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ASexual and Sexual Reproduction In Plants
Short questions
1. What is Endothelium ?
In some species the inner layer of the integument may become specialized toperform the
nutritive function for the embryo sac and is called as endothelium.
2. What is called micropropagation ?
The regeneration of a whole plant from single cell, tissue or small pieces ofvegetative
structures through tissue culture is called micropropagation.
3. What is pollenkitt ?
A sticky covering found on the surface of the pollen that help to attract insects.
\

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4. Distinguish mound layering and air layering.

Mound layering Air layering

1. The lower branch with leaves The stem is girdled at nodal region and
is bent to the ground and part of hormones are applied to this region which
the stem is buried in the soil promotes rooting. Branches are removed
and tip off the branch is fromthe parent plant and grow in a separate
exposed above the soil pot
2. The plants having flexible This method for all types of plants
branches (flexibleand non flexible branches)

5. Differenciate secretory tapetum and invasive tapetum.

Secretory Tapetum Invasive Tapetum
The tapetum retain the original The cells loose their inner tangential
position and cellular integrit and and radial walls and the protoplast of
nourishes the developing all tapetal cell coalesces to form
microspores. periplasmodium
6. What is called pollinium ?
In some plants, all the microspores in a microsporangium remain held togethercalled
pollinium.
7. What is called microsporogenesis ?
The stage involved in the formation of haploid microspores from diploid microsporemother cell
through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.

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8. What is geitonogamy ?
The pollen deposits on another flower of the same individual plant it is said to begeitonogamy.
9. What is called double fertilization ?
The male gametes released from a male gametophyte are involved in the fertilization they
fertilize two different components of the embryo sac. Since both the male gametes are involved in
fertilization the phenomenon is called double fertilization.

10. What is a triple fusion ?

The second gamete migrates to the central cell where it fused with polar nuclei.
The secondary nucleus and forms the primary endosperm nucleus. Since involves the fusion of
three nuclei. This phenomenon is called triple fusion.
11. What is called poly embryony ?
Occurrence of more that on embryony I a seed is called polyembryony. The seedling formed
from the nucellar tissue in citrus are founds better clones. Polyembryony are found virus free
12. Difference between Intine and Exine
INTINE EXINE
The inner layer of pollen Intine is thin The outer layer of pollen Exine is thick

13. Differenciate tenuinucellate and crassinucellate

Tenuinucellate Crassinucellate
Hypodermal with a single layer of Ovules with subhypodermal
nucellar tissue around it‟s sporegenous tissue around it
14. What is a megasporogenesis ?
The process of development of a megaspore from a megaspore mother cell iscalled mega
sporogenesis

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15. Write the function of tapetum.

 Supplies nutrition to the developing microspores.
 Ubisch bodies thus plays an important role in pollen wall formation
 The pollenkit material is contributed by tapetal cells and is later transferred tothe pollen
surface.
 Exine proteins responsible for rejection reaction of the stigma are present in thecavities of
the exine.
16. Write short note on pollination method of salvia plants.
 the flower of salvia is adapted for bee pollination
 the flower is protandrous and the corolla is bilabiate with two stamens
 lever mechanism helped in pollinatior.
 each anther has an upper fertile lobe and lower sterile lobe.
 lobe separated by a long connective tissue help the anthers to swing freely
 bee visits a flower it sits on the lower lip which act as a platform
 bee enters the flower to suck the nectar by pushing it head into the corolla
 bees visit another flower the pollen gets rubbed against the stigma andcompletes
the pollination in salvia plant.\
17. Write the significance of pollination
 pollination is a pre-requisite for the process of fertilization
 fertilization help in the formation of fruits and seeds
 it bring the male and female gametes closer for the process of fertilization
 cross – pollination introduces variation in plants due to the mixing up of differentgenes.

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18. Write the functions of endosperm.
 it is the nutritive tissue for the developing embryo
 in majority of angiosperms the zygote divides only after development ofendosperm
 endosperm regulates the precise mode of embryo development

Long Answers
1. Explain the types of ovule
Diagram page no: refer to book
 ORTHOTROPOUS
The micropyle is at the distal end and the micropyle the funicle and the chalazalie in
one straight verticalline. Example. Piperaceae
 ANATROPOUS
The body of the ovule become completely inverted so that the micropyle and funiculus
come to lie very close to each.
 Hemianatropous.
In this the body of the ovule is placed transversely and at right angles to the funicle.
Example. Primulaceae
 Campylotropous.
The body of the ovule at the micropylar end is curved and more or less bean shaped.
The embryo sac is slightly curved. All the three hilum micropyle and chalaza adjacent
to one another. Example leguminosae
 Amphitropous
The distance between hilum and chalaza is less. The curvature of the ovule leads to horse-
shoe shaped nucellus. Example. Alismataceae
 Circinotropous
Funiculus is very long and surrounds the ovule. Example . Cactaceae

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2. The characteristic features of entomophily flowers.

 flowers are generally large or it small they are aggregated in denseinflorescence.
 flowers are brightly coloured
 flowers are scented and produce nectar
 pollen and nectar are the floral rewards for the visitors
 flowers pollinated by flies and beetles produce foul odour to attract pollinators.
 in some flowers juicy cells are present which are pierced and the contents aresucked by the
insects.
3. Enumerate the characteristic features of entomophilous flowers.
 the flowers are produced in pendulous catkin like or spike inflorescence
 the axis of inflorescence elongates so that the flowers are brought well abovethe leaves
 the perianth is absent or highly reduced
 the flowers are small colourless not scented do not secrete nectar
 anthers produce enormous quantities of pollen grains.
 in some plants anthers burst violently and release the pollen into the air
4. What is endosperm? Explain the types.
 The primary endosperm nucleus divides immediately after fertilization but beforethe
zygote starts to divide into an endosperm.
 Nuclear endosperm : Primary endosperm nuclear undergoes several mitoticdivisions
without cell wall formation thus a free nuclear condition exists in the endosperm.
Example. Arachis
 Cellular endosperm : Primary endosperm nucleus divides into 2 nuclei and it is

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immediately followed by wall formation. Subsequent divisions also follow cell wall
formation Eg. Adoxa.
Helobial endosperm : Primary endosperm nucleus moves towards base of embryo sac and
divided into two nuclei. Cell wall formation take place leading tothe formation of a large
miropylar and small chalazal champer. Eg. Hydrilla Ruminate endosperm: The endosperm with
irregularity and unevenness in its surface forms ruminate endosperm. Examples :Areca catechu
5. Give a detailed account on parthenocarphy add its significance.
Fruit like structures may develop from the ovary without the act of fertilization such fruits are
parthenocarpic fruits. Parthenocarpy arises due to hybridization or mutation. Ex citrus cucurbita
Eniviromental conditions like frost fog, low temperature high temperature etc.Low
temperature induces parthenocarphy in pear plants.
Significance:
 the seedless fruits have great significance in horticulture
 The seedless fruits have great commercial importance
 seedless fruits are useful for the preparation of jams, jellies, fruit drinks
 high proportion of edible part is available in parthenocarpic fruits due to theabsence of
seeds.
CLASSICAL GENETICS
Short questions

1. State the reason arising purple colour flower instead of white colourflower in pea
plant?
In white flowers the gene A sequence showed a single nucleotide change thatmakes the
transcription factor in active. So the mutant form of gene a do not accumulate anthocyanin
and hence they are white.

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2. What is test cross?

Test cross is crossing an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygousrecessive.
3. What is back cross?
Back cross is a cross of F1 hybrid with any one of the parental genotype.
4. What are multiple alleles?
A group of genes that together determine a characteristic of an organism is calledmultiple alleles.
5. Define – Atavism
Atavism is a modification of a biological structure wher by an ancestral trait reappears after
having been lose through evolutionary changes in the previousgenerations.
6. What is gene interaction?
A single phenotype is controlled by more than me set of genes each of which hastwo or more
alleles. This phenomenon is called gene interaction.
7. Give the names of the scientists who rediscovered Mendalism?
Hugo devries of Holland Carl Correns of Germany Erich Von Tscher Mark of Austria
8. Define lethal genes.
An allele which has the potential to cause the death of an organism is called aLethal allele.

9. Explain the law of dominance in monohybrid cross?

The character‟s are controlled by discrete units called fators which occur is pairs. In a
dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair is dominant and the other is recessive. This law
gives an explanation to the monohybrid cross.

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10. Differentiate incomplete dominance and codominance.
s.no Incomplete dominace Codominance
1 In heterozygous Two alleles are both expressed in
phenotype twoalleles the heterozygous individual
interact and forms
intermediate colour
2 In F1 generation both the In F1 generation both the
parentalcharacter‟s are not parental character‟s are
expressed expressed.
3 Alleles are Alleles are pure
hybrid Ex. Ex. Gossypium hirsutum
Mirabilis
jalapa

Chormosomal Basis of Inheritance

Short questions
1. What is linked genes?
Genes located close together on the same chromosome and inherited togethercalled linked genes
2. What is recombination?
Crossing over results segments of DNA are broken and recombined to produce newcombination of
alleles. This process is called recombination.
3. How to calculate the recombination frequency?
The percentage of recombinant progeny in a cross is called RecombinationFrequency
RF = X 100

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4. Write the importance of crossing over.

 Exchange of segments leads to new gene combinations which plays animportant role in
evolution
 Genetic maps are made based on the frequency of crossing over
 Crossing over helps to understand the nature and mechanism of gene action
 new recombination plant used in plant breeding.
5. Explain – sex determination in sphaerocarpos
 Sex determination was first described in sphaerocarpos donnellii
 The gametophyte is haploid and hetromorphic
 malegametophyte n=8, female gametophyte n=8
 male gametophyte „ Y‟ chromosome is smaller than seven autosomes
 Female gametophype „X‟ chromosome is large than seven autosomes
 The sporophyte containing XY combination produces two types of meiospores.Meiospores
with X = female gametophyte
Meiospores with Y = male gametophyte

Principles and Proceedings of Biotechnology

Short questions
1. Write the name of the chemicals used in Gene transfer ?
In the direct gene transfer methods, the foreign gene of interest is delivered intothe host plant
without the help of a vector.
Chemical mediated gene transfer :-

2.

3.
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Certain mediated gene transfer : Certain chemicals like poly ethylene glycol (PEG)And dextran
sulphate induce DNA uptake into plant protoplasts.
Define : Bioreactor.
Bioreactor (fermentor) is a vessel or a container that provides an optimum environment in which
micro organism or their enzymes interact with a substance to produce the required product.
What is vectors ?
A vector is a small DNA molecule capable of self-replication and is used as a carrier and
transporter of DNA fragment which is inserted into it for cloning experiments. Vector is also
called cloning vehicle (or) cloning DNA.
4. What is plasmid ?
Plasmids are extra chromosomal self replicating double stranded circular DNA molecule, found
in the bacterial cells in addition to bacterial chromosome. Plasmids contain Genetic information
for their own replication.
5. Define Transposons.
Transposons are DNA sequence able to insert itself at a new location in the genome without
having any sequence relationship with the target locus and hence transposons are called
walking genes (or) jumping genes.
6. What is Biolistics ?
The foreign DNA is coated into the surface of minute gold or tungsten particles and bombarded
onto the target tissue (or) cells using a particle gun. The bombarded cells (or) tissues are
cultured on selected medium to regenerateplants from the transformed cells.
7. Add note on ELISA.
ELISA – Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay. It is a diagnostic tool for identification of
pathogen species by using antibodies and diagnostic agents. Use of ELISA in plant pathology
especially for weeding out virus infected plants from large scale planting is well known.

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8. What is Barcode ?
The location of genes on the entire diploid chromosome of an organism.
9. What is Genome sequencing ?
(i) Barcode in genetic term refer to the identification of the taxon on itsgenetic
makeup.
(ii) In practice, it is an optical machine readable representation of data whichdescribe about
the characters of any plants or any objects.
10. What is PHB?
Poly hydroxyl butyrate is degradable biopolymer which have several medicalapplications
such as drug delivery scaffold and heart valves. It is biocompatible.
11. What is Biopharming ?
Biopharming is the production and use of transgenic plants genetically engineeredfor use of
human beings. This is also called “molecular farming or Biopharming”.
Example : Golden rice.
12. What is bio-piracy?
Bio-piracy can be defined as the manipulation of intellectual property rights lawsby
corporations to gain exclusive control over national genetic resources, without giving adequate
recognition or renumeration to the original possessors of thoseresources.
13. What is PCR ?
Polymerace Chain Reaction is a common laboratory technique used to make copies of a
particular region of DNA.
14. What is Recombinant DNA technology ?
Recombination carried out artificially using modern technology is called recombinant DNA

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technology (r-DNA) technology.
15. What do you know about the word PBR 322 ?
 PBR 322 plasmid is reconstructed plasmid
 It is used as cloning vector
 It contains 4361 base pairs
 In PBR – P denotes plasmid, B and R respectively the names of scientist Boliver and Rodriguez
who developed this plasmid.
 The number 322 is the number of plasmid developed from their laboratory.
 It contains ampR and tetR two different antibiotic resistance genes II , Pst I, Cla I) ori and
antibiotic resistant genes RoP codes for the proteins involved in the and recognition sites for
several restriction enzymes. (Hind II , EcoRI, BamH, Sal I , Pvu replication of the plasmid.
16. Write the advantages of herbicide tolerance crops.
 Weed control improves higher crop yields.
 Reduces spray of herbicide.
 Reduces competition between crop plant and weed.
 Use of low toxicity compounds which do not remain active in the soil.
 The ability to conserve soil structure and microbes.
17. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Bt-cotton.
Advantages :
 Yield of cotton is increased due to effective control of bellworms.
 Reduction in insecticide use in the cultivation of Bt cotton.
 Potential reduction in the cost of cultivation.
Disadvantages :
 Cost of Bt cotton seed is high.
 Effectiveness upto 120 days after that efficiency is reduced.
 Ineffective against sucking pests like jassids, aphids and whitefly.

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18. Write the benefits and risk of genetically modified foods.

Benefits :
 High yield without pest.
 70 % reduction of pesticide usage.
 Reduces soil pollution problem.
 Conserve microbial population in soil.
Risks :
 Affect liver, kidney function and cancer.
 Harmonal imbalance and physical disorder
 Anaphylactic shock and allergies.
 Adverse effect in immune system because of bacterial protein.
19. What are the various types of Blotting techniques ?
Southern Blotting : The transfer of DNA from agarose gels to nitrocellulose membrane

Northern Blotting : The transfer of RNA to nitro cellulose membrane

Western Blotting : Electrophoretic transfer of proteins to nitrocellulose membrane
20. Write about the limitations involved in bioremediation.
 Only biodegradable contaminants can be transformed using bioremediationprocess.
 Bioremediation processes must be specifically made in accordance to theconditions at the
contaminated site.
 Small scale tests on a pilot scale must be performed before carrying outthe procedure at
the contaminated site.
21. Write short notes about traditional bio-technology.

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 This is the kitchen technology developed by our ancestors, it is as old as human civilization.
 This technology uses bacteria and other microbes in the daily usage for preparation of dairy
products like curd, ghee, cheese and preparation of foods like idli, dosa, nan, bread and
pizza.
 This conventional biotechnology also extends to preparation of alcoholic beverages like
beer, wine, etc.
22. Explain Ti-plasmid.
 Ti plasmid is found in agrobacterium tumefaciens, a bacteria responsiblefor inducing
tumours in several dicot plants.
 The plasmid carries transfer (tra) gene which help to transfer T- DNA fromone bacterium to
other bacterial (or) plant cell.
 Agrobacterium plasmids have been used for introduction of genes ofdesirable traits
into plants.
10. Add notes on flavr savr tomato.
 Agrobacterium mediated genetic engineering technique was followed to produce flavr-savr
tomato i.e., retaining the natural colour and flavour of tomato.
 Through genetic engineering, the ripening process of the tomato is slowed down and thus
prevent from softening and to increase the shelf life.
 Antisense gene which interferes with the production of the enzyme polygalacturonase which
help in delaying the ripening process of tomato during long storage and transportation.
Long Answers
01. Mention the applications of biotechnology.
(i) Biotechnology is one of the most important applied interdisciplinary scienceof the 21st
century.
(ii) Biotechnology has wide applications in various sectors like agriculturemedicines,

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environment and commercial industries.

(iii) The science has an invaluable outcome like transgenic varieties of plants
e.g. transgenic cotton (Bt-cotton) rice, tomato, tobacco, cauliflower, potatoand banana.
(iv) The development of transgenics as pesticide resistant, stress, resistant and disease
resistant and disease resistant varieties of agricultural crops is the immense outcome of
biotechnology.
(v) The synthesis of human insulin and blood protein in E.coli and utilized for insulin
deficiency disorder in human.
(vi) Production of secondary metabolitics, biofertilizers, bio pesticides and enzymes.
02. What are restriction enzyme ? Mention their types with role in biotechnology.
(i) Restriction endonuclease called as molecular scissors.
(ii) Restriction endonuclease was isolated from Escherichia coli in 1963.
(iii) A restriction enzyme is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into fragments at (or) near specific
recognition sites within the molecule known as „restriction sites‟. Based on the their
mode of action restriction enzymes are classified into two types.
(a) Endonuclease : Which removes nucleotides one at a time from the endOf DNA
molecule e.g. Bal. 31 Exonuclease III
(b) Endonuclease : Which breaks the internal phosphodiester bondswithin a
DNA molecule. E.g. Hind- II , EcoRI, Pvul, BamH1, TaqI
There are three main classes of restriction endonuclease Type-I, Type-II,Type-III.
They slightly differ each other by their mode of action.
Only type –II enzymes is preferred for use in recombinant DNA technology as they
recognise and cut DNA within a specific sequence typically consisting of 4-8 bp.

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The restriction enzyme Hind-II always cut DNA molecule at a point of recognising a
specific sequences of six base pairs. Today more than 900 restriction enzymes that have
been isolated from over 230 strains ofbacteria with different recognition sequences.
03. What is bioremediation ? Give some examples of bioremediation.
It is defined as the use of micro organisms or plants to clean up environmental pollution.
It is an approach used to treat waste including waste water, industrialwaste and solid waste.
This process is applied to the removal of oil, petro chemical residues,pesticide or heavy
metals from soil or ground water.
(i) Phyloremediation : Use of plants to bring about remediation of
environmental pollutants.
(ii) Myco remediation : Use of fungi to bring about remediation of
environmental pollutants.
(iii) Bioventing is the process that increase the oxygen or air flow to acceleratethe
degradation of environmental pollutants.
(iv) Bioleaching is the use of micro organism in solution to recover metalpollutants
from contaminated sites.
(v) Bioaugmentation is the addition of selected microbes to speed updegradation process.
04. Describe about the single cell protein.
Single cell proteins are dried cells of micro organism that are used asprotein supplement in
human foods or animal feeds.
Micro organisms used for the production of single cell protein :
 Bacteria – methylophilus, methylotrophus cellulomonas, alkali genes
 Fungi – agaricus campestris, saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast
 Algae – spirulina, chlorella, chlamydomonas.
Applications of single-cell protein :
(a) It is used as protein supplement.

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(b) It is used in cosmetics products for healthy hair and skin.

(c) It is used in poultry as the excellent source of proteins and other nutrients, it is widely used
for feeding cattle, birds, fishes etc.
(d) It is used in food industry as aroma carriers, vitamin carrier, emulsifying agents to improve
the nutritive value of baked products, in soups, in ready-to-serve meals, in diet recipes.
(e) It is used in industries like paper processing leather, processing as foam stabilizers.
05. What is Recombinant DNA technology ? Explain steps involved in recombinant DNA
technology.
Recombination carried out artificially using modern technology is calledrecombinant DNA
technology.
Enzymes used in Genetic Engineering :
 Restriction endonuclease
 DNA ligase
 Alkaline phosphatase
Steps involved in r-DNA technology :
(i) Isolation of a DNA fragment containing a gene of interest that needs to be cloned. This is
called an insert.
(ii) Generation of recombinant DNA (r DNA) molecule by insertion of the DNA fragment into a
carrier molecule called a vector that can self-replicate within thehost cell.
(iii) Selection of the transformed host cells that is carrying the rDNA and allowing them to
multiply thereby multiplying the rDNA molecule.
(iv) The entire process thus generates either a large amount of rDNA or a large amount of
protein expressed by the insert.

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(v) Wherever vectors are not involved the desired gene is multiplied by PCR technique. The
multiple copies are injected into the host cell protoplast or it is shot into the host cell
protoplast by shot gun method.

Plant tissue culture

Short questions
1. What is cybride?

The fusion of protoplasts without nucleus of different cells is called cybrid.

2. What do you mean Embryoids? Write its application.
The callus cells undergo differentiation and produces somatic embryos known asEmbryoids.
Applications.
 It produces many plantlets after hardening
 It can be used for production of artificial seeds.
 It is reported in zeamays, oryza sativa.
3. Write the various steps involved in cell suspension culture.
Growing of cells (single or aggregate ) in liquid medium.

Transfer of callus to liquid medium

Agitated by rotary shaker

Now cells are separated from callus

Used for suspension culture

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4. Write a protocol for artificial seed preparation.

Selection of explant

Induction of callus through plant tissue culture

Somatic embryogenesis

Embryoids formation

Maturation of embryoids

Encapsulation of embryoids by using agrose sodium alginate

Formation of Artificial seeds
5. Explain the basic concepts involved in plant tissue cultureTotipotency:
The genetic potential of a plant cell that develop into a complete individual plant
Differentiation
The process of biochemical & structural changes by which cell become specializedin form and
function
Redifferentiation.
The further differentiation of already differentiated cell into another type of cell. Forexample callus
have the ability to develop into a plant.

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Dedifferentiation
The reversion of mature cells to meristematic cells leading to the formation ofcallus is called
dedifferentiation
6. Explain the basic techniques in plant tissue culture.
1. Sterilization
Sterilization is a technique of killing of microbes which are present in culturemedium and
vessels and explants.
i) Maintenance of Aseptic environment
Sterilization of glassware forceps and accessories in wet steam sterilization byautoclaving
ate 15 psi for 15-30 mins.
ii) Sterilization of culture room
Floor walls and cabinet of laminar air flow chamber sterilized with 95% ethanoland and then
exposed to UV radiation for 15 mins
iii) Sterilization of nutrient media
Explants are sterilized by treating them 0.1% mercuric chloride, 70%ethanol in
aseptic condition
2. Media preparation : MS medium is commonly used. Other than B5 mediumwhite
medium, Nitsch‟s medium, are used. Agar is added for solidification.
3. Culture condition : The culture medium should be in the ph of 5.6 – 6.0, 250C20C
temp., 50-60% relation humidity, 16 hrs photoperiod and 1000 luxwhite fluorescent light.
4. Induction of callus : After transfer of explant into the MS medium with auxinsincubated at
200C 20C in 12 hrs dark and light period then induced cell division. An unorganized callus
cells are formed in the culture medium.
Embryogenesis : Callus undergoes differentiation and forms somatic embryos known as embryoids. It
produces plantlets.
5. Hardening : Hardening is a gradual exposure of plantlets in green house thento normal

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environmental conditions.
8. Write about the applications of plant tissue culture.
i) Improved hybrids production through somatic bio diversity.
ii) Artificial seeds help in conservation of plant bio diversity.
iii) Production of disease resistant plant through meristem culture
iv) production of stress resistant plants like herbicids and heat tolerant plant.
v) production of large number of plantlets and free species useful in forestryin a short
span of time.
vi) Production of secondary metabolites from cell culture used in food industries.
9. Write about protoplasts culture
Protoplasts are cells without a cell wall but bounded by plasma membrane.
i) Isolation of protoplast : Small bits of leaf tissue are immersed in 0.5% macrozyme and
2% onozuka cellulase dissolved in 13% sorbitol at pH 5.4 and left over it over night at
25oC. the protoplasts are obtained. They are transferred in 20% sucrose to retain their
viability.
ii) Fusion of protoplast : Isolated protoplasts are fused by the fusogenicagent 30%
PEG (poly ethylene glycol) and ca++ions.
iii) Culture of protoplasts : Protoplast viability is tested by fluorescein diacetate before
culture. The cultures are kept in 1000-2000 lux light at25oC. The new cells occur
between 2-7 days of culture.
iv) Selection of somatic hybrid cells: The fusion of protoplasts without nucleus of
different cells is called a cybrid. Following this nuclear fusion happen. This is called
somatic hybridization.

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10. Write down the protocol of micropropagation in banana
Invitro micro propagation of banana

Suckers sterilized with 1% NaoCl for 30 Mins

Apical meristems cultured on MS medium with BAP 10.0 mg/l and IAA 1.0 mg/l

Induction of shoots in 168 days

Treat with kinetin 2.0 mg/l & NAA 0.5mg/l for root induction

Acclimatization in polyhouse

Kept in 50% light for hardening house

Tested for genetic uniformity

Transferred to field
. i) Millions of artificial seeds can be produced at low cost
ii) We can produced plants with desirable characters
iii) Easy to test the genotype of plants
iv) It produce identical plants
v) It can be stored for long time under cryopreservation
Artificial seeds growth is faster in a shortened life cycle

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Priniciples of ecology

Short questions
1. What are ecological equivalents? Given one example.
Taxonomically different species occupying similar habitats (niches) in differentgeographical
regions are called Ecological equivalents. Eg: certain species of epiphytic orchids of western ghats
of India differ from the epiphytic orchids ofSouth America. But they are epiphytes
2. What is phytoremediation ?
Some plants are used to remove cadmium from contaminated soil, this is known as
phytoremediation. Example: Rice and eichhornia tolerate cadmium by binding it to their proteins
3. Describe the mutual relationship between the fig and wasp andcomment on the
phenomenon that operates in this relationship.
i) The positive interaction – Mutualism exists between fig tree and wasp. The female wasp uses
the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing its larvar.
ii) the wasp pollinates all the flowers.
iii) the flowers with eggs will not mature one other flowers mature.
4. How does an orchid ophry ensures its pollinates by bees?
The plant, ophrys an orchid. The flower looks like a female insect to attract themale insect to
get pollinated by the male insect and it is otherwise called floral mimicry.
5. What is vivpary? Name a plant group which exhibits vivipary.
i) Seeds are begin to develop before they detach from the parent. Thephenomenon is
called as vivipary.

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ii) Seed germinate in the fruits of mother plant itself.Example:
Halophytes – Avicennia.
6. What is seed ball?
Seed ball is an ancient Japanese technique of encasing seeds in a mixture of clay and soil humus
(also in cow dung) and scattering them on to suitable ground, notplanting of trees manually.
7. What is edge effect ? Give an example.
Those species are found in the ecotone areas are due to the effect of environmentof the two
habitats. This is called Edge effect. Example: owl in the ecotone area between forest and
grassland.
8. What is commensalism?
It is an positive interaction between two organisms in which one is benefitted andthe other is
neither benefitted nor harmed.
9. What do you mean by Hygrophytes?
The plants which can grow in moist damp and shady places are called hygrophytes.Examples:
Habenaria , Mosses.
10. What is Ephemerals? Given an examples
i) This plants complete their life cycle within a short period (single season). Theseare not true
xerophytes.
ii) These are also called drought escapes or drought evaders.Examples:
Argemone, Mollugo.
11. Define – Cladode. Give an example.
In some xerophytes singles or occasionally two internodes modified into fleshygreen
structure called cladode.
Example: Asparagus.

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Long Answers

1. What is soil profile? Explain the characters of different soil horizons.Soil profile.
Soil is commonly stratified into horizons at different dept based on physical, chemical and
biological properties. This succession of super imposed horizons iscalled soil profile.
Horizon Description
O-Horizon Humus It has fresh or partially decomposed organic matter.O1
- Fresh fallen leaves, flowers and their excreta
A- Horizon It has humus, living creatures and in-organic mineralsA1
– Rich in mixure of organic and minerals
A2 – Layer with mineral particles
B –Horizon It consists of iron, aluminium and silica
C-Horizon It consists of parent materials of soil little amount of
organic matter without life forms
R-Horizon It is a bed rock upon which underground water isfound

2. List out any five morphological adaptations of halophytes

 They are herb in temperate and bushy in tropical region
 It has many stilt root addition to the normal root
 vivipary mode of seed germination is present.
 A special type of negatively geotrophic roots called pneumatophores to getsufficient
aeration is called breathing roots. Eg. Avicennia
 Presence of thick cuticle in plant body

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 Leaves are thick succulent and glossy.
3. What are the advantages of seed dispersal ?
 Seeds escape from the mortality near the parent plants due to predation byanimals
 It gives a chance to occupy favourable sites for growth
 This is the only method for self fertilized flowers and maternally transmittedgenes in out
crossing plants.
 Seed dispersal in animals help in conservation of many species.
 Understanding of seed dispersal acts as a key for proper functioning andestablishment
of many ecosystems.

PREPARE BY
S.ELAKKIYA M.Sc, M.Ed,
PG Asst in Bonaty,
Sigaram Tuition Centre,
HARUR - 636903.
E.Mail: [email protected]

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