1

UNIT 3

[Link] proactive routing protocols with reactive routing protocols.

Introduction:
Routing protocols in AdHoc networks are mainly classified into proactive and reactive types based on
how they manage routing information.
Understanding their differences helps in choosing the right protocol for specific network needs.
Definition:
Proactive routing protocols maintain fresh routes to all nodes at all times by periodically updating routing
tables.
Reactive routing protocols create routes only when needed by the source node, discovering routes on-
demand.
Comparison Table:
Aspect Proactive Routing Protocols Reactive Routing Protocols
Route Maintenance Maintains routes continuously Routes created only when needed
through periodic updates through route discovery
Route Discovery Delay Low delay since routes are High delay due to route discovery
always available before data sending
Control Overhead High due to periodic broadcasting Low during idle, high during
of routing information route discovery
Scalability Less scalable for large networks More scalable as routing
due to overhead messages are on-demand
Bandwidth Usage Higher bandwidth consumption Efficient bandwidth usage, fewer
for maintaining routes control messages
Routing Table Size Large routing tables to store all Smaller routing tables with active
possible routes routes only
Suitability Suitable for networks with low Best for highly dynamic or large
mobility and stable topology networks
Examples DSDV, OLSR AODV, DSR
Q. List and explain the applications of MANET.
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are decentralized wireless networks where each mobile node acts as
both a host and a router. These networks do not rely on pre-existing infrastructure and are highly adaptable,
making them suitable for dynamic environments.
Applications of MANET in Mobile Computing
1. Military Communication
Use: Communication between soldiers, vehicles, and command centers on the battlefield.
Why MANET: Robust, infrastructure-less, and can adapt to fast-moving units in combat zones.
Example: Soldiers sharing real-time location and mission updates in remote or hostile environments.
2. Disaster Recovery and Emergency Services
Use: Communication setup in areas hit by natural disasters where cellular towers are destroyed.
Why MANET: Can be quickly deployed without the need for infrastructure.
Example: Search and rescue teams sharing survivor data in an earthquake-hit region.
3. Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)
Use: Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication for traffic updates and accident alerts.
Why MANET: Vehicles move rapidly, making infrastructure-based solutions less feasible.
Example: A car alerts nearby vehicles about a traffic jam or slippery road ahead.
4. Smart Environments and IoT
Use: Connecting sensors and smart devices in homes, agriculture, and industries.
Why MANET: Offers mobility and dynamic connection between devices.
Example: A mobile sensor network in a farm for monitoring soil moisture and crop health
5. Mobile Conferencing
Use: Ad hoc collaboration among users in meetings, seminars, or classrooms.
Why MANET: Allows device-to-device file sharing, voice chat, and whiteboard sharing without internet.
Example: A study group sharing documents and chatting over a local MANET at a university.
 2

[Link] does Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) route the data? What are its
advantages and disadvantages
Introduction:
AODV is a reactive routing protocol used in mobile AdHoc networks where routes are established only
when required by the source node.
It supports dynamic topology by minimizing routing overhead and maintains route information only while
actively communicating.
Definition:
AODV protocol is an on-demand, loop-free, distance-vector routing protocol that discovers and maintains
routes as needed between nodes in a mobile network.
It uses sequence numbers to ensure the freshness of routing information and prevent routing loops.
Working of AODV Protocol:
Route Discovery:
o When a source needs to send data, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) packet to nearby nodes.
O The RREQ includes source and destination addresses, current sequence numbers, and broadcast ID to
identify requests.
O Intermediate nodes store reverse path to source and forward the RREQ further until it reaches the
destination or a node with a valid route.
O The destination (or intermediate node) sends a Route Reply (RREP) back to the source using the reverse
path.
O Once the source receives RREP, it starts data transmission through the established route.
Diagram:

(fig.4.232 Working of AODV protocol – Route Discovery and Reply)

Explanation of Diagram:
In fig.4.232, the source node S initiates a route request RREQ to destination D by broadcasting through
intermediate nodes A and B.
Once the destination receives the RREQ, it sends a route reply RREP along the reverse path to S.
This establishes a complete forward path for communication from source to destination.
Route Maintenance:
If a link in the active route breaks, a Route Error (RERR) message is generated and sent to the source
node.
The source can then reinitiate route discovery if the route is still needed.
 3

Active routes are monitored by periodic HELLO messages or link-layer feedback.

Features of AODV:
On-demand Operation:
o Routes are only discovered when needed, which reduces unnecessary routing traffic.
Sequence Numbers:
o Ensures the freshness of routing information and avoids looping by using destination sequence numbers.
Scalability:
o Performs well in large networks due to its minimal control message overhead during idle periods.
Advantages of AODV:
Efficient Use of Bandwidth:
o By avoiding periodic updates, it conserves battery and reduces unnecessary bandwidth usage.
Fresh Routes:
o Sequence numbers ensure the most recent route is always used for packet forwarding.
Loop-Free Routing:
o Prevents data looping with the help of updated and unique destination sequence numbers.
Scalability and Flexibility:
o Suitable for networks with changing topology due to its adaptive route discovery and maintenance
mechanisms.
Disadvantages of AODV:
Latency in Route Discovery:
o Data transmission is delayed until a route is found, especially in high-mobility environments.
High Control Overhead in Large Networks:
o Frequent RREQ and RREP messages may cause network congestion as the number of nodes increases.
Route Maintenance Issues:
o Frequent topology changes may lead to broken links and require frequent route rediscovery.
No Route Caching:
o Unlike DSR, AODV does not maintain multiple routes in cache, which may limit flexibility.
 4

Q. Explain with suitable data flow diagram, client initialization via DHCP/ What is the basic purpose
of DHCP? Explain the protocol with suitable diagram.
Introduction:
An AdHoc network is a temporary wireless network formed by a group of mobile nodes without relying
on any fixed infrastructure or centralized access point.
It is often created spontaneously to enable direct communication between nearby devices for quick and
flexible connectivity.
Definition:
An AdHoc network is a self-configuring network of mobile or static nodes where each node
communicates directly with others using wireless links.
All devices in an AdHoc network act as both hosts and routers, forwarding data to other nodes without
any base station.
Key Characteristics of AdHoc Networks:
Infrastructure-less Network: o No central devices like routers, switches, or access points are needed.
Devices communicate directly with each other.
Dynamic Topology: o The structure of the network changes frequently as nodes move, join, or leave the
network, which requires robust routing protocols.
Multi-hop Communication: o If two nodes are not in direct range, intermediate nodes forward data,
enabling communication through multiple hops.
Self-configuring and Decentralized: o Devices in AdHoc networks automatically detect and configure
themselves without manual intervention or pre-established infrastructure.
Energy-Constrained Operation: o Most devices are battery-powered, so energy efficiency in data
transmission and routing is essential.
Limited Bandwidth and Range: o Due to wireless communication, bandwidth is lower than wired
networks, and range is limited to the transmission capacity of nodes.
Diagram:

(fig. AdHoc Network Topology)

Explanation of Diagram:
In fig.4.232, mobile nodes A, B, C, D, and E are shown as part of an AdHoc network.
Node A sends data to Node C using Node B as an intermediate. Similarly, E reaches B via D and C.
Each node functions as both a sender and a router, ensuring connectivity through multi-hop transmission.
Applications of AdHoc Networks:
Military Communication: o Used by defense forces in combat zones where no infrastructure exists.
Nodes communicate securely even under movement.
Emergency and Disaster Relief: o During natural disasters, emergency teams can use AdHoc networks for
communication when traditional systems are down.
 5

Q. What is hybrid routing? Explain zone routing protocol (ZRP) with suitable diagram.
Introduction
Hybrid routing combines features of both proactive and reactive routing to get benefits of both types.
It reduces control overhead like reactive routing and decreases route discovery delay like proactive
routing.
Definition
Hybrid routing protocols maintain routing information proactively within a local region and use reactive
methods for distant nodes.
This approach improves scalability and efficiency in dynamic and large networks.
Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) :
ZRP divides the network into overlapping zones based on a defined radius called zone radius.
Each node proactively maintains routing info within its own zone.
For nodes outside the zone, route discovery is done reactively only when needed.
This reduces the need for flooding the whole network with routing information.
Inside the zone, nodes use IntrA-zone Routing Protocol (IARP) proactively.
Between zones, nodes use IntEr-zone Routing Protocol (IERP) reactively to discover routes.
Bordercast Resolution Protocol (BRP) is used to efficiently send route requests to border nodes,
minimizing redundancy.
Diagram : (fig.4.78 Zone Routing Protocol structure)
 6

Q. Explain basic terminologies of mobile IP.

Introduction:
Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows users to move across different networks while
maintaining a permanent IP address.
Definition:
Mobile IP is a standard protocol developed by IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) to facilitate
mobility in IP networks without changing the IP address.
It enables continuous internet sessions during the handover process in mobile environments.
Basic Terminologies of Mobile IP:
Mobile Node (MN): o A mobile node is a device, such as a smartphone or laptop, that can move from
one network to another while keeping its IP address fixed. O It sends and receives packets even while
changing locations.
Home Agent (HA): o A home agent is a router on the mobile node’s home network which maintains
information about the device’s current location. O It forwards the data to the mobile node when it is away
from home network.
Foreign Agent (FA): o A foreign agent is a router that provides routing services to the mobile node when
it is visiting a foreign network. O It communicates with the home agent to deliver data to the correct location
of the mobile node.
Care-of Address (CoA): o A care-of address is a temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node when
it is connected to a foreign network. O It identifies the mobile node’s current location in the foreign network.
Correspondent Node (CN): o A correspondent node is any device that communicates with the mobile
node. O It may be stationary or mobile and located in any part of the internet.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
The Correspondent Node (CN) sends packets to the mobile node through the Home Agent (HA), located
in the mobile node’s original home network.
The Home Agent uses unnelling to forward these packets to the Foreign Agent (FA) in the foreign
network where the mobile node is currently present.
The Foreign Agent delivers the packets to the Mobile Node using its Care-of Address (CoA).
The mobile node can reply directly to the CN, or through the same unnelling route.
Additional Related Concepts:
Tunneling: o Tunneling is the process where the home agent encapsulates the original packet and sends it
to the foreign agent or CoA using a tunnel. O This ensures the mobile node receives packets even when it
changes its network location.
Binding: o Binding is the association between a mobile node’s home address and its care-of address.
O The home agent uses binding to track the mobile node’s current location.
Registration: o The mobile node registers its care-of address with its home agent whenever it moves to a
new network.
O This process allows the home agent to update its binding table.
 7

Q. How does dynamic source routing (DSR) route the data? What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
Definition:
DSR protocol is an on-demand routing technique where the entire path to the destination is included in the
packet header.
It uses two main mechanisms: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance, eliminating the need for periodic
routing messages.
Working of DSR Protocol:
o When a source node needs to send data, it first checks its route cache.
O If no route is found, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) message to all neighboring nodes.
O Each node receiving the request appends its own address and forwards it until it reaches the destination.
O The destination replies with a Route Reply (RREP) containing the complete route back to the source.
Diagram:
(fig. Working of DSR protocol – Route Discovery and Maintenance)

Explanation of Diagram:
In fig., the source node S initiates a route request (RREQ) by broadcasting to neighbors.
Each intermediate node appends its address and forwards it further until it reaches destination D.
The destination sends a route reply (RREP) with the complete path, allowing S to send data along that
path.
Features of DSR:
Source Routing: o Each data packet carries the full path to the destination in its header, eliminating the
need for routing tables.
Caching: o Nodes maintain route caches to store learned paths, which helps in faster route discovery in
future transmissions.
No Periodic Updates: o DSR avoids regular routing updates, saving battery and bandwidth in dynamic
environments.
Advantages of DSR:
Efficient for Small Networks: o Works well in small or moderately sized networks with low to moderate
mobility due to minimal overhead.
Quick Recovery: o Upon failure, it uses cached alternate paths or initiates new discovery quickly.
No Periodic Control Packets: o Reduces unnecessary traffic, which saves energy and improves network
lifetime.
Disadvantages of DSR:
Header Overhead: o Since each packet carries the complete route, header size increases with path length,
wasting bandwidth.
Poor Performance in Large Networks: o Scalability becomes an issue due to increased processing and
memory requirements for maintaining route caches.
Stale Cache Entries:
o Nodes may store outdated routes, leading to delivery failures or delays until a new route is found.
 8

Q. Explain MANETs using mobile IP with suitable diagram.

Definition:
A MANET is a self-configuring network of mobile nodes connected via wireless links. Each node acts as
both a router and a host.
Mobile IP allows mobile nodes in MANETs to maintain their IP identity while moving between networks,
ensuring continuous data exchange.
Working of Mobile IP in MANETs:
Dynamic Node Participation:
o Nodes in a MANET can join or leave the network at any time. Mobile IP ensures ongoing sessions are not
disrupted by such changes.
O It supports dynamic routing updates as nodes move around.
Address Consistency:
o Mobile IP assigns a permanent IP address to mobile nodes, maintaining identity across different networks.
O When a mobile node enters or exits a MANET, it registers its care-of address with its home agent.
Support for Multihop Communication:
o In MANETs, communication often occurs over multiple hops. Mobile IP handles routing complexities
while the mobile node roams across hops.
O Packets are tunneled from the home agent to the care-of address, even if the node is deep in the MANET.
Integration with Infrastructure Networks:
o When a MANET connects to an external network (e.g., the internet), Mobile IP supports communication
with external nodes.
O This enables mobile nodes inside the MANET to communicate with internet-based services or users.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
The Correspondent Node sends data to a mobile node inside a MANET via the Home Agent, which
maintains the mobile node’s permanent IP address.
The Home Agent tunnels the packet to a gateway router that connects the infrastructure network to the
MANET.
 9

Inside the MANET, the packet is forwarded hop-by-hop (e.g., from Mobile Node A to D) until it reaches
the destination mobile node.
This structure allows seamless communication between a mobile node in MANET and an external
network.
Use Cases and Applications:
Military and Rescue Operations:
o Mobile IP in MANETs supports real-time communication in remote areas without existing infrastructure.
O Devices stay connected and reachable even during rapid movements or emergencies.
Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs):
o Vehicles form temporary MANETs while moving and connect to infrastructure using Mobile IP for traffic
updates or infotainment systems.
O It provides uninterrupted communication and IP continuity during mobility.
Disaster Recovery and Emergency Networks:
o In disaster-hit areas, MANETs using Mobile IP offer instant connectivity for rescue workers and
emergency responders.
O It ensures uninterrupted communication with central control stations or cloud services.
Related Terminologies to Understand Usage:
Binding Update:
o The mobile node informs its home agent of its current care-of address via a binding update.
O This allows the home agent to forward packets to the correct location.
Tunneling Mechanism:
o The encapsulation of packets from the home agent to the care-of address helps in traversing different
networks securely.
O Essential when nodes move between wired and wireless environments.
Route Optimization:
o Some MANET implementations use route optimization so that data can travel directly to the care-of
address without going through the home agent.
O This reduces delay and bandwidth use in the MANET environment.

Q. Compare MANET and VANET?

Security Challenges in MANET and VANET :
Security in MANET is complicated due to resource constraints and unpredictable mobility of nodes.
VANET has high mobility and frequent topology changes, making security more challenging in fast-
moving vehicles.
Both networks face threats like eavesdropping, impersonation, denial of service, and data tampering but in
varying contexts.
Feature MANET VANET
Node Mobility Moderate mobility, nodes move Very high mobility, vehicles move at high
randomly speed
Network Topology Frequent changes, less predictable Rapid topology changes due to vehicle
speed
Resource Limited battery and processing power Usually sufficient power but limited by
Constraints vehicle hardware
Infrastructure Infrastructure-less, fully decentralized Some infrastructure support like Road
Side Units (RSU)
Security Threats Routing attacks, eavesdropping, Privacy breaches, message tampering,
impersonation DoS
Real-Time Data Moderate Very high, critical for safety messages
Requirement
Privacy Concerns Less focus on privacy High privacy demand due to tracking risk
 10

UNIT 4
[Link] IP packet delivery between two mobile nodes in a mobile IP network. Why reverse
tunneling is required?
Definition
IP packet delivery in Mobile IP refers to the process of routing data packets from one mobile device to
another despite their movement across networks.
Packet Delivery Between Two Mobile Nodes :
Both nodes have permanent home addresses and temporary care-of addresses when roaming.
When Mobile Node 1 (MN1) sends a packet to Mobile Node 2 (MN2), the packet is routed via their
Home Agents (HA1 and HA2).
MN1 sends packets to MN2's home address, which reaches HA2.
HA2 tunnels the packet to MN2's current care-of address on the foreign network.
Similarly, MN2 replies by sending packets to MN1’s home address, which HA1 tunnels to MN1's care-of
address.
This process maintains session continuity despite node mobility.
Why Reverse Tunneling is Required :
Reverse tunneling allows packets from the mobile node to be sent back to its home network via the home
agent.
It ensures packets are not dropped by firewalls or security filters in foreign networks.
Prevents routing issues caused by source IP address mismatches in foreign networks.
Helps maintain security and proper routing policies by sending all traffic through the home agent.
Supports mobile nodes in networks that only accept packets from registered IP addresses.
Explanation of Diagram :
Fig.4.230 shows MN1 sending a packet to MN2’s home address.
HA2 intercepts and tunnels the packet to MN2’s care-of address on FN2.
MN2 receives the packet via CoA2.
Similarly, MN2’s reply goes through HA1 and is tunneled to MN1’s care-of address CoA1 on FN1.
This maintains proper routing despite node mobility and changing IP locations.
Additional points:
Reverse tunneling maintains communication integrity for bidirectional data flow.
Without reverse tunneling, packets may be blocked or routed incorrectly.
Reverse tunneling supports roaming in enterprise or ISP networks with strict policies.
 11

[Link] the modifications of Indirect TCP. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Definition:
Indirect TCP is a protocol that separates the TCP connection into two parts: one over a wired network and
another over a wireless network.
It is designed to isolate the mobile-related issues from the fixed host, maintaining high performance in
mobile environments.
Modifications in Indirect TCP:
Split Connection: I-TCP splits the end-to-end connection into two separate connections — fixed host to
base station and base station to mobile host.
Base Station Role: The base station maintains both connections independently, handles retransmissions,
and manages acknowledgments.
Protocol Transparency: I-TCP is designed to be transparent to the fixed host and the mobile node. It
works without changing their TCP stacks.
Performance Optimization: The wireless segment uses custom optimized TCP parameters to deal with
high loss and delay in wireless networks.
Buffering Mechanism: Data is buffered at the base station during handoffs, ensuring no data loss when
mobile nodes switch cells.
Error Recovery: Wireless errors are managed locally by the base station, so that the fixed host is unaware
of these losses.
Connection Migration: During handoff, the mobile node's connection state is transferred to the new base
station to maintain session continuity.

Explanation of Diagram:
Fig.4.232 shows that the TCP connection is split into two parts at the base station.
The fixed host communicates with the base station over a standard wired TCP connection.
The base station then communicates with the mobile host using a separate optimized TCP connection for
wireless communication.
The base station manages buffering, retransmissions, and mobility-related activities like handoff.
Advantages of Indirect TCP:
Improved Performance: Wireless-specific problems are handled locally without affecting the wired TCP
performance.
No Need to Modify TCP at Host: The fixed host continues to use standard TCP with no changes in its
protocol stack.
Reduced Packet Loss Impact: Losses over the wireless link do not impact the wired TCP connection,
reducing unnecessary retransmissions.
Fast Handoff Support: Data is buffered at the base station during handoffs, avoiding data loss and
retransmission delays.
Optimized Wireless Parameters: TCP parameters for congestion and error handling are tuned specifically
for the wireless connection.
Disadvantages of Indirect TCP:
Breaks End-to-End Semantics: Since TCP is split, acknowledgments may be sent to the fixed host even if
the mobile host has not received the data.
More Complex Infrastructure: Requires base station to maintain connection states and manage buffers,
increasing overhead.
Scalability Issues: Maintaining multiple simultaneous I-TCP sessions at the base station may lead to
performance degradation.
Handoff Overhead: Transferring connection state during handoffs adds complexity and delay.
Security Concerns: Splitting connections opens potential vulnerabilities at the base station where data and
control are exposed.
 12

[Link] and when encapsulation is needed? List different methods of encapsulation and explain any
one of them.
Introduction
Encapsulation is a process in mobile IP to forward packets from the home agent to the mobile node when
it is away from home network.
It helps to hide original packet details and carry them inside another packet for delivery.
Encapsulation means enclosing the original IP packet within a new IP packet with a different IP header.
This allows tunneling the packet through intermediate networks to the mobile node's current location.
Defination :
Why and When Encapsulation is Needed:
Mobile node moves away from home network and receives a care-of address.
Packets sent to the mobile node’s home address need to be forwarded to the care-of address.
Direct routing may not be possible due to network topology or mobility.
Encapsulation helps redirect packets by tunneling them through the home agent to the current location.
It preserves the original packet and allows transparent delivery.
Different Methods of Encapsulation:
IP-in-IP encapsulation
Minimal encapsulation
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)
Explanation of IP-in-IP Encapsulation:
IP-in-IP encapsulation involves wrapping the original IP packet inside a new IP packet.
The outer IP header has source as home agent’s IP and destination as mobile node’s care-of address.
The inner IP header is the original packet with source and destination as mobile node's home and
correspondent node addresses.
At the care-of address, the outer IP header is removed and original packet is delivered to mobile node.
This method is simple and widely used for mobile IP tunneling.

[Link] indirect TCP, snooping TCP and mobile-TCP using table.

Comparison of Indirect TCP, Snoop TCP and Mobile TCP:
Feature Indirect TCP Snoop TCP Mobile TCP
Connection Split Yes, at base station No No
End-to-End Semantics No Yes Yes
Maintained
Local Retransmission Yes, by base station Yes, by snoop agent No, only sender
retransmits
Works with Encrypted Yes No Yes
Traffic
Mobility Support Supports handoff via Limited, not ideal for Better support with
state transfer frequent move feedback to sender
Implementation High, requires session Moderate, needs Low, works with
Complexity tracking packet caching feedback and window
Fixed Host No No No
Modification
TCP Stack No No Yes, sender must
Modification Needed understand signals

This table highlights that while Snoop TCP is effective in improving wireless TCP performance, it is
restricted by encryption and mobility issues.
Mobile TCP was developed to solve mobility problems while maintaining end-to-end performance
without splitting the connection.
 13

[Link] transaction-oriented TCP with suitable diagram. What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
Definition:
Transaction-oriented TCP is a modification of standard TCP aimed at supporting quick, short data
exchanges without maintaining a long connection.
It reduces connection setup and teardown time to improve performance for small data transfers like web
transactions.
Working of Transaction-oriented TCP:
TCP connection setup is optimized by reusing existing connections or reducing handshake steps.
Data exchange is done quickly and connection is closed immediately after the transaction.
This reduces the overhead and latency for short-lived communications.

Explanation of Diagram:
In fig.4.245, the client initiates a TCP connection with SYN, server responds with SYN-ACK, client
replies with ACK.
Client sends a short HTTP request, server sends a short response.
Connection closes quickly with FIN and ACK packets exchanged, suitable for quick transactions.
Transaction-oriented TCP reduces delays during connection setup and teardown phases for faster
interaction.
Advantages of Transaction-oriented TCP:
Reduced Latency: Faster connection setup and teardown leads to quicker data transfers for small
transactions.
Efficient for Short Data: Designed specifically for short request-response patterns common in mobile and
web applications.
Less Resource Usage: Reduces overhead by minimizing time connections remain open, freeing resources
for other tasks.
Improves User Experience: Faster response times improve performance perception in interactive
applications.
Disadvantages of Transaction-oriented TCP:
More Connection Overheads: Frequent opening and closing of connections can cause more load on
network and servers.
Potential Congestion: Rapid connection setups might increase congestion or cause resource exhaustion
under heavy load.
Not Ideal for Long Sessions: Loses benefits of traditional TCP’s continuous data flow optimizations in
long-lived connections.
Complexity in Implementation: Requires changes to TCP stack and application logic to handle fast
connection cycles properly.
Additional Notes:
Transaction-oriented TCP is particularly useful in HTTP/1.0 and early mobile networks but newer
protocols like HTTP/2 and QUIC use multiplexing to solve similar problems.
It balances the need for reliable TCP features with the speed demanded by short data exchanges in
modern networks.
 14

[Link] snooping TCP with proper diagram. List its advantages and disadvantages
Introduction:
In mobile environments, traditional TCP faces major performance issues due to packet loss, mobility, and
handoffs.
Snoop TCP is a protocol designed to improve TCP performance over wireless links by enhancing error
recovery at the base station.
Definition:
Snoop TCP is a TCP-aware link-layer mechanism where the base station snoops or monitors the TCP
packets and helps with local retransmissions.
It does not split the TCP connection but acts as a transparent agent between the mobile node and the fixed
host.
Working Principle of Snoop TCP:
Packet Monitoring: The base station monitors TCP segments passing between the fixed host and mobile
host.
Caching Data: It stores unacknowledged data packets temporarily for retransmission in case of wireless
packet loss.
Suppressing Duplicate ACKs: Duplicate acknowledgments generated by the mobile host are suppressed
to avoid false congestion detection.
Local Retransmission: On detecting loss, the base station retransmits lost packets without involving the
fixed host.
Maintains End-to-End Semantics: The original TCP connection remains unchanged and intact end-to-end
from fixed to mobile host.
Acknowledgment Monitoring: It tracks ACKs from the mobile host to clear stored packets and identify
packet losses.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Architecture of Snoop TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
Fig.4.232 shows the placement and function of the snoop agent at the base station.
The fixed host sends TCP packets to the mobile host through the base station, where they are cached.
If the mobile host sends duplicate ACKs, the snoop agent retransmits the lost packets directly.
Only necessary ACKs are passed to the fixed host, preserving end-to-end TCP behavior.
Advantages of Snoop TCP:
Improved Wireless Performance: It handles wireless losses locally, minimizing delay and retransmissions
from the fixed host.
Maintains TCP Semantics: Since the connection is not split, end-to-end acknowledgments and reliability
are preserved.
Transparent Implementation: Works without needing changes in the TCP stacks of mobile or fixed hosts.
Efficient Use of Resources: Reduces unnecessary retransmissions and congestion control from the fixed
host.
Supports Fast Recovery: Local retransmissions are faster than those initiated from the fixed host.
Disadvantages of Snoop TCP:
Limited to Same Path ACKs: It assumes data and ACKs flow through the same base station, which may
not always be true.
Base Station Complexity: It adds processing and storage overhead to the base station for snooping and
caching packets.
Not Suitable for Encrypted Traffic: Cannot function if TCP headers or payloads are encrypted (e.g., with
IPsec).
No Support for Frequent Handoffs: The protocol does not efficiently handle mobility across base stations
with fast handoffs.
 15

Q. Write short note on mobile-TCP. List its advantages and disadvantages.

Introduction:
Traditional TCP does not handle mobility and wireless link issues well, leading to poor performance
during handoffs and wireless losses.
Mobile TCP (M-TCP) was designed to improve TCP performance in mobile environments without
violating end-to-end TCP semantics.
Definition:
Mobile TCP is a protocol that separates the connection into two parts using a "sender proxy" near the
wireless edge while keeping end-to-end reliability intact.
It allows better support for handoffs and wireless errors by pausing the fixed-to-proxy connection when
the mobile device is temporarily unreachable.
Working of Mobile TCP:
Split Control: The connection is logically divided into fixed-to-proxy and proxy-to-mobile parts, not
breaking the actual end-to-end TCP link.
No Packet Hiding: Unlike Indirect TCP, it does not hide wireless losses from the fixed host but manages
them intelligently.
Flow Control Mechanism: M-TCP controls the window size sent to the sender to pause the flow when the
mobile is disconnected.
Pause and Resume Capability: During handoffs or disconnection, the fixed host’s data flow is paused and
resumed automatically without triggering congestion control.
End-to-End ACKs: ACKs from the mobile host still reach the fixed host, maintaining the standard TCP
semantics.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Mobile TCP Architecture)

Explanation of Diagram:
Fig.4.232 illustrates the architecture of Mobile TCP, where a proxy near the base station interacts with
both the fixed and mobile host.
The proxy helps monitor link status and can pause data flow during disconnection to prevent congestion
at the fixed sender.
ACKs continue to flow from mobile to fixed host through the proxy, ensuring reliable data delivery.
Advantages of Mobile TCP:
Supports Handoff and Disconnection: It handles temporary disconnections gracefully without breaking
the TCP connection.
Maintains TCP End-to-End Semantics: It allows normal TCP operation by preserving acknowledgment
flow and connection integrity.
Avoids Congestion Misinterpretation: Prevents the fixed host from reducing its sending rate due to
mobility-related losses.
No Changes Required at Fixed Host: Only proxy and mobile host need slight modifications, keeping the
infrastructure lightweight.
Adaptive Flow Control: Adjusts the sender’s window size dynamically based on the connectivity status of
the mobile host.
Disadvantages of Mobile TCP:
Increased Complexity: Adds protocol logic at the proxy and may require kernel-level changes at the
mobile host.
Resource Usage at Proxy: Proxy must maintain per-connection state, consuming memory and processing
capacity.
Delay During Handoff: Although handled well, delays can still occur while switching between networks
or base stations.
Limited Deployment: Mobile TCP is not widely supported in commercial stacks and may face
compatibility challenges.
 16

[Link] with diagram the registration process of a mobile node via foreign agent (FA) and directly
with home agent (HA).
Introduction
Registration is a key process in Mobile IP where a mobile node informs its home agent about its current
location.
It allows the mobile node to receive packets while moving between different networks.
Definition
Registration is the process by which a mobile node updates its home agent with its current care-of
address, either via a foreign agent or directly.
Registration Process via Foreign Agent (FA) :
Mobile node moves into a foreign network and detects a foreign agent.
Mobile node sends a registration request to the foreign agent with its home address and care-of address.
Foreign agent authenticates the mobile node and forwards the registration request to the home agent.
Home agent updates the location binding with the care-of address and sends a registration reply back to
the foreign agent.
Foreign agent forwards the registration reply to the mobile node confirming the registration.
Registration Process Directly with Home Agent (HA) :
Mobile node moves to a foreign network without a foreign agent available.
Mobile node obtains a co-located care-of address by itself (e.g., via DHCP).
Mobile node sends a registration request directly to its home agent with its care-of address.
Home agent updates the binding and sends a registration reply directly to the mobile node.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Registration process in Mobile IP via FA and direct HA)

Explanation of Diagram :
Fig.4.232 illustrates two registration scenarios: via foreign agent and direct with home agent.
In the first scenario, the mobile node sends the registration request to the foreign agent, which forwards it
to the home agent.
Home agent processes and replies back via foreign agent to the mobile node.
In the second scenario, the mobile node communicates directly with the home agent without any foreign
agent involvement.
This direct registration occurs when no foreign agent is present, and mobile node uses a co-located care-of
address.
Additional Points :
Registration ensures packets are tunneled correctly to the mobile node's current location.
Authentication between mobile node, foreign agent, and home agent is essential to secure registration.
Registration lifetime specifies how long the registration is valid before renewal is required.
 17

Q. Write short note on selective retransmission, an extension of TCP. List its advantages and
disadvantages.
Introduction:
Traditional TCP retransmits all segments after a packet loss, even if many of them were successfully
received.
Selective retransmission improves efficiency by retransmitting only the missing or corrupted segments
instead of the entire window of data.
Definition:
Selective retransmission (also known as Selective Acknowledgment or SACK) is a TCP extension that
enables the receiver to inform the sender about specific segments that were received correctly.
This allows the sender to retransmit only those segments that were actually lost, improving bandwidth
usage and reliability.
Working of Selective Retransmission:
Receiver uses SACK option to inform the sender about successfully received segments within the
window.
Sender checks the SACK information and retransmits only the segments that are missing.
This mechanism is especially useful in high latency or high error-rate environments like wireless or
mobile networks.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Selective Retransmission in TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
In fig.4.232, the sender transmits a sequence of segments from 1 to 5.
Segment 3 is lost in transit, but segments 4 and 5 arrive correctly.
The receiver sends an acknowledgment for segment 2 and includes a SACK option listing segments 4 and
5.
The sender now only retransmits segment 3, avoiding redundant retransmissions.
Advantages of Selective Retransmission:
Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Only missing segments are retransmitted, saving bandwidth especially over
slow or unreliable links.
Improves Performance in High Loss Scenarios: Works better than cumulative ACK in environments like
mobile or satellite networks.
Reduces Unnecessary Data Transfer: Prevents retransmission of correctly received data, avoiding extra
load on the network.
Better Throughput: Maintains higher data transmission rate by reducing retransmission delays.
Disadvantages of Selective Retransmission:
Increased Complexity: Requires more complex logic on both sender and receiver to track and process
SACK options.
Higher Overhead: Adds extra information in the TCP header due to SACK blocks, which increases
control data.
Not Supported Universally: Older systems or devices might not support selective acknowledgment
extensions.
Limited SACK Space: Only a few missing blocks can be reported at once due to TCP option size
limitations.
 18

Q. Explain i) Indirect TCP ii) Snoop TCP iii) Mobile TCP

i) Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
Concept: Splits the TCP connection between the mobile host and the correspondent node (fixed host) into
two parts:
• One wired TCP connection from the correspondent node to the base station.
• One separate connection (often non-TCP) from the base station to the mobile host.
How it works:
• The base station acts as a proxy or intermediary.
• It hides the wireless link's characteristics from the fixed host.
• Only the wired part uses standard TCP, reducing impact from mobile issues like handoffs or
disconnections.
Advantages:
• Faster error recovery on the wireless part.
• Isolates TCP from frequent wireless disconnections or mobility.
Disadvantages:
• Breaks end-to-end TCP semantics (violates transparency).
• Adds complexity at the base station.
ii) Snoop TCP
Concept: Enhances TCP performance by placing a Snoop agent (a type of monitoring software) at the base
station.
How it works:
• The agent monitors TCP packets going to and from the mobile host.
• On packet loss (e.g., due to wireless errors), it retransmits locally from the base station without
involving the sender.
• The agent suppresses duplicate ACKs to avoid triggering TCP's congestion control.
Advantages:
• Maintains end-to-end TCP semantics.
• Reduces unnecessary congestion control actions.
• Local retransmissions are faster than sender retransmissions.
Disadvantages:
• Works only if the base station can see both directions of the connection.
• Doesn’t work well with encrypted packets (e.g., TLS).
iii) Mobile TCP (M-TCP)
Concept: Designed to better support mobility and handoffs by modifying the TCP protocol to handle
disconnections gracefully.
How it works:
• Splits the connection like I-TCP but maintains end-to-end semantics.
• Introduces a "disconnection state": When the mobile host is temporarily unreachable (e.g., during a
handoff), the base station buffers packets.
• The TCP sender is paused (via zero window size) until the mobile is reachable again.
Advantages:
• Preserves end-to-end TCP semantics.
• Better suited for mobile disconnection/reconnection scenarios.
Disadvantages:
• Requires modification in both the mobile host and the fixed host.
• Slightly more complex than Snoop or I-TCP.
 19

Q. Explain need of Mobile IP and elaborate IP Packet Delivery?

Need of Mobile IP
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (developed by IETF) that allows mobile devices (like smartphones,
laptops, etc.) to move from one network to another without changing their IP address.
Why is Mobile IP needed?
1. Mobility Support:
o IP was designed for static devices. When a device moves to another network, its IP address
should change—but many applications break if the IP changes during a session.
o Mobile IP allows continuous connectivity without interrupting ongoing connections.
2. Preserving Session Continuity:
o Applications like video calls, downloads, and streaming rely on a constant IP. Mobile IP
ensures these sessions aren’t dropped when moving across networks.
3. Location Transparency:
o Hides the exact physical location of the mobile node from the outside world while
maintaining communication.
4. Inter-network Roaming:
o Facilitates seamless communication across different IP networks (e.g., from Wi-Fi to mobile
data).
IP Packet Delivery in Mobile IP
Mobile IP introduces three main components:
• Mobile Node (MN): The device that moves across networks.
• Home Agent (HA): A router in the home network of the MN. It keeps track of the mobile node's
current location.
• Foreign Agent (FA): A router in the visited (foreign) network that assists in delivering packets to
the mobile node.
Steps of IP Packet Delivery
1. Registration Phase
When the Mobile Node enters a foreign network:
• It gets a temporary Care-of Address (CoA).
• It registers this CoA with its Home Agent (HA).
• The HA updates its table to map the MN’s home IP to its CoA.
2. Packet Delivery to Mobile Node (Downlink)
Let’s say a correspondent node (CN) wants to send data to the Mobile Node:
1. CN sends a packet to the Mobile Node’s home IP address.
2. Home Agent intercepts the packet.
3. HA encapsulates (tunnels) the packet and forwards it to the Care-of Address (CoA) via IP-in-IP
encapsulation.
4. The packet is received by the Foreign Agent or the Mobile Node itself if it directly owns the CoA.
5. The Foreign Agent delivers the original packet to the Mobile Node.
3. Packet Delivery from Mobile Node (Uplink)
• The Mobile Node sends packets directly to the Correspondent Node using its home IP address as
the source.
• This avoids triangular routing and speeds up communication.
Triangular Routing Problem
Initially, the return path may follow:
• CN → HA → MN → CN
This forms a triangle and increases delay.
Solution:
• Route Optimization: Once CN learns MN’s CoA, it can send packets directly to MN, bypassing HA.
 20

UNIT 5
Q. Explain Rayleigh distribution. How mean and variance of Rayleigh distribution is calculated?
Introduction:
Rayleigh distribution models the statistical behavior of signal amplitude in multipath fading
environments.
It is used when there is no direct line of sight between transmitter and receiver.
This distribution applies to scenarios where received signal is the sum of many random scattered waves.
Definition:
Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability distribution for non-negative random variables.
It describes the magnitude of a two-dimensional vector whose components are independent Gaussian
variables with zero mean.
It is widely used in wireless communication to model small-scale fading amplitude.
Probability Density Function (PDF):
The PDF of Rayleigh distribution depends on a scale parameter sigma (σ), related to the spread of the
data.
It gives the probability of signal amplitude being a certain value in a multipath fading environment.
Mean of Rayleigh Distribution:
The mean value represents the average amplitude of the received signal.
It is calculated using the scale parameter σ and a constant approximately equal to 1.253.
Mean = σ multiplied by square root of (π/2), which numerically equals about 1.253 times σ.
Variance of Rayleigh Distribution:
Variance measures the spread or dispersion of signal amplitudes around the mean value.
It depends on σ and is calculated using a formula involving π and constants.
Variance = ( (4 - π) / 2 ) multiplied by σ squared, approximately 0.429 times σ squared.
Additional Notes:
Rayleigh distribution is key to modeling wireless channel characteristics in urban areas.
It helps predict signal fading and design robust communication systems using diversity and error
correction.
Understanding mean and variance assists in analyzing signal strength variability and quality of service.
 21

Q. Compare wideband and narrowband channels. List any two channel models used in each channel
Introduction:
Wireless communication channels vary based on signal bandwidth and frequency characteristics.
Narrowband and wideband channels represent two major types with distinct properties and models.
Understanding their differences helps in designing communication systems properly.
Definition of Narrowband Channel:
Narrowband channel has signal bandwidth much smaller than the channel's coherence bandwidth.
It experiences flat fading where all frequency components of the signal fade equally.
Typically used in low data rate or voice communication systems.
Definition of Wideband Channel:
Wideband channel has signal bandwidth larger than the channel's coherence bandwidth.
It experiences frequency selective fading where different frequency components fade differently.
Used in high data rate systems such as broadband internet or multimedia transmission.
Features Narrowband Channel Wideband Channel
Bandwidth Signal bandwidth is much less Signal bandwidth is greater than
than coherence bandwidth coherence bandwidth
Fading Type Flat fading (uniform across Frequency selective fading
frequency) (varies with frequency)
Delay Spread Negligible multipath delay spread Significant multipath delay
spread
Impact on Signal Signal experiences uniform Signal components fade
attenuation differently causing distortion
Application Voice communication, low data High speed data, multimedia
rate applications
Channel Models used in Narrowband and Wideband Channels:
Narrowband Channel Models:
o Rayleigh fading channel model: Models multipath fading without line of sight.
o Ricean fading channel model: Models multipath fading with a dominant direct path.
Wideband Channel Models:
o Saleh-Valenzuela model: Models multipath propagation with clusters of arrivals.
o tapped delay line model: Represents channel impulse response with multiple discrete delays.
Additional Important Points:
Coherence bandwidth defines the frequency range over which the channel response is flat.
Multipath delay spread causes frequency selective fading in wideband channels.
Narrowband fading affects amplitude uniformly while wideband causes inter-symbol interference.
 22

Q. Describe multipath propagation with neat diagram. What is ISI in multipath fading channels?
Introduction:
Multipath propagation occurs when transmitted signals reach the receiver via multiple paths caused by
obstacles.
This phenomenon affects the quality and reliability of wireless communication.
Understanding multipath effects is crucial for designing robust communication systems.
Definition of Multipath Propagation:
Multipath propagation is when radio waves travel along different paths due to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering.
These multiple copies of the signal arrive at the receiver at different times causing signal distortion.
It results in constructive or destructive interference affecting signal strength and quality.
Explanation of Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI):
ISI occurs when delayed versions of a signal overlap with subsequent signals, causing distortion.
It happens due to multipath delay spread in fading channels where multiple paths have different travel
times.
ISI reduces data transmission accuracy and system performance.
Multipath Propagation Diagram: (fig.6.15 Multipath Propagation Model)

Explanation of Diagram:
Fig.6.15 shows transmitter signals traveling through direct, reflected, scattered, and diffracted paths to
receiver.
Different arrival times lead to multipath fading and cause ISI in the received signal.
Reflection in Multipath Channel:
Reflection occurs when waves bounce off large smooth surfaces like buildings or water bodies.
It causes delayed signal copies that interfere with the direct signal at the receiver.
Reflected waves may have altered phase and amplitude affecting signal quality.
Scattering in Multipath Channel:
Scattering happens when waves hit small objects or rough surfaces comparable to wavelength size.
It disperses energy in multiple directions, creating many weak signal paths.
Scattering causes signal fading and time dispersion in multipath channels.
ISI in Multipath Channel:
ISI results from overlapping of delayed multipath signals causing confusion between adjacent symbols.
It leads to errors in symbol detection and lowers the communication system’s performance.
Equalization techniques are used to mitigate ISI in receivers.
Additional Important Points:
Multipath delay spread is the difference between arrival times of the earliest and latest multipath signals.
Delay spread impacts the design of modulation and coding schemes to combat ISI.
Multipath effects are more severe in urban environments due to many reflectors and scatterers.
 23

Q. What is non-coherent detection? Explain with neat diagram, noncoherent detection of FSK.
Definition of Non-Coherent Detection:
Non-coherent detection detects signals without needing the carrier phase reference.
It uses signal energy or frequency to decide the transmitted symbol instead of phase comparison.
Useful when maintaining carrier synchronization is difficult or costly.
Non-Coherent Detection of FSK:
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) sends data by switching between different frequencies.
Non-coherent FSK detection uses bandpass filters centered at possible frequencies to measure signal
energy.
The output of each filter is compared, and the frequency with the highest energy is chosen as the
transmitted symbol.
This method avoids carrier phase synchronization but is less sensitive than coherent detection.
Non-coherent FSK detection is simpler to implement in hardware due to no phase synchronization
needed.
It performs well in fast fading or noisy environments where phase recovery is unreliable.
However, it has a higher bit error rate compared to coherent detection for the same signal-to-noise ratio.
Often used in low-cost or power-limited communication systems.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
The input signal containing FSK frequencies enters two parallel bandpass filters tuned at f₁ and f₂.
Each filter outputs the component energy around its center frequency.
Envelope detectors extract the amplitude (energy) of these filtered signals without phase info.
Comparator compares the two envelope outputs.
The output symbol corresponds to the frequency with the higher envelope energy, deciding the
transmitted bit.
 24

Q. Explain fading in detail? Classify types of fading.

Introduction:
Fading is the variation in the strength of a received radio signal over time or space caused by multiple
propagation paths.
It occurs due to the constructive and destructive interference of the signal waves arriving at the receiver
from different paths.
Fading impacts the quality and reliability of wireless communication systems.
Definition:
Fading is the fluctuation or attenuation of signal amplitude and phase caused by the propagation
environment affecting the transmitted wave.
It leads to signal strength variation over time, frequency, or spatial position of the receiver.
Causes of Fading:
Multipath propagation where signals reflect, diffract, and scatter due to obstacles like buildings, trees, and
terrain.
Movement of transmitter, receiver, or objects in the environment causing Doppler shifts and time
variations.
Atmospheric conditions also contribute to signal fluctuation.
Classification of Fading:
Large-scale fading:
o Occurs over large distances (hundreds of meters to kilometers).
o Caused mainly by path loss and shadowing due to obstacles blocking the signal path.
o Results in slow variation of the received signal power.
Small-scale fading:
o Occurs over short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations.
o Caused by multipath propagation and rapid movement of transmitter or receiver.
o Leads to rapid fluctuations of signal amplitude and phase.
Flat fading:
o All frequency components of the signal experience the same magnitude of fading.
o Happens when the signal bandwidth is less than the channel coherence bandwidth.
o The signal is affected uniformly across its frequency spectrum.
Frequency selective fading:
o Different frequency components of the signal experience different fading levels.
o Occurs when the signal bandwidth is larger than the channel coherence bandwidth.
o Causes distortion of the signal waveform due to unequal fading across frequencies.
Slow fading:
o Signal variations happen slowly compared to the symbol duration.
o Often caused by shadowing or changes in large obstacles near the path.
Fast fading:
o Rapid changes in signal amplitude and phase within a symbol duration.
o Caused by multipath and Doppler shifts due to movement.
 25

Q. Explain Ricean fading channel model. Differentiate between Rayleigh fading and Ricean fading.
Definition of Ricean Fading Channel Model:
Ricean fading channel represents signal amplitude variations with a strong LOS component combined
with random scattered waves.
The amplitude follows Ricean distribution characterized by the Rice factor (K), which measures the
power ratio of LOS to scattered components.
Higher K value means stronger LOS signal, lower K approaches Rayleigh fading which has no LOS.
Characteristics of Ricean Fading:
Signal strength fluctuates due to constructive and destructive interference of direct and scattered waves.
Useful in urban or suburban wireless systems where a clear path is usually present.
The Ricean distribution can be described mathematically, but here focus is on conceptual understanding.

Diagram : (fig.4.40 Ricean Fading Channel Model)

Explanation of Diagram:
Fig.4.40 shows transmitter sending signals via a direct LOS path and multiple reflected paths.
LOS path is stronger and stable, multipath causes fading and fluctuations in received signal amplitude.
This combined effect creates Ricean fading in wireless channel.
Difference between Rayleigh and Ricean Fading:
Rayleigh fading occurs when no LOS path is present; only scattered multipath components exist.
Ricean fading includes a LOS signal plus scattered multipath, making it less severe than Rayleigh fading.
Rayleigh fading amplitude follows Rayleigh distribution, Ricean fading amplitude follows Ricean
distribution with Rice factor K.
Ricean fading has better signal quality on average due to the dominant LOS component.
Rayleigh fading is common in dense urban areas with obstacles blocking LOS.
Ricean fading is common in open areas or scenarios with partial LOS like suburban or indoor
environments.
Underlined and italicized key differences:
Presence of LOS: Ricean has LOS, Rayleigh does not.
Signal strength: Ricean generally stronger and more stable.
Statistical distribution: Ricean uses Rice distribution, Rayleigh uses Rayleigh distribution.
Application scenario: Rayleigh for blocked LOS, Ricean for partial or full LOS.
 26

Q. Explain BER Fading in detail?

BER and Fading in Wireless Communication
To understand BER Fading, we must break it down into two core concepts:

1. What is BER (Bit Error Rate)?

BER is a measure of how many bits are received incorrectly in a communication system compared to the
total number of bits sent.

Number of Error Bits

• BER = Total Number of Transmitted Bits

• A lower BER means better communication quality.

• BER is affected by noise, interference, distortion, and fading.

2. What is Fading?
Fading refers to variation in signal strength due to factors like:

• Multipath propagation (signal reflects from buildings, hills, etc.)

• Movement of transmitter/receiver (Doppler effect)
• Obstructions between sender and receiver
Fading leads to fluctuating signal power, which can cause bit errors in transmission—this directly
increases the BER.
BER under Fading (BER Fading)
BER Fading means the degradation of Bit Error Rate performance due to fading in the wireless
channel.
When a signal fades:
• It becomes weak or distorted.
• The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) drops.
• The BER increases (more bits are received incorrectly).
Types of Fading and Their Impact on BER
1. Flat Fading (Narrowband Fading)
• Affects all frequency components of the signal equally.
• Common in slow-moving or narrowband systems.
• Impact: Causes deep fades (signal goes nearly to zero) → spikes in BER.
2. Frequency-Selective Fading
• Different frequencies are affected differently (due to multipath delays).
• Occurs in wideband systems.
• Impact: Causes inter-symbol interference (ISI), leading to higher BER.
3. Fast Fading
• Channel changes rapidly with time (due to high mobility).
• Impact: Quick fluctuations in BER; harder to maintain reliable communication.
4. Slow Fading (Shadowing)
• Caused by large obstacles (e.g., buildings, hills).
• Impact: BER increases over longer durations when the signal is blocked.
 27

UNIT 6
Q. What is M-commerce? List out benefits of M-commerce. Briefly explain any three applications of
M-commerce. / What is a mobile payment system? Explain payment process using credit
card
Definition of M-commerce:
M-commerce is commercial transactions conducted via wireless handheld devices such as smartphones
and tablets.
It enables users to perform financial and business transactions remotely using mobile technology.
Benefits of M-commerce:
Provides convenience by allowing transactions anytime and anywhere.
Increases customer reach by connecting businesses to mobile users globally.
Supports real-time transactions and updates, enhancing customer experience.
Enables personalized services and targeted marketing through mobile data.
Reduces operational costs by automating business processes.
Attributes of M-commerce:
Ubiquity: M-commerce allows access to services without location constraints.
Convenience: Users can perform transactions quickly using mobile devices.
Personalization: Offers tailored services based on user preferences and history.
Localization: Uses location information to provide relevant offers and services.
Instant Connectivity: Enables real-time communication and transactions.
Applications of M-commerce:
Mobile Banking: Customers can check balances, transfer funds, and pay bills using mobile apps.
Mobile Shopping: Users can browse catalogs, place orders, and make payments via mobile websites or
apps.
Mobile Ticketing: Purchase and use tickets for transport or events directly from mobile devices.
Mobile Payment System:
A mobile payment system allows users to pay for goods or services using mobile devices instead of cash
or cards.
It supports various payment methods including credit cards, debit cards, digital wallets, and carrier
billing.
Payment Process Using Credit Card:
User selects products or services on a mobile platform and chooses credit card payment.
The mobile device sends payment details securely to the payment gateway.
Payment gateway encrypts data and forwards it to the acquiring bank for authorization.
The acquiring bank communicates with the credit card network and issuing bank to verify funds.
Once approved, the transaction is completed, and confirmation is sent to the user and merchant.
Explanation
User initiates payment via mobile device.
Mobile device sends encrypted data to payment gateway for security.
Payment gateway forwards request to acquiring bank for processing.
Acquiring bank contacts credit card network which communicates with issuing bank.
Issuing bank verifies card details and fund availability.
Approval or decline message flows back through the chain.
User and merchant receive payment confirmation immediately.
Advantages of M-commerce:
Enables 24/7 access to shopping and services without physical presence.
Supports fast, secure, and convenient transactions.
Enhances customer engagement through personalized offers and notifications.
Reduces costs for businesses and consumers by streamlining processes.
Encourages impulse buying due to easy mobile access.
Disadvantages of M-commerce:
Security risks due to potential hacking or data theft in wireless networks.
Dependence on network connectivity can interrupt transactions.
Limited screen size and input capabilities on mobile devices can affect user experience.
Privacy concerns due to collection of personal and location data.
 28

Q. Explain mobile operating system. What are needs of a mobile OS? List different types of OS.
Introduction:
Mobile operating systems (OS) are software platforms that manage hardware and software resources in
mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.
They provide user interface, application management, and control over device functions such as calls,
data, and sensors.
Definition of Mobile Operating System:
A mobile OS is a system software designed specifically to operate on handheld devices with limited
resources and mobility needs.
It handles communication, user interaction, security, and application execution efficiently on mobile
hardware.
Needs of a Mobile OS:
Efficient resource management to handle limited CPU, memory, and battery power.
Support for wireless communication and connectivity like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
User-friendly interface optimized for small screens and touch input.
Security features to protect data and user privacy in a mobile environment.
Ability to manage multitasking and background processes without excessive battery drain.
Support for location services and sensor integration for enhanced applications.
Compatibility with a variety of hardware components and peripherals.
Types of Mobile Operating Systems:
Android: Open source OS based on Linux kernel, widely used in smartphones.
iOS: Apple's proprietary OS with strong security and smooth user interface.
Windows Mobile/Windows Phone: Microsoft's mobile OS for smartphones.
BlackBerry OS: Known for secure communication in business devices.
Symbian OS: Older OS used in early smartphones, now mostly obsolete.
Other OS: KaiOS, Tizen, Firefox OS used in specific devices or regions.
Design Issues of Mobile Operating System:
Resource Constraints: Must efficiently use limited CPU, memory, storage, and battery resources.
Connectivity Management: Must handle various wireless connections smoothly and switch between
networks seamlessly.
Security: Strong protection against malware, unauthorized access, and data leaks is critical.
User Interface: Design must accommodate small screens, touch input, and limited user attention.
Real-time Performance: Must handle real-time events like calls and notifications without delays.
Application Management: Efficient multitasking and process management to balance performance and
battery life.
Portability and Hardware Support: Should support various device hardware and sensors with minimal
overhead.
Power Management: Advanced techniques to maximize battery life while keeping the system responsive.
Special Constraints and Requirements of Mobile OS:
Limited Resources: Must operate under strict limits on processor speed, memory size, and power
availability.
Battery Life: Power consumption must be minimized for longer device use between charges.
Mobility: OS should support handoffs between networks and maintain connectivity during movement.
Security and Privacy: Mobile devices carry sensitive personal data requiring robust encryption and
permissions.
User Interaction: Interfaces must be intuitive, responsive, and easy to use on small touchscreens.
Multimedia Support: Must handle audio, video, and camera functions efficiently.
Real-time and Interrupt Handling: Needs to quickly respond to calls, messages, and sensor inputs.
Software Updates: Capability for remote updates without disrupting user experience.
 29

Q. Draw B2B model and explain any one B2B application.

Introduction:
Business-to-Business (B2B) model refers to commercial transactions conducted between businesses using
electronic networks.
It involves companies selling products or services to other companies rather than to individual consumers.
B2B supports supply chain management, procurement, and business collaborations over the internet or
private networks.
Definition of B2B Model:
B2B model is a framework where transactions happen between two businesses such as manufacturers,
wholesalers, retailers, or service providers.
The model focuses on optimizing efficiency, reducing costs, and improving communication between
enterprises.
Key Components of B2B Model:
Suppliers: Provide raw materials or products to businesses.
Manufacturers: Convert raw materials into finished goods for other businesses.
Distributors: Help move products from manufacturers to retailers or other businesses.
Buyers: Businesses that purchase goods or services to support their operations.
Electronic Marketplace: Digital platform where buyers and sellers connect and transact.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
Suppliers provide raw materials to manufacturers for product creation.
Manufacturers convert raw materials into products and send them to distributors.
Distributors supply the products to buyers or retailers.
Electronic marketplace acts as a digital platform enabling order placement, product listings, and
transaction management.
This platform simplifies business interactions and speeds up procurement processes.
Example of B2B Application: Supply Chain Management System
Supply chain management systems help businesses coordinate and control the flow of goods and
information.
They provide real-time data on inventory levels, order status, and delivery schedules.
The system automates procurement, reduces errors, and improves collaboration between suppliers and
buyers.
Companies can forecast demand better and manage resources efficiently, reducing costs and delays.
It supports electronic invoicing, payment processing, and contract management digitally.
 30

Q. Write a short note on mobile computing and its three basic components.
Introduction:
Mobile computing allows users to access data and services from any location without being connected by
wires.
It supports communication and data exchange through portable devices like smartphones, tablets, and
laptops.
Definition:
Mobile computing is a technology that enables transmission of data, voice, and video via a mobile device
without fixed physical connections.
Three Basic Components of Mobile Computing:
Mobile Hardware: Devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable gadgets used to perform
computing tasks on the move.
Mobile Software: Applications and operating systems designed to support mobile devices, enabling
connectivity and user-friendly interaction.
Mobile Communication Infrastructure: Wireless networks like cellular, Wi-Fi, and satellite systems that
facilitate data transfer between mobile devices and servers.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
The user operates mobile hardware to access services.
Mobile hardware runs mobile software to process and manage data.
Mobile communication infrastructure connects devices with networks to exchange information.
Interaction between these components allows seamless mobile computing experience.
Additional Information:
Mobile computing supports real-time access and remote work.
Its efficiency depends on hardware capabilities, software design, and network coverage.
Security and power management are important considerations in mobile computing.
 31

Q. Draw B2C model and explain any one B2C application.

Introduction:
Business-to-Consumer (B2C) model refers to transactions where businesses sell products or services
directly to individual customers.
It is the most common e-commerce model used by online retailers, service providers, and digital
platforms.
B2C focuses on customer experience, convenience, and fast delivery of goods or services.
Definition of B2C Model:
B2C model is a commercial framework where companies offer products or services directly to end-users
for personal use.
It involves online shopping websites, mobile apps, and digital marketplaces targeting consumers.
Key Components of B2C Model:
Business: The seller or service provider offering products to consumers.
Consumer: Individual buyers who purchase products for personal use.
Online Store: Website or app where consumers browse and buy products.
Payment Gateway: Secure platform that processes online payments from consumers.
Delivery System: Logistics that deliver goods from business to consumer.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
Businesses list their products and services on the online store platform.
Consumers browse and place orders through the online store interface.
Payment gateway securely processes consumer payments like credit cards or digital wallets.
After payment confirmation, the store arranges delivery through the logistics system.
Delivery system ensures the ordered products reach the consumer’s address timely and safely.
Example of B2C Application: Online Retail Store
Online retail stores like Amazon or Flipkart sell a wide variety of products directly to customers.
They provide detailed product descriptions, reviews, and easy navigation for better shopping experience.
The platform supports multiple payment options such as credit cards, net banking, or wallets.
Efficient delivery networks ensure fast shipping and easy returns, improving customer satisfaction.
These stores use recommendation algorithms to personalize shopping and increase sales.
 32

Q. Explain i) Palm OS ii) Symbian OS iii) iOS

i) Palm OS
Overview:
• Palm OS (also known as Garnet OS) was developed by Palm Inc. in 1996.
• Designed for PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and later used in early smartphones.
Key Features:
• Simple touch-based interface (stylus-operated).
• Efficient task management and low memory footprint.
• Provided built-in PIM (Personal Information Management) apps like calendar, contacts, memo
pad, to-do list.
• Supported third-party applications using C/C++.
Limitations:
• No multitasking.
• Limited support for modern wireless connectivity.
• Eventually phased out due to competition from more advanced platforms.
ii) Symbian OS
Overview:
• Developed by Symbian Ltd., later owned by Nokia.
• Dominant mobile OS in the 2000s before Android and iOS.
• Used in brands like Nokia, Sony Ericsson, and Samsung.
Key Features:
• Multitasking and real-time processing capabilities.
• Support for native C++ applications.
• Modular and scalable, suited for both low-end and high-end devices.
• Power-efficient, ideal for mobile hardware.
• Supported Bluetooth, SMS, MMS, 3G, and other mobile services.
Limitations:
• Complex development environment.
• Poor user interface compared to Android/iOS.
• Declined rapidly after the rise of Android and iOS due to lack of modern app ecosystem.
iii) iOS
Overview:
• Developed by Apple Inc., first released in 2007 with the iPhone.
• Closed-source, Unix-based (derived from macOS), known for its security and performance.
Key Features:
• Intuitive multi-touch interface.
• Excellent app ecosystem via the App Store.
• Strong focus on privacy and security.
• Features like Siri, FaceTime, AirDrop, iCloud, etc.
• APIs available for developers using Swift or Objective-C.
Advantages:
• Regular updates and strong Apple ecosystem integration.
• Optimized for Apple hardware (iPhones, iPads).
• Very popular in developed countries and among premium users.
Limitations:
• Closed platform (no sideloading apps by default).
• Expensive hardware.