MODULE 4: Digital Systems and Combinational Circuits.

Introduction to Digital systems – Number systems - Binary, Hexadecimal - Boolean theorems –

Basic Logic Gates, Minimization – Minterm, Maxterm, Karnaugh Map, K map up to 3 variables.
Design of Adder, Subtractor, Multiplexer, De-multiplexer, Comparator, Decoder, Encoder circuits.

Self-Study / Practical Component: To be done in Simulation environment

1. Analysis and Synthesis of Boolean Expressions using Basic Logic Gates

2. Design of Adder, Subtractor, Encoder and Decoder circuits

Introduction to Digital Systems:

Digital systems are electronic systems that process and manipulate digital signals, which are
discrete, quantized representations of information. These systems use binary digits (bits) to
represent and manipulate data, where each bit can have one of two states: 0 or 1. Digital
systems are widely used in various applications, including computing, telecommunications,
control systems, and consumer electronics.

Number Systems:

Number systems are mathematical representations used to express numeric values in a

structured format. In digital systems, the most commonly used number systems are binary
and hexadecimal.

1. Binary Number System:

o The binary number system is a base-2 number system, meaning it uses only
two digits: 0 and 1.
o Each digit in a binary number represents a power of 2, starting from the
rightmost digit as 2^0, then increasing by powers of 2 to the left.
o For example, the binary number 1011 represents (1 × 2^3) + (0 × 2^2) + (1 ×
2^1) + (1 × 2^0) = 11 in decimal.
2. Hexadecimal Number System:
o The hexadecimal number system is a base-16 number system, meaning it uses
16 symbols: 0-9 and A-F (representing decimal values 10-15).
o Each digit in a hexadecimal number represents a power of 16, starting from
the rightmost digit as 16^0, then increasing by powers of 16 to the left.
o Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used in digital systems for their compact
representation and ease of conversion to binary.
o For example, the hexadecimal number 2F represents (2 × 16^1) + (15 × 16^0)
= 47 in decimal.

Applications of Number Systems:

• Binary numbers are fundamental in digital computing and electronics, as all digital
data and operations are ultimately represented using binary digits.
• Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used in programming, memory addressing, and
digital circuit design due to their compact representation and ease of conversion to
binary.
 • Both binary and hexadecimal numbers are used in data transmission, storage, and
processing in digital systems.

Understanding number systems is essential for working with digital systems, as it allows for
efficient representation, manipulation, and interpretation of digital data and signals.
Conversion between different number systems is also a fundamental skill in digital
electronics and computer science.

Boolean theorems, basic logic gates, minimization techniques, and various digital circuits are
fundamental components of digital electronics and are extensively used in mechatronic
systems. Let's briefly discuss each of these concepts:

1. Boolean Theorems: Boolean theorems are mathematical rules used to simplify and
manipulate Boolean expressions, which represent logic functions. Some commonly
used Boolean theorems include the commutative law, associative law, distributive
law, De Morgan's theorem, and absorption law.

2. Basic Logic Gates: Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital circuits.
They perform logical operations on one or more binary inputs to produce a single
binary output. The basic logic gates include AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND
gate, NOR gate, XOR gate, and XNOR gate.
Basic Boolean Operations

• AND (·): The AND operation results in true (1) only if both operands are true (1). In
Boolean algebra, this operation is denoted by a dot (·) or sometimes just by
juxtaposition of variables.
• OR (+): The OR operation results in true (1) if either operand is true (1). This
operation is denoted by a plus sign (+).
• NOT (‾ or '): The NOT operation inverts the value of a variable. It is denoted by an
overline (‾) or an apostrophe (').

Basic Logic Gates

Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital circuits and systems. They perform
logical operations on one or more binary inputs (0s and 1s) and produce a single binary
output. Each logic gate represents a specific function based on Boolean algebra.

Most common logic gates:

1. AND Gate: The AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output is true
(1) only if all the inputs are true.

2. OR Gate: The OR gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output is true if at
least one of the inputs is true.

3. NOT Gate: The NOT gate, also known as an inverter, has one input and one output.
It inverts the input signal, so if the input is 1, the output is 0, and vice versa.
 4. NAND Gate: The NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT
gate. It has two or more inputs and one output. The output is false (0) only if all the
inputs are true.

5. NOR Gate: The NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.
It has two or more inputs and one output. The output is true only if all the inputs are
false.

6. XOR Gate: The XOR gate, or exclusive OR gate, has two inputs and one output. The
output is true if the inputs are different (one true and one false), but false if the inputs
are the same.

7. XNOR Gate: The XNOR gate, or exclusive NOR gate, is the opposite of the XOR
gate. The output is true if the inputs are the same, and false if the inputs are different.

.
 8. Buffer

A buffer is not a logic gate in the traditional sense because it does not perform a logical
operation. Instead, a buffer is a digital circuit component that serves as an amplifier or signal
repeater. It strengthens the input signal and passes it directly to the output without changing
it. This means that the output of a buffer is exactly the same as the input.

truth table for a buffer:

The primary function of a buffer is to improve signal integrity and drive capability, especially
when driving multiple loads or long transmission lines. Buffers can help prevent signal
degradation and maintain the quality of the digital signal over longer distances.

These gates can be combined in various ways to create complex digital circuits and perform
various logical operations.

3. Adder, Subtractor, Multiplexer, De-multiplexer, Comparator, Decoder, Encoder

Circuits

Adder:

Adder: Performs addition of two binary numbers. An adder is a digital circuit used to perform
addition of numbers, typically binary numbers in the context of digital systems. Adders are
fundamental components in arithmetic and logic units (ALUs) and are used in a variety of
applications, such as processors, calculators, and other digital systems.

Half adder

A half adder is the simplest type of adder that can add two binary digits (bits) and produce a sum
and a carry-out. It takes two inputs (A and B) and produces two outputs: the sum (S) and the carry-
out (C)

Logic equations:

• Sum: S=A⊕B | =A⊕B (XOR)

• Carry-out: C=A⋅B =A⋅B (AND)
Full Adder

A full adder is an extension of a half adder that can add three binary digits (A, B, and carry-in)
and produce a sum (S) and a carry-out (C). The carry-in input allows chaining multiple full
adders together to handle larger numbers.

Logic equations:

• Sum: S=A⊕B⊕carry-in
• Carry-out: C=(A⋅B) +(A⋅carry-in) +(B⋅carry-in)
Subtractor

Subtractor:A subtractor is a digital circuit that performs subtraction of binary numbers. It can be
implemented using logic gates. There are two main types of subtractors:

Half Subtractor: This circuit performs subtraction on two binary digits (bits) and provides two
outputs: the difference and the borrow.

The truth table for a half subtractor is as follows:

Full Subtractor A full subtractor is a digital circuit used to subtract three binary digits (A, B, and
borrow-in) and produce a difference (D) and a borrow-out (Bout). It is similar to a full adder, but
instead of performing addition, it performs subtraction. The full subtractor performs the
following operations:

• Difference (D): The difference between the binary digits A, B, and borrow-in.
• Borrow-out (Bout): The borrow-out, which indicates if a borrow is needed for the
next bit.

Logic Equations
Full subtractors are used in arithmetic and logic units (ALUs) in processors for binary arithmetic
operations, enabling binary subtraction, and can also be combined with adders for two's
complement arithmetic, such as subtraction by adding the complement.

Comparator: A comparator circuit is a digital circuit that compares two binary numbers and
determines their relative magnitudes. It outputs whether the first number is less than, equal to,
or greater than the second number. Comparators are commonly used in digital systems for
tasks such as decision making and control.
A comparator circuit can have multiple outputs indicating the comparison results:

• A > B: The output is true (1) if the first binary number (A) is greater than the second
binary number (B).
• A < B: The output is true (1) if the first binary number (A) is less than the second
binary number (B).
• A = B: The output is true (1) if the first binary number (A) is equal to the second
binary number (B).

Here is a description of how a comparator circuit works:

• Inputs: The comparator circuit takes two binary numbers as inputs, typically represented
as A and B. The numbers can be of any bit length, depending on the comparator's design.
• Comparison: The circuit compares the two input binary numbers bit by bit, starting from
the most significant bit (MSB) and proceeding to the least significant bit (LSB). The
comparison involves checking whether the current bit of A is greater than, less than, or
equal to the current bit of B.
• Outputs: The circuit produces three output signals:
o A > B: This output is true (1) if A is greater than B.
o A < B: This output is true (1) if A is less than B.
o A = B: This output is true (1) if A is equal to B.
• Implementation: A comparator can be implemented using basic logic gates such as
AND, OR, XOR, and NOT gates. For each bit position, the circuit compares the
corresponding bits of A and B and combines the results using logic gates to produce the
final outputs.

Comparators can be designed for any bit length, depending on the specific application. They
are used in a variety of digital circuits and systems for functions such as sorting, ordering,
and decision-making.

Multiplexer De-multiplexer

Multiplexer: Selects one of many inputs and forwards it to the output based on control
inputs.De-multiplexer: Distributes one input to multiple outputs based on control inputs.

Multiplexer

A multiplexer, also known as a MUX, is a circuit that combines multiple input signals into
one output, allowing selection and routing of one of the several input signals to a single
output. It operates as a single pole multi-position switch and is used in various electronics
circuits.

Mechanical switches cannot perform high-speed automatic selection tasks efficiently, so

electronic multiplexers are used in high-speed circuits. These multiplexers can handle both
analog and digital data. For analog applications, multiplexers are constructed using relays and
transistor switches, while for digital applications, they are built from standard logic gates.

Digital multiplexers, also called MUX, allow the selection of one out of many inputs through
control signals (select signals), steering the chosen input to the output. Common types of
digital multiplexers include 2-to-1, 4-to-1, 8-to-1, and 16-to-1 configurations.

Understanding 4-to-1 Multiplexer

The 4-to-1 multiplexer has 4 input bits, 2 control or select bits, and 1 output bit. The four
input bits are D0,D1,D2 and D3. Only one of this is transmitted to the output Y. The output
depends on the values of A and B, which are the control inputs. The control input determines
which of the input data bit is transmitted to the output.

For instance, as shown in figure, when A B = 0 0 , the upper AND gate is enabled, while all
other AND gates are disabled. Therefore, data bit D0 is transmitted to the output, giving Y =
Do.
Demultiplexer

Demultiplexer means one to many. A demultiplexer is a circuit with one input and many
outputs. By applying control signal, we can steer any input to the output. Few types of
demultiplexer are 1-to 2, 1-to-4, 1-to-8 and 1-to 16 demultiplexer.

Following figure illustrate the general idea of a demultiplexer with 1 input signal, m control
signals, and n output signals.

Understanding 1-to-4 Demultiplexer

The 1-to-4 demultiplexer has 1 input bit, 2 control or select bits, and 4 output bits. An
example of 1-to-4 demultiplexer is IC 74155. The 1-to-4 demultiplexer is shown in figure

Encoder Decoder

Encoders and decoders are digital circuits that play key roles in data processing,
communication, and control systems. While they serve opposite functions, they are
fundamental components in digital electronics.

Encoder
An encoder is a digital circuit that converts information from one format to another, often
taking multiple input signals and encoding them into a smaller set of outputs. It performs a
form of data compression by encoding input data.

How It Works

• Inputs: An encoder typically has several input lines. At any given time, one of the inputs is
active (i.e., high or 1), while the rest are inactive (i.e., low or 0).
• Outputs: The encoder produces a smaller set of output lines based on the active input line.
• Operation: The encoder assigns a binary code to the active input, typically using a weighted
scheme such as binary encoding.

The logical expression of the term A0 and A1 is as follows:

A1=Y3+Y2
A0=Y3+Y1

Example

A common type of encoder is the 4-to-2 encoder, which has four input lines (I0, I1, I2, I3)
and two output lines (Y0, Y1). When one of the inputs is high, the encoder sets the output
lines according to the binary code of the active input.
Decoder

A decoder is a digital circuit that converts encoded data back into its original format. It takes
a smaller set of inputs and decodes them into a larger set of outputs.

How It Works

• Inputs: A decoder typically has a small number of input lines, which represent an encoded
binary value.
• Outputs: The decoder has several output lines. Each output line corresponds to one possible
input value and is set to high (1) when its corresponding input value is applied.
• Operation: The decoder activates only one of its outputs based on the binary value of the
inputs.0

The logical expression of the term Y0, Y0, Y2, and Y3 is as follows:

Y3=E.A1.A0
Y2=E.A1. A0'
Y1=E.A1'.A0
Y0=E.A1'.A0'

Example

A common type of decoder is the 2-to-4 decoder, which has two input lines (A, B) and four
output lines (O0, O1, O2, O3). It decodes the binary input into one of four possible outputs.
Applications

• Encoders: Common applications include data compression, priority encoders, and keyboard
encoders (e.g., key presses are encoded into a smaller set of outputs).
• Decoders: Applications include address decoding (e.g., memory address decoding) and
seven-segment display control.