Wireless and mobile

communication :
If a signal to interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory forward channel performance of
a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for
maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n = 4, (b) n = 3? Assume that there are 6 co-
channels cells in the rst tier, and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile. Use
suitable approximations.

A:
fi
1. a) Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4 has to be replicated in order to
approximately cover the entire service area of 1569 km2 with the adequate number of
uniform-sized cells of 7 km2 each.(b) Consider the transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal
carrier frequency of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 60 mph the received carrier frequency if
the mobile is moving (i) Directly towards the transmitter (ii) Directly away from the transmitter.
A:
=56
 3.
3. (a) Explain the situations when hando s are triggered? further discuss about Mobile Assisted
Hando – (MAHO) and Intersystem hando .b) Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4
has to be replicated in order to approximately cover the entire service area of 1569 km2 with the
adequate number of uniform-sized cells of 7 km2 each

A:
3. (a) Hando s in Wireless Communication
Situations When Hando s Are Triggered:
A hando (or handover) occurs when a mobile user moves from one cell coverage area to
another. It ensures call continuity and data session quality. Common situations include:
1. Signal Strength Drops Below Threshold:
When the signal from the current base station becomes too weak.
2. Better Signal from a Neighboring Cell:
If an adjacent base station provides a stronger and more reliable signal.
3. Load Balancing:
To redistribute users from congested cells to less crowded ones.
4. User Mobility:
Fast-moving users (e.g., in vehicles) moving between cells require frequent hando s.
5. Interference Increase:
When co-channel or adjacent channel interference degrades call quality.

Mobile Assisted Hando (MAHO):

• De nition: In MAHO, the mobile device assists the network in making hando decisions.
• How it Works:
The mobile measures the signal strength of nearby base stations.
It reports these measurements back to its serving base station.
The network uses this data to decide whether to initiate a hando .
fi
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
 • Advantages:
Faster hando decisions.
Better adaptability to changing conditions.
Widely used in GSM and modern cellular systems.

Intersystem Hando :
• De nition: Hando between two di erent cellular systems or networks, e.g., from GSM to
CDMA or from one operator to another.
• Types:
Inter-MSC Hando : Between two di erent Mobile Switching Centers (but same network).
Inter-Operator Hando : Between two di erent operators’ networks.
• Challenges:
Di erent network protocols and infrastructures.
Authentication and billing coordination.

224.14 equivalent to 224.

ff
fi
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
ff
 4. The 2G cellular system GSM 900 operates its 125 forward channels in the uplink frequency
band 890.2–915 MHz and 125 reverse channels in the frequency band 935.2–960 MHz. Each
channel has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
(i) What is the bandwidth in the forward channels (uplink frequency band) and reverse channels
(downlink frequency band)?
(ii) If each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots, what is the sub channel spacing?
(iii) If each channel is shared by 16 users then compute the total number of users per cell?

A:

Given:
• Number of channels: 125 (both uplink and downlink)
• Channel bandwidth: 200 kHz
• Uplink band: 890.2 MHz – 915 MHz
• Downlink band: 935.2 MHz – 960 MHz
• Each channel has 16 time slots

(i) Bandwidth of Forward and Reverse Channels

To nd the total bandwidth used:

Total Bandwidth=Number of channels×Channel bandwidth

=125×200kHz=25,000kHz=25MHz
So:
• Forward (uplink) bandwidth = 25 MHz
• Reverse (downlink) bandwidth = 25 MHz

(ii) Sub-channel spacing if each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots

In GSM, time division multiple access (TDMA) is used, where multiple users share the same
frequency but are assigned di erent time slots.
fi
ff
Important Note: Time slots do not divide the frequency spectrum; they divide access in time.
So, sub-channel spacing remains 200 kHz.
• Sub-channel spacing = 200 kHz
(Each time slot is a logical subdivision of time, not frequency.)

(iii) Total number of users per cell

If each channel supports 16 users (via 16 time slots), and there are 125 channels, then:

Total users per cell=125×16=2000 users

5.
For the two-ray model, derive an approximate expression for the distance values below the critical
distance at which signal nulls occur. 6M

A:
 📌 Assumptions:
• Flat Earth model
• Transmitter height:
ht
• Receiver height:

hr
• Distance between Tx and Rx:
d
• Wavelength of the signal:
λ
• The re ected path is longer than the direct path, causing a path di erence.
• The angle of incidence equals the angle of re ection.
Path Di erence:
Let’s denote:
fl
ff
fl
ff
1. Q.1.A total of 50MHz is assigned for the FDD based cellular network shown in below Figure.
The bandwidth of each simplex channel is 25KHz. Determine the following
[6]
i. Cluster Size, channels per cell and the overall capacity of the cellular network.
 ii. Total tra c of each cell assuming Erlang B trunking system with 1% GOS.
iii. Total number of users if each user generates a tra c of 0.1E.

A: To answer your questions regarding the cellular network:

i. Cluster Size, Channels per Cell, and Overall Capacity
of the Cellular Network:
From the gure, it looks like a hexagonal grid is used to represent the cells, and this is a typical
layout in cellular network design.
• Cluster Size (N):
The cluster size can be determined based on the frequency reuse pattern in the network. A
common frequency reuse pattern uses 3, 4, or 7 cell clusters, but in this case, we would
typically look for the number of unique frequency sets used in one cluster to avoid
interference. The pattern in the diagram suggests a N=7 clustersince there are 7 cells in the
repeating unit that reuse the frequencies.
• Channels per Cell:
Each simplex channel has a bandwidth of 25 KHz.
The total bandwidth assigned for the network is 50 MHz.
To nd the number of channels available:

Channels per cell=

=2000 channels

• Since we have a 7-cell cluster and assuming each cell gets an equal share of the total
bandwidth, each cell will have 2000/7 equivalent 285.71≈286 channels per cell.
Overall Capacity of the Network:
• The overall capacity of the network is the number of channels available in all the cells. Since
there are 7 cells in the cluster and each cell gets 286 channels, the total number of channels in
the entire cluster would be:

Total Capacity=286×7=2,002 channels

fi
fi
ffi
ffi
ii. Total Tra c per Cell Assuming
Erlang B Trunking System with
1% GOS:
The Erlang B formula is used to estimate the number of lines (channels) required to handle a
certain amount of tra c with a speci ed Grade of Service (GOS). The formula is:
ffi
ffi
fi
per cell.

Q.2. i. Compute the co-channel signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) for cluster size N = 7 under a.)
Omni-directional antenna, b.) 120 sectoring and c.) b) 60 sectoring. Assume the path loss
exponent as n = 3. What is the preferred sectoring if the required SIR is 15dB?

A:
To compute the co-channel Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) for a cluster size
N=7, we need to calculate the SIR for three di erent antenna con gurations: Omni-directional,
120° sectoring, and 60° sectoring. The general formula for the SIR in a cellular system with a
cluster size
N and path loss exponent
n is :
SIR= C/ I

where:

C is the signal strength from the desired cell.

• I is the interference from co-channel cells.
The interference can be calculated using the following formula:
ff
fi
 ii. Di erentiate between xed and dynamic channel assignment techniques

A:

Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) assigns speci c channels to each cell permanently.
Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) allocates channels to cells as needed, from a common pool.
FCA is simple to implement but not e cient under variable tra c.
DCA is complex but utilizes channels more e ciently.
FCA may cause call blocking in high-tra c cells.
DCA reduces call blocking by adapting to tra c conditions.
FCA has lower system cost and complexity.
DCA requires real-time management and has higher system cost.

3. The ve received power measurements from a transmitter are given in the following table.
Assuming log normal shadowing path loss model and with reference distance do = 100m,
determine a) path loss exponent “n” and b) standard deviation about the mean value.
[7]
Distance [m] Received Signal Power[dBm]
100 0
ff
fi
fi
ffi
ffi
ffi
ffi
fi
ffi
200 -20
1000 -32
2000 -50
3000 -70

A:
4. 4.Given the height of transmitter 50m, height of receiver 25m and height of obstacle 75m,
determine the loss due to knife-edge di raction. Assume the carrier frequency as 900MHz.
Further using di raction gain determine the received power under di raction if the received power
under LOS condition is −100dBm. The distance d1 between the obstacle and transmitter is 10Km.
The distance d2 between obstacle and receiver is 2Km

A:
ff
ff
ff
equivalent to 3.49
 5.Di erentiate between 1G and 2G cellular communication standard

A:

The main di erences between 1G and 2G cellular communication standards are based on their
technology, data transfer speed, and services they o ered. Here's a breakdown:
1G (First Generation) Cellular Communication
1. Technology:
1G was based on analog technology.
It used Frequency Modulation (FM) for voice transmission.
1. Data Transmission:
1G systems only supported voice communication.
It did not support text messaging, internet, or data services.
1. Speed:
1G had low call quality and a limited coverage area.
The data transmission rate was quite slow and limited due to its analog nature.
1. Standard:
The most common 1G standard was AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System), used
primarily in the United States.
1. Security:
Calls were not encrypted, making them vulnerable to eavesdropping.
1. Hand-o :
The hand-o between cells was not very smooth, often leading to call drops during
movement.
2G (Second Generation) Cellular Communication
1. Technology:
2G introduced digital technology, marking a signi cant advancement from analog.
It used Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
for frequency management.
1. Data Transmission:
2G supported voice calls and text messaging (SMS), which was a major improvement.
It also allowed for basic data services like email, although speeds were still quite limited.
1. Speed:
2G networks provided speeds of up to 64 kbps, which was still low by modern standards but
much better than 1G.
It enabled better voice quality and more reliable communication compared to 1G.
1. Standard:
Common 2G standards include GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), CDMA,
and IS-95.
GSM became the dominant 2G standard worldwide.
1. Security:
ff
f
ff
ff
fi
ff
 2G introduced digital encryption, o ering better privacy and security for voice calls and data
transmission.
1. Hand-o :
2G had much better hand-o between cells, improving call continuity while moving.

In short, 1G was the very rst step in mobile communication, providing only analog voice services,
while 2G introduced digital signals, improved voice quality, and paved the way for mobile data
services.
f
fi
f
ff