [120].
D=dp [(1-Vp)/Vp]1/3

On the grain boundary is having a limited grain growth of 2dp/3Vp with the help of zener pinning
of the particle. For 10μm particles there is a 20% of volume and the equation will be given as
D=15μm and the limited grain growth is given as D=33μm.

Fine grain size present in composite having high strength this yield strength can be find out by
Hall-Petch relationship.

2.7.3 Aging Effects

This effect gives a very important criteria for microstructure. Some of the reports on age
hardening of metal matrix composites given [121,122]. When the temperature is low then aging
kinetics are seen, but if the reinforcement is added on the aging kinetics, then its effect is
negligible. If the process of aging kinetics is rapid then the precipitation nucleation is easy on
dislocation punched out from the reinforcement interphase due to this coefficient of thermal
expansion changes on doing quenching from solution treatment temperature. In this process
with the help of powder metallurgy fine oxide particles in the matrix is present which is also know
from work on SAP-type alloys effects the aging kinetics. At higher temperature aging or for longer
times precipitation may come at the interface of some 7091 alloys.

For changing the age hardening properties of an alloy's reinforcement is added. The changes are
due to manufacturing process and reactivity between the matrix and reinforcement.
For obtaining high stiffness and specific strength Discontinuously reinforced aluminium (DRA)
matrix composite is used for the application of automotive and aerospace. For relaxing the stress
generated because of continuous change in thermal expansion dislocation are punched out at
the reinforcement matrix. With the help of dislocation present on the sites for heterogenous
nucleation of the precipitate [125].

2.7.4 Interfaces in Discontinuously Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites

In MMCs strengthening is mainly depend on reinforcing phases and the strength of bond
between reinforcement and matrix. Chemical and mechanical bonding are of types of interfacial
bonding. Chemical bonding is present only when the reinforcements and atoms of the matrix are
in direct contact and exchange of electron fulfill it.

Fig. 2.11: Nature of the Interface

2.7.5 Role of Wettability and Its interfaces

The basic point in the transfer of particles of wetting is a from gas phase to molten alloy between
the melt and particle. Basically, ceramic particles are not get wetted by alloys and molten metal.
The main reason for the particles and mainly for oxides are co-valent or ionic but not compatible
with metallic melts. That’s by for the successful entry of the melt, wettability should be prompt
and also required energy must be supplied so that it allows the particles to overcome the energy
barriers at the liquid gas interface (Fig.2.12) The wettability with in liquid metal and the disperse
particle is important and its effects the ease of dispersing particle interface bond formation with
in the liquid metal matrix and solid particle and in resulting casting is defects present. The basic
young's equation is defining the wettability within the metallic melt and ceramic phase. This
equation tells angle of contact which is made between solid and liquid and the young's equation
given as

cos Ѳ= (σsv- σis)/ σiv

Where, Ѳ represents equilibrium contact angle σiv, σsv, and σis are mechanical equilibrium of
interfacial tensions at the boundary liquid, vapor and solid. If the Ѳ > 90 degrees which represents
the non-wetting condition and Ѳ < 90 degrees represents the solid is wet by liquid. The wetting
coefficient (K) and which is given from K= (σsv- σis)/ σiv. When K ≤ -1 and for K>1 then it is
completely wetted. The condition –1< K<1 which represents the situation when the solid partially
wets. The main abstraction of a work of adhesion (Wad) which is use in the studies on system of
ceramic metals [126,127] the formula of work of adhesion is given as

Wad= σiv(1+cos Ѳ)
If the value of work of adhesion is high then it indicates good wetting on the other hand if the
work of adhesion is low then it indicates poor wetting. Some of the techniques are used for
inducing wettability are as given below

• Heat treatment of particles,

• Ultrasonic irradiation melts and
• Dispersion of non-metals with the help of compocasting
Many techniques (Table 2.7) are used for introducing solid particles into molten alloys. Some of
the most common techniques are (I) Ultrasonic dispersion method (ii) Vortex method (iii) Pellet
method (iv) Gas injection method (v) Centrifugal method.
Fig. 2.12: Sketch showing definition of contact angle in terms of interfacial tensions
acting on the perimeter of a liquid droplet resting on a solid substrate
Table (2.7) Some of the important techniques of introducing particles in a melt [128]

TECHNIQUE DISPERSOID MATRIX

Gas injection in Ni-or Cu-coated Graphite, Alumina, Al or Zn alloy

melt in stream
SiC ---

Uncoated Mn powder Cu
WC and MO ---
TiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, CeO2
Pellet method Cu-or Ni-coated Graphite (20-200 Al or Alloy
µm)
Al alloys
SiC whiskers (0.1-1.0 µm dia., 5.50
µm long)
Vortex method Coated Al2O3 fibres (23%) Al or Al alloy
Uncoated Al2O3 particles, ---
Glass, quartz (2.5%) Al
Uncoated Graphite, Mica, Zircon ----
(60%)
Ultrasonic Pb, SiO2 Al, Zn, duralumin
dispersion
Graphite, glass, oxides, borides, Al
carbides
Sn-Ti alloy
 Al2O3
Centrifugal Uncoated carbospheres (40 µm dia., Al, Al alloys Sn
dispersion 1-2 µm thick) based

Mechanical Properties: -
Consideration of mechanical and physical characteristic for the selection of reinforcements and
development of metal matrix composites. MMCs possesses high thermal conductivity, higher
stiffness, lower coefficient of thermal expansion, higher specific strength, higher dimensional
stability, and higher fatigue resistance mainly at elevated temperature as compared to base alloy
it's also have higher seizure wear resistance [129-131]. Feature of metal matrix composites in
term of their mechanical, tribological and physical properties many observations have been
made. Which have individual and these have very salient feature. Aluminium alloy-composites
possess mechanical characteristics such as strength, fatigue, creep, elastic modulus is explained
below.
Elastic Modulus: -
The mechanical characteristics which are extensively increased due to reinforcement addition
such as elastic modulus. The numerically value of elastic modulus is comparatively dependent on
the procedure of measurement. In case of method of dynamic measuring gives higher numerical
value than the value which measure from the static measurement method which acquire from
the elastic section of the tensile stress-strain curve. Either the measurements in compression or
tension influences the static value numerically [132], due the thermal residual stresses produce
most difficulties in result which originates by variance in the coefficient of thermal expansion
within the ceramic particles and matrix. Increasing the volume of reinforcement for an Al-SiC
composite results increases the young modulus. It can also explain through the equation of law
of mixture which is mainly applicable for elastic modulus of metal matrix composites [133].

Ec = VpEp + VmEm
Where Ep, Ec, Em are the elastic modulus of particle, composites and matrix respectively and Vp
is the volume fraction of particle and Vm is volume fraction of matrix. The expression of law of
mixtures is most important for continuous reinforcement, and it has been improved for
discontinuous reinforcement introduced by Halpin – Tsai equation [134].
Ec= Em (1+[Link]) / (1-9Vp)

Where q = (Ep / Em - 1) / (Ep / Em + 2S)

and ‘S’ is representing aspect ratio of particle. For controlling the elastic modulus basic equation
is required which is depend on the shape, size of reinforcement, volume fraction and distribution
of particle of metal matrix composites. Due to addition of particle of zircon particle [136] and
alumina [135] elastic modulus of Al- alloy is increased. Elastic modulus of the whisker reinforced
composites is consequential higher than that the reinforced composite particle which is
introduced by Liaw and Longsdom [137].

2.8.2 Strength
Some of the reports [138-152] are giving the results of the strength of discontinuously of
reinforced Al-alloys. And the result that particle reinforcement in different alloys and the Sic
whisker improved the yield and 60% is the ultimate tensile strength which depends on volume
fraction of reinforcement, processing condition and type of matrix. Humpherys [130] find out the
main difficulty in finding out the yield strength of AMCs as it is not having fixed yield point. The
yield strength is coated 0.2% of proof strength which is not equivalent yield stress.

Still, some of the composites are available in a market to fulfill the demands of strength and the
specific properties. Some of the common composites are listed in the table (2.8). In this table on
adding ceramic particle improves its strength of the alloy. But there is big change on adding Sic
as a reinforced composite there is increase in strength of the composites because of the i)
between the phase plastic and elastic interaction ii) dislocation strengthening of the matrix
because of higher dislocation density iii) opposition of the plastic flow of the matrix with the help
of reinforcement.
On the other hand, cast alluminium alloy decrease the strength on addition of softer particles
like shell char [145], graphite [143] and mica [144]. This gives the fact for softer reinforcing
phases which gives permission of faster rate of sharing of the particles because of this unstable
crack growth increases.

Elongation
On adding reinforcement particle there is rapid decrease in tensile elongation [153] which again
decreases because of peak aging. Some of the commercially available of aluminium alloy
composite and matrix are given in the table (2.8). When the cracking and the void formation is
present in the matrix then the composite failure. the coarser particles have more fracture of
particle. In end loading mechanism and conventional fiber loading the size of particles are bigger.
But if the coarser ceramic particle is having higher chances of fracture initiating defects. For the
cluster particle are having high stress triaxiality present in this area. Drucker [156] has observed
that the matrix deformation with in spaced elastic particles would be highly systematic due to
this results in local stress level. Griffith equation provides propagation of an internal defects
Where σ denotes stress on the particle, C is internal crack length, γ denotes fracture surface
energy, E represents young's modulus of the particle. If the particles size is coarser then there
are high chances of having the defects of lengths C. If the cracking present in finer particle, then
the size is <10. For increasing ductility in a particular volume fraction then the composite must
have(I) finer particles (ii)uniform particle distribution (iii) control of particle shape (iv) high
interfacial strength (v) use of different free particles.

Table 2.8: Mechanical properties of some commercially available Aluminium

Alloy Matrix and Composites [153]

Composite YS UTS, Elongatio Elastic Supplier

MPa MPa n (%) Modulus, GPa
Wrought
Al-Mg-Si
296 338 7.5 81 Duralcan,
Alcan
6061/Al2O3/10p (T6) 317 359 5.4 87
Duralcan,
6061/Al2O3/15p (T6) 359 379 2.1 98
Alcan
6061/Al2O3/20p (T6) 305 330 3.4 85
Duralcan,
6061/Al2O3/20p (T6) 342 364 3.2 91 Alcan

6061/SiC/15p (T6) 405 460 7.0 98 Comral

Comalco
6061/SiC/15p (T4) 420 500 5.0 105
Cospray,
6061/SiC/20p (T4) 430 515 4.0 115 Alcan
6061/SiC/25p (T4) 275 310 20 69 DWA‡
6061 (T6) DWA‡
Al-Cu
2014/Al2O3/10p (T6) 483 517 3.3 84 Duralcan,
Alcan
2014/Al2O3/15p (T6) 476 503 2.3 92
Duralcan,
2014/Al2O3/20p (T6) 483 503 1.0 101
Alcan
2014/SiC/15p (T6) 466 493 2.0 100
Duralcan,
2618/SiC/12p (T6) 460 532 3.0 98 Alcan
2124/SiC/17.8 (T4) 400 610 5-7 100 Cospray,
Alcan
2124/SiC/25p (T4) 490 630 2-4 116
Cospray,
2124/SiC/20p (T6) 405 560 7 105
Alcan
2014 (T6) 476 524 13 73
BP¶
2124 (T6) 325 470 12 72
BP¶
2618 (T6) 370 470 9 74
DWA
Al-Zn-Mg
7075/SiC/15p 556 601 3 95 Cospray,
(T651) Alcan
598 643 2 90
7049/SiC/15p (T6) Cospray,
665 735 2 105
Alcan
7090/SiC/20p (T6
505 570 10 72
DWA
7075 (T6)
Cast
Al-Cu
201/TiC/20p (T7) 420 -- 2.0 105 XDTM,
Martin
Marietta
Al-Si
356/SiC/10p (T61) 287 308 0.6 82 Duralcan,
Alcan
356/SiC/15p (T61) 329 336 0.3 91
Duralcan,
356/SiC/20p (T61) 336 357 0.4 98
Alcan
380/SiC/10p (F) 245 332 1.0 95
Duralcan,
380/SiC/20p (F) 308 356 0.4 114 Alcan

A356 (T6) 205 280 6 76 Duralcan,

A380 (F) 160 320 3.5 72

Mg-Al-Zn
AZ91/SiC/9.4p 191 236 2 47.5 Dow
AZ91/SiC/15.1p 208 236 1 54 Dow
 AZ61/SiC/20o 260 328 2.5 80 Dow
AZ61 157 198 3.0 38
AZ91 168 311 21 49

* Composite designation matrix/ reinforcement/ volume fraction of particles

+ 0.2 % offset yield stress
‡ Composite Specialties Inc., Chatsworth, CA
¶ British Petroleum
T6 Solution heat treated quenching and artificial aging
T4 Solution heat treated quenching and natural aging
T651 Solution plus artificial aging
T61 Solution plus artificial agent
T7 Solution plus stabilizing
F As fabricated
Hardness
Resistance to deformation or scratching /indentation of material is called as hardness. It is not a
fundamental property instead the combined defect of plastic deformation and elastic
compressive in engineering application hardness value place a very vatalload to examine the
performance of automotive engines like brake drums, cylinder blocks, pistons and liners and
some other engineering places where high working pressure is used. As aluminum is a soft metal
due to which deflection can take place easily. On adding ceramic as a reinforcement and further
due to aging the value of hardness is increased. Micro hardness measurement is procced as a
function of aging time to analyses the aging kinetics of MMCs some of the above investigations
are studied.
(I) On adding Al2O3 the hardness of matrix is increases. The reason might be dislocation density
increases and also because of thermal mismatch instresses.
(ii) On addition of 10% volume Al2O3 reduces the peak aging time form near about 65minute in the monolithic alloy
to near about 40minutes. This gives information that on adding Al2O3 as a reinforcement due to which there is considerable
acceleration in the matrix alloy.

Same observation was also seen by Mondal et al. [159]

Impact Strength
It represents the capability of the material to with stand the suddenly applied load in terms of energy. With
the help of Charpy impact test and Izod test impact strength measured, both of them are measuring impact
energy. And the specimen used during impact test are measured in kg-m or joules. The value of energy depends
upon following.

(I) Stain rate.

(ii) Triaxiality.

(iii) Temperature.

For doing the comparison size of specimen, weight, notch geometry, speed of hammer and shape are
standardized.

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