Unit 6 PHYSICS FOR SENSORS

SENSORS: INTRODUCTION, SENSOR SYSTEMS

Sensors are the devices that can detect and response to changes in the environment.
These changes can be in form of light, temperature, motion, moisture or any other physical
property. The sensor converts these physical changes into signal that can be measured. Sensors
play an important role in IoT which will make an ecosystem for collecting, analyzing, and
processing data about a specific environment so that it can be monitored, managed, and
controlled more easily and efficiently. Sensors bridge the gap between the physical world and
the logical world.

Transducer:
It converts the signal from one physical form to another physical form. it is also called
energy converter. For example, microphone converts sound to electrical signal. It is based on
the principle of conservation of energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

The Sensor can be classified as

 Based on Power Requirement
 Active Sensors: These Sensors require an external excitation signal or power source to
work.

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 Passive Sensors: These Sensors do not require any external power source and it can
directly generate the output response.
 Based on Means of Detection
The Sensors can be according to detection method they use such as electrical,
biological, chemical, or radioactive detection.
 Based on the Conversion Phenomenon
This classification is based on the input and output conversion
 Photoelectric: It Changes light to electrical signals.
 Thermoelectric: It Changes temperature difference to electrical voltage.
 Electrochemical: It Changes chemical reactions to electrical signals.
 Electromagnetic: It Changes magnetic fields to electrical signals.
 Thermo-optic: It Changes temperature changes to electrical signals.
 Based on Output Type
 Analog Sensors: It produce an output signal which is usually in the form of voltage,
current, or resistance, proportional to the measured quantity.
 Digital Sensors: It provide discrete or digital data as output.

TYPES OF SENSORS

We live in the world of sensors, there are different types of sensors in our homes, offices,
cars etc. by working to make our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence,
adjusting the room temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee, and automatic
door closing and so on. here we will discuss types of sensors one by one in detail:
 Temperature sensors: Monitoring temperature of used devices in industrial applications. it
is used to measure temperature. this can be air temperature, liquid temperature or the
temperature of solid. It can be analog or digital.
In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the change in the Temperature correspond to change
in its physical property like resistance or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog Temperature
Sensor.
In Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value, DS1621 is digital
sensor which generates 9 bits temperature data.

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 Accelerometer sensors: It measures the rate of change of velocity and this sensor generate
magnitude and acceleration of the acceleration. Accelerometer sensor ADXL335 provides 3
axes (X, Y, and Z) values in analog voltage. it is used in car electronics, ships, and
agricultural machines.
 Alcohol sensors: as the name suggests it detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used
in breathalyzer devices, which determine whether the person is drunk or not. Law
enforcement personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.
 Radiation sensors: Radiation Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that sense the
presence of alpha, beta, or gamma particles and provide signals to counters and display
devices. Radiation detectors are used for surveys and sample counting.
 Position sensors: Position Sensors are electronic devices used to sense the positions of
valves, doors, throttles, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of control or display devices.
Key specifications include sensor type, sensor function, measurement range, and features
that are specific to the sensor type. Position sensors are used wherever positional information
is needed in a myriad of control applications. A common position transducer is a so-called
string-pot, or string potentiometer.
 Gas sensors: It measures and detects concentration of different gases which is present in the
atmosphere or any other environment.
 Torque sensors: This sensor is used for measuring the rotating torque and it is used to
measure the speed of the rotation.
 Optical sensors: it is also called photo sensors which can detect light waves at different
points in the light spectrum including ultraviolet light, visible light, and infrared light. it is
extensively used in smartphone, robotics and Blu-ray players.
 Proximity sensors: This sensor is used to detect the distance between two objects or detect
the presence of an object. it is used in elevators, parking lots, automobiles, robotics, and
numerous other environment.
 Touch sensors: Touch sensing devices detect physical contact on a monitored surface.
Touch sensors are used extensively in electronic devices to support trackpad
and touchscreen technologies. They're also used in many other systems, such as elevators,
robotics and soap dispensers.

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 Image sensor: it is used for distance measurement, pattern matching, color checking,
structured lighting, and motion capture and it is also used in different applications such as
3D imaging, video/broadcast, space, security, automotive, biometrics, medical, and machine
vision.

CHARACTERISTICS, PRINCIPLES

1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics: It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input
change after steady state condition.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the
true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and
relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior system.
Absolute error = Measured value – True value Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.

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 Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher the
resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements. It is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the slope
of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference in
quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
 Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line. Linearity
is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude
versus the input amplitude under static conditions. A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight
line describes linearity.
 Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at
that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as not
to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics: Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does
not include energy-storing elements. Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary
displacements.
 First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually. Consists of an
energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.

APPLICATIONS OF SENSOR:

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Given below are the Application of Types Of Sensors

 Automotive Industry: They are used in the Automotive industry for monitoring engine
temperature, speed and other parameters.
 Smart Homes: They are used in the Smart Homes for detecting movements,
Control HVAC and other measurements.
 Robotics: They are used in the Robotics for object recognition, Tracking the position and
measuring force.
 Transportation: Sensors such as GPS , Load, and Speed sensors are used in transportation
infrastructure.

TEMPERATURE SENSOR (Fibre Optic Sensor)

Temperature (Fire) Sensor

Temperature sensor works on principle of absorption characteristics of silicon. One end of

fibre is coated with thin Si layer again coated with reflective mirror. Light is passed through fibre
from one end and passes through Si layer twice and return to the detector. Absorption of light from
Si layer varies with temperature and this variation changes the intensity of light received by
detector. Temp. Measurement can be with accuracy of 0.001OC

VIBRATION SENSOR

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Vibration sensors are devices that detect vibration, shock, and sound. They can be used in
machinery to detect problems before they happen. Vibration sensors work by detecting the motion
of a material or object by sensing its frequency. The faster the movement, the higher the frequency
detected on a vibration sensor.

APPLICATIONS OF VIBRATION SENSOR

Vibration sensors are highly effective at monitoring the health of a wide range of
machines. 90 percent of machines can benefit from vibration monitoring. Following are a few
examples

 Water Pumps
 Motors, gearboxes, and belts
 Fans and compressors
 Wind Turbines
 Rolling bearings
 Vibration sensors help make sure the bearings, motors, and fans in water pumps and
condensers operate smoothly, providing advanced warning of potential issues if readings
start to get a bit rough.

OPTICAL FIBRE SENSOR FOR STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING

Continuous real-time monitoring of the environmental and operational loadings as well as

the structural responses and behaviors of the bridges has been proved to be a promising and

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effective way for system identification, damage detection, safety condition assessment, and
structural performance prediction.

Due to the no substitutable capabilities and unique advantages, the optical fiber sensing
technology has been served as an effective tool for the monitoring of each phase of the bridge life-
cycle (construction, operation, reinforcement, and rehabilitation), of various structural components
of bridges (decks, towers, stay cables, suspenders, girders, piers, piles, and abutments), and of
different measured (strains, temperatures, accelerations, deflections/displacements, cracks, and
corrosion). There have been a lot of investigations on bridge health monitoring and structural
condition assessment based on the optical fiber sensing technology as given below.

 Bridges- The sensors are used to measure the stiffness of the optical fiber and a lumped
mass and the performance of which was evaluated during ambient vibration tests of a real
bridge. It also used for long-term monitoring of structural performance of concrete bridges.

 Buildings- The sensors were used to monitor the strain and temperature of the building in
three steps of construction, that is, before the concrete pouring, during the pouring and
curing of concrete, and the construction of subsequent upper floors of the building.

 Tunnels and Pipelines-This is the new optical fiber sensing system for structural
displacement monitoring which is applied to measure the displacement of a tunnel lining.
Sensors are used for monitoring the stability of the tunnel during the backfilling and traffic-
operating periods. It also uses for assessment of health conditions of buried pipelines after
the earthquake.

 Wind Turbines- FBG-based sensors used for real-time monitoring of a wind turbine and
conducted the validation tests under a laboratory scale under various loading conditions.

 Railway Infrastructure- FBG-based sensors used for railway security monitoring system.
Specifically, it used for train identification, axle counting, speed and acceleration detection,
wheel imperfection monitoring, and dynamic load calculation.

 Geotechnical Structures- FBG sensors used in reinforced concrete foundation piles for
strain and temperature monitoring and structural health condition assessment.