PROCESS CONTROL IN TEXTILES

Process Control
Depends on

[Link] precisely the scope of control

[Link] the product or process characteristics
[Link] of desired level of performance of this
characteristics
[Link] of methods & frequency of checks and
sample size
[Link] implementation of corrective action if
required

5
 Process Control in Spinning
Basic objective of spinning
Produce yarn of desired quality, in required quantity at
minimum cost

The twin objective of:

[Link] the cost and
[Link] the quality requirement are interdependent

6
 Role and scope of process control in spinning
At minimum cost Of desired quality

Raw material Manufacturing Count & its Strength & Unevenness & Yarn &
cost cost variation its variation imperfections package faults

Sliver Cotton quality, Cotton quality, Process

Mixing Yarn unevenness, drafting process parameters,
cost realization wrapping parameters parameters operator skill
Usable Labour Other control
wastes cost costs
Process Product
waste waste Machine Labour Mechanical condition of machinery
productivity complement

Machinery audit
Unusable dirt, Machine Indirect,
hard waste efficiency, direct
production Instrumental Technician’s
Trash, lint, short parameters
fibre removal measurement assessment
End breakage
Raw material cost,
rates 7
optimum mixing
 Necessity of Quality Control
To satisfy the customer requirements quality
control is necessary
Two customers of a spinner:
[Link]
[Link] user
Weaver’s requirement: weaver will look for quality
aspects of yarn for good weaving

The user of the fabric will look for comfort and good
aesthetic appeal of the fabric.
8
 Parameters to control for yarn
Some yarn characteristics/parameters that contribute to
Good weavability and,
Appearance and performance of the yarn and fabrics
are
 Tenacity
 Extensibility
 Uniformity
 Freedom from faults

Therefore, these parameters of the yarn are needed

to control

9
Broad areas for process control in Spinning
1. Cotton cost
2. Yarn realization
3. Wage cost
4. Yarn quality
5. Machinery audit
Key variables/characteristics
 To exercise actual control in these areas some key
variables must be identified
 These key variables must be meaningful,
measurable and controllable
 Meaningful means by controlling it we can
-reduce waste
-improve performance, production or quality of
yarn by significant degree 10
 Establishing Norms or Standards
Once key variables are identified, next step is lay down
of performance levels for each key variable, which
mills should achieve
•These standards may be provided by customer (like lea
strength, no. of imperfections in the yarn)

Or else, it is necessary to have set of standard values

(norms) to keep check on performance level of each
key variable.

11
 Methods of Establishing Norms
Two different methods for establishment of norms
1. Through Experimentation
varying levels of waste removal at different stages
like Carding or Comber have influence on the yarn
quality.
Existing studies have provided standard values of waste
at different stages.
Are same for majority of industries but may required to
change while catering to special needs.

12
 Methods of Establishing Norms
2. Through collection of industrywide data
 Industrywide data is collected for given characteristics,
& from obtained frequency distribution upper quartile
(or some statistics) is obtained
 Values of norms is such that it is not being achieved by
large section of industry
 But it is achievable under existing techno-economic
conditions with available machinery
 Norms for cleaning efficiency, yarn strength,
unevenness, count variation & productivity are set by
this method

13
 Revision of Norms
• Norms set with any of above methods, have to be examined
periodically by collecting fresh data

• To check if level of technology or processing sequence needs

revision

• Over a period, even at same level of technology, many mills

will reach norm or even surpass them

• Therefore, norms should be raised to higher level so that it

still represents a goal to be achieved for most mills

14
 Collection and Interpretation of data
• The frequency & method of data collection
depend on variable under consideration and
technological considerations.
General requirements
1. Sample collected should be representative of
the whole lot
e.g. Cotton with different trash contents at blow room
2. Arithmetic and statistical tools
-Large sample size is needed to draw conclusions
based on arithmetic differences
-Statistical tools allow reasonable reliable
conclusions from practically manageable tests
15
 Use of statistical tool
Use of statistical tool involves two steps
1. Deciding what order of difference is of practical
importance
e.g. 3% variation in lea strength
2. Calculating the minimum sample size for which
the difference, if observed, is real and not resulting
from sample to sample variation.

16
 Taking Corrective Actions
Whenever a performance aspect or quality is found
unacceptable , corrective action must be taken.
•Could be short term (changing the process parameters)
•Could be long term (replacement of machines)
•Could be technological or non-technological

Steps for technological corrective actions

1. One must begin by listing all possible corrective

actions
i. Analyze the manner in which each one of them can
influence the key variable under consideration. (This will
remove unrelated items from list)
17
 Steps for technological corrective actions
ii. The second stage elimination consists of ‘quantitative
thinking’
Using arithmetic & simple rules of statistics,
determining ‘how much’ effect a specific cause
can have on variable under consideration.
(This will further eliminate many actions from list)
Besides, research and technological investigations can
minimize trial and error in course of action.
e.g. variation in the lea count on successive leas in bobbin

18
 Repeat Investigation
• Necessary to check a corrective action indeed
resulted in desired improvement for two reasons:
[Link] choice of corrective actions get narrowed down
to 2 or 3 actions, and from which we choose most
likely one. Therefore, its necessary to check the
choice has been correct.
[Link] is not always possible to predict ‘how much’ a
particular corrective action will influence the key
variable under consideration.

19
 Mixing Quality, Cost
and Bale Management
 Mixing Quality and Cost
• Cotton cost: Single largest component in total yarn cost
(60-70%)
• Cotton cost can be controlled by efficient formulation of
mixing for various counts, yarns being spun
• Conventionally, types & proportions of cotton fibres to
be mixed were decided based on cost & previous
experience
• This method cannot assure minimum possible cost
without affecting the yarn properties
• Therefore, any improvement in evaluation, purchase &
formulation of cotton mixing is highly valuable

2
 Importance of cotton quality
For a spinner important cotton fibre properties are
 Length, length uniformity, short fibre content
 Micronaire (linear density or maturity)
 Strength
 Trash (type of trash)
 Fibre entanglement known as neps
 Stickiness
 Colour and grade
 Contaminations

3
 Consequences of poor fibre quality
Fibre property Description Consequences of poor fibre quality-
spinning
Length Fibre length - Fibre length decides settings on
spinning machines
- Longer the fibre, higher processing
speeds can be used.
- Lower twist can be used
- Increased yarn strength
Short fibre content proportion by weight of - Increase in process waste
fibres shorter that 12.7 - Fly generation, uneven and weaker
mm or 0.5 inches yarns.
Micronaire Combined index of - Linear density decides number of
fineness and maturity fibre in yarn cross-section
- Hence count of yarn spun
- Cotton with low micronaire may
have immature fibres
- High micronaire means fibres are
coarser.

4
 Consequences of poor fibre quality
Fibre property Description Consequences of poor fibre quality-
Spinning
Strength Breaking force required for a - Ability of cotton to withstand tensile
bundle of fibres forces is important in spinning
- Yarn and fabric strength correlate with
fibre strength
Grade Grade describes colour of - No direct bearing on process ability
cotton - Significant difference in color can lead
to dyeing problems
Trash/dust Plant parts incorporated - Higher trash results in increased waste
during harvest - Higher trash affects open end spinning
process
Stickiness Contamination of cotton - Sugar contamination leads to build up of
from exudates of silverleaf sticky material on textile machinery and
whitefly and the cotton leads to process stoppages
aphid

5
 Consequences of poor fibre quality
Fibre property Description Consequences of poor fibre quality-
Spinning
Seed coat fragments In dry conditions these may - Do not absorb dye and appears as a
form neps (seed coat neps) fleck on finished fabrics

Neps Fibre entanglements that - Absorb less dyes and appear as flecks
have hard central knot on fabric surfaces

Contamination Foreign materials like plastic - Contamination can downgrade yarn or

film, jute, hessian, leaves, fabric or garments
feathers, other fibres etc.

6
 Instrumental Evaluation of Cotton
• The development of testing instruments like High
Volume Instrument (HVI) and Advanced Fibre
Information System (AFIS) have revolutionized the
concept of cotton testing.
High Volume Instrument (HVI)

It can determine most of the quality

parameters within 2 minutes

7
 Test Results obtained from
HVI

Mic: Micronaire
Mat: Maturity Index (%) Len: Upper
Half Mean length Unf: Uniformity
Index (%) SFI: Short fibre index (%)
Str: Strength of fibre bundle (cN/tex)
Elg: Elongation (%)
Moist: Moisture content (%) Rd:
Reflectance
+b: yellowness of the sample
8
 HVI and Bale Management Software
Advantages
•Users can minimize risk of purchasing unsuitable cotton
•Minimizing risk of mixing cottons that are statistically
not the same

For a mill to fully control the variations in the bale

inventory, HVI test data for each bale is necessary.

Testing speed of HVI is upto 150 bales/hour

9
 Spinning Consistency Index (SCI)
 SCI is a calculation for predicting overall quality &
spinnability of cotton fibre

 Regression equation uses most important HVI

parameters: length, length uniformity, micronaire,
strength & color

 Practically, SCI could be first & micronaire could be

second parameters for selection of cotton.

 Single Index : reduces number of actual categories of

cotton available for selection
10
 Spinning Consistency Index (SCI)
Spinning Consistency Index
Formula:

- 414.67 (constant)
+ 2.90 × Str
- 9.32 × Mic
+ 49.17 × UHML
+ 4.74 × UI
+ 0.65 × Rd
+ 0.36 × (+b)

SCI
11
 Advantages of SCI in fibre selection
i. SCI and yarn strength & quality parameters correlate
well
ii. Reduces & simplifies the number of warehouse
categories
iii. Maintains day-to-day consistency of fibre properties
iv. Controls within lay down and between lay down
variations
v. SCI based bale management ensures mixing
consistency, thereby yarn strength & spinning end
breaks

12
 SCI - Mill example
• Yarn: Ring spun, Ne 22, 100% cotton, carded
• First 21 weeks laydown were as per mill’s practice and
from week 22, laydown was according to SCI and
Micronaire values
• Monitored parameters: yarn strength, strength variation
(CV%), and end downs per 1000 spindle hours

Improvement in average yarn strength by using SCI & micronaire for

bale selection

13
SCI - Mill example (cont.)

Improvement in yarn
strength CV% by using SCI &
micronaire for bale selection

Improvement in spinning
efficiency by using SCI &
micronaire for bale selection

14
 SCI - Mill example (cont.)
Conclusions from the study

[Link] yarn strength results from day-to-day

[Link] yarn strength variation results from
day-to-day
[Link] of spinning efficiency by decrease
of ends-down in spinning

15
 Cotton Fibre Engineering
 It attempts to optimize cotton fibre use with cost &
quality of end product
It consists of four interactive elements:

16
 Four Interactive Elements
1. Cotton purchasing strategy
- Should be bases on technological value of cotton
- Cotton should meet technological requirement
- Cotton may have premium value but it may not be
suitable for particular process or end product
- for a given spinning system, factors like count,
twist & end product specification influence the
kind of cotton
Examples
- Cotton requirement for ring spinning & rotor
spinning,
- cotton required for finer counts & courser counts
Cotton purchasing strategy should consider such technological
requirements 17
 2. Cotton Testing
To know precise variability of cotton bale population,
cotton bales are tested at this step
[Link] Management
- It is strategy for storage & retrieval of bales
- After testing bales can be stored in groups &
categories or can be given bale identification
number
Why Bale Management?
- Consistent production & yarn quality through
homogeneous mixing of cotton
- Inventory control & selection of fibres according to
properties
18
 4. Cotton Fibre Selection

Cotton fibre selection for cotton

fibre engineering involves
two main procedures
1 2

1. Suitable bale picking scheme implementation

- it gives uniform fibre characteristics on mix-to-mix
basis without violating inventory constraints
2. Fibre/yarn modeling
- helps in controlling desired output parameters
19
 Bale Picking Scheme / Bale selection program
1. Bale Inventory Analysis System (BIAS)
- Developed by M/S Zellweger Uster
- Mix formed contains bales that have minimum
variation in quality parameters from bale-to-bale
and day-to-day

Step I: 100% testing of bales

All the bales are tested on HVI and their data is
exported to BIAS system

Step II: Categorization of bales

All the bales are numbered and categorized
according to SCI and Mic (Micronaire)

20
 Bale Inventory Analysis System (BIAS) (cont.)
Step III: Bale Categorization (Mix formulation)
For SCI, 6 categories < 80, 80-90, 90-100, 100-110, 110-120, >120

For Mic, 6 categories < 3, 3.0-3.3, 3.4-3.6, 3.7-3.9, 4.0-4.2, >4.2

<3
3.0-3.3
3.4-3.6
Mic
3.7-3.9
4.0-4.2
>4.2
< 80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110-120 >120 21
SCI
Bale Inventory Analysis System (BIAS) (cont.)
Bales that are issued will be subtracted from the stock

Step IV: Print out of Mix plan

-Average of all the parameters will be printed
-BIAS helps to reduce variation in quality
parameters on day-to-day basis
-Fibre information from HVI & yarn information from
Tenso-Rapid are used to improve performance and
profitability of manufacturer.

22
 Bale Picking Scheme / Bale selection program
2. Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS)
- Developed by Cotton Incorporated
- Scientific fibre to yarn or fabric engineering can be
undertaken with Bale Management System
Software in following steps:

Step I: Determination of cotton specifications

- Cotton specification should depend on end product
performance requirements, machinery
complement: settings, production rates etc.
- Cotton purchase should depend not only on cost but
also on mill and product needs

23
 Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS) (cont.)
Step II: Opening line configuration and availability
-Performance of blending machine is important for
uniform end product
-Cotton tufts detached automatically- -- -fed to 2 or 3
opening & cleaning units and mixing units, then fed to
carding for final opening, cleaning and blending
-In mixing, the main challenge is successively fed
bales have to exist simultaneously in the end to
achieve uniformity.
-Inherent blending efficiency of opening lines
directly influence yarn quality
-Higher blending & opening efficiency => wider range
of critical properties can be processed (e.g. Micronaire)
24
 Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS) (cont.)
- Better opening and blending efficiency => broader range of
cotton properties can be purchased to make a product.
Step III: In-house Inventory Management
Three basic approaches
(i) Mill-owned central warehouse
(ii)Mill warehouse at each plant
(iii)Just-in-time shipment from merchant warehouse

Step IV: Mix Profile

- Establishing mix profile means determining desired fibre
characteristics of the mix
- Necessary to establish average value of different fibre
attributes and their maximum allowable variability
within bale lay down 25
 Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS) (cont.)
Cotton mix of Optimum profile: a bale laydown exhibiting
average values and variability levels of fibre attributes, that
on processing gives best yarn characteristics, processing
performance at lowest possible cost.

Once mix profile is established, next is population profile

analysis.
Objective is to ensure that cotton bales are available at
warehouse that satisfy cotton mix profile.

Bale Management System Software provides histograms,

control charts which can be used to establish best mix
profile.
26
 Engineered Fibre Selection (EFS) (cont.)
Step V: Bale Selection
It should achieve uniform input fibre profile and also it
should maintain the average values of end product
characteristics to desired levels.

Step VI: Mix and process performance evaluation

Through Bale Management System Software, average
values and CV% for each mix can be plotted as control
chart.
Variations in these charts can be correlated with mill
production, efficiency and quality considerations.

27
Bale Picking Scheme / Bale selection program

3. Linear Programming for Cotton Mixing

28
 Calculating Fibre Characteristics for Mixing
 Mixing characteristics can be estimated by taking
weighted average of values of individual cottons

For effective length,

e(mixing) = P1e1 + P2e2 + …

where e1, e2, … are effective lengths of various cottons & P1, P2, …
are their respective proportions in mixing
 Similarly, maturity, mean length, fibre bundle strength
can be calculated
 For fibre fineness,
1 P1 P2
= + +⋯
f(mixing) f1 f2
where f = fibre weight per unit length 29
 Formulation of L. P. for cotton mixing
Mathematical expression for L.P. consists of

Objective function &

Several linear constraints

In cotton mixing, objective is to minimize mixing cost

subject to constraints on quality of mixing with different
cottons

Let c1 , c2 ,…. etc. be prices of cotton 1, 2, …. etc. (in Rs/kg)

&
p1, p2, …. be proportions of these cottons in the mixing

30
 Formulation of L. P. for cotton mixing (cont.)
• Then, Objective function is to minimize the cost C given
by,
C = c1p1 + c2p2 + c3p3 + … (1)

Each property of the mixing should be equal to or better

than specified standard value

Effective length of mixing,

E = e1p1 + e2p2 + e3p3 + … ≥ Es (2)
where e1, e2, …. etc. are effective lengths of cotton 1, 2, …
E = effective length of mixing &
Es = predetermined standard for effective length for mixing that is
acceptable
31
 Formulation of L. P. for cotton mixing (cont.)
 Some cotton contain more trash % than other cottons

 Contribution of cottons to mixing properties is not in

proportions p1, p2, p3 …. which are bale cotton
proportions

 Also it would be preferable to minimize ‘clean cotton’

cost rather than bale cotton cost

 Therefore, correction for trash content in cottons has to

be made in Eq. (1) and in the constraints

32
 Formulation of L. P. for cotton mixing (cont.)
With correction, Eq. (1) becomes,

c′ = c′ p′ + c′ p′ + c′ p′ + … +c′ p′ (3)
1 1 2 2 3 3 n n

where c1′ , c2′ , …. and p1′ , p2′ ,…. are cost & proportion of
clean cottons; n is the total number of cottons in mixing
100
c′ = c
100 − t

where t is % of trash in that cotton

33
 Formulation of L. P. for cotton mixing (cont.)
Additional constraints (if any),

Like p1′ > 10 & p2′ ≤ 20 (6)

Now, the problem is minimizing cost (Eq. (3)) w. r. t.

constraints in Eq. (4), (5) & (6)

Answer will give values of proportions p1′ , p2′ , …. in

which different cottons have to be mixed

p’ has to be converted to p (bale cotton), can be done as

follows
35
 Obtained values of p1, p2, … are modified to get integral
number of bales of each cotton
 Such modification does not affect fibre properties or
cost of mixing to significant extent
 Requirements for Formulation of L. P.

• For linear programing we need,

• Fibre properties of different cotton types

• Cost per kg of each cotton
• % trash in different cottons

37
 Recommendations for mixing
• Average Micronaire between laydown • Variation in number of fibres per cross-
<0.1 section
• CV% Mic within laydown <8 to 10% • Mass variation in yarn
• Bales with same Mic not to be placed • Nep formation
side by side
• Yarn tenacity variation

• Average length between laydown • Difficulty in defining drafting zone settings

<0.5mm
• Variation in comber noil level
• Variation of length within laydown Max.
2mm • Variation in yarn strength
• Average uniformity between laydown • End breakage in spinning
<0.5 to 1%

• CV% of reflectance between and within • Yarn lots with different yellowness and dye
laydown < 5% stuff absorption - shade variation
• Average yellowness between laydowns
< 0.2
• CV% of yellowness within laydown <8%
38
 Recommendations for mixing
• Lowest possible trash content • Higher waste level in blow room
• Variation of trash in laydown as low as • High number of clearer cuts (vegetable)
possible
• Remove trashy bales

39
 SITRA Norms 2019 : Carded yarns
Norms for fibre properties to spin yarns with desired level of
lea CSP under good working conditions
(Coarser fibres-Carded counts)
Count Yarn lea Mean length Strength Micronaire
(Ne) CSP (mm) (g/tex)

20s 2400 22.5 25 4.7

30s 2450 23.5 26.9 4.5

40s 2500 24 28.7 4.2

60s 2550 26.5 31.8 4.0

80s 2550 27.5 32.6 3.6

40
 SITRA Norms 2019 : Carded yarns
Norms for fibre properties to spin yarns with desired level of
lea CSP under good working conditions
(Finer fibres-Carded counts)
Count Yarn lea Mean length Strength Micronaire
(Ne) CSP (mm) (g/tex)

20s 2400 21.5 23.9 4.3

30s 2450 22.5 24.9 4.0

40s 2500 23.0 27.1 3.8

60s 2550 24.5 30.0 3.5

80s 2550 24.5 30.5 3.0

100s 2550 25.7 32.5 2.9

41
Yarn Realisation
 Process Control in Spinning
At minimum cost Of desired quality

Raw material Manufacturing Count & its Strength & Unevenness & Yarn &
cost cost variation its variation imperfections package faults

Sliver Cotton quality, Cotton quality, Process

Mixing Yarn unevenness, drafting process parameters,
cost realization wrapping parameters parameters operator skill
Usable Labour Other control
wastes cost costs
Process Product
waste waste Machine Labour Mechanical condition of machinery
productivity complement

Machinery audit
Unusable dirt, Machine Indirect,
hard waste efficiency, direct
production Instrumental Technician’s
Trash, lint, short parameters
fibre removal measurement assessment
End breakage
Raw material cost,
rates 7
optimum mixing
 Yarn Realisation
It is percentage of yarn produced from given weight of
bale cotton

Yarn production
Yarn Realisation = X 100
Cotton consumption

Why is it important?
•1% reduction in yarn realization is equivalent to
approximately 1% increase in mixing cost
•Resale value of waste is much less than the cotton or
yarn
 Yarn Realisation
• Percentage yarn realised from a cotton mixing depends
on two type of wastes

[Link] waste
Waste take out at blowroom, cards and combers,
amounts to 80O/o of total waste

[Link] waste
Waste incurred at each stage of processing

If a mill is working with different mixings, mixing wise yarn

realisation could be affected by possible mixing of materials
 Process waste
 In blow room & cards, waste is extracted primarily for the
purpose of cleaning, removal of trash
Waste taken out at blow room depends on trash content in
mixing
While waste at card depends on type of cards, and to some
extent trash in lap
Whereas, in comber waste is extracted for short fibre removal,
& depends on fibre length distribution in mixing

These quality aspects should be considered while deciding

optimum level of waste
Product waste
Product waste can be minimized through floor level supervision
Usable and non-usable wastes
Usable wastes
• Lap bits and card web
• Sliver waste in drawing and speed frame
• Waste at comber preparatory and comber
• Roving ends
• Pneumafil and roller waste at ring frame
(These are all product wastes and are usable)
Usable and non-usable wastes (cont..)
Non-usable wastes
Blowroom droppings
 Card wastes (Iicker-in & flat strips)
Filter wastes/gutter loss
Micro dust
 Comber noil
 Yarn waste (hard waste)
 Sweep waste (OHTC waste)
 Invisible loss
Records to account for Yarn Realisation
 Records to account for Yarn Realisation
Sr. Item Detail Frequency Recommended procedure
required

1 Cotton Mixingwise Daily Weigh each bale, cumulate net cotton

issued weight daily

2 Stock in Mixingwise At month Calculate stock in process in terms of bale

process & stagewise end cotton, by ‘inflating’ the values of blow
(BR, Card room, card & comber stocks by factors
& comber) corresponding to average process wastes
upto blow room, card & comber stages,
resp.
CC Cotton Calculate Monthly Cotton consumed = Total cotton issued
consumed mixingwise adjusted opening stock- adjusted closing
Stock
3 Blow room Overall Daily Weigh before willowing
droppings

4 Gutter Overall At month Should be collected & measured. Should not

waste end be ignored as minor loss (or it will increase
invisible loss)
 Records to account for Yarn Realisation
Sr. Item Detail Frequency Recommended procedure
required

5 Card Overall Daily Weigh before willowtiig

droppings

6 Flat strips & Mixinigwise Daily

stripptiigs

7 Product Overall Daily Weigh and record sweeptiigs, clearer wastes,

waste & hard waste, separately

WL Waste losses Calculate h4ontlily Express each waste as % of total cotton

overall consumed

8 Yarn Countwise Sliiftwise Calculate daily production (kg) over the

production month
Doff Framewise Doffwise Record doff weight in (kg) upto fast decimal
weighing place (framewise)
 Records to account for Yarn Realisation
Sr. Item Detail Frequency Recommended procedure
required

Hankmeter Framewise Sliiftwise Give correct allowance to liankineter

readings readings for (a) twist contraction-countwise,
(b) liankineter constant framewise, (c)
bonda waste countwise, (d) idle spindle.
Convert lianks to weight using the average
wrapping count based on 25 leas (not to use
nominal count): to obtain true weight of
yarn produced every shift with sufficient
reliabiliq
YR Yarn Overall & monthly Express yarn production (kg) as percentage
realisation mixtiigwise of cotton consumed.

IL Invisible Overall monthly Calculated as IL = 100-YR-WL

loss
 Yarn realisation
Yarn realisation can be given by,
For carded counts,
YR(%) = 100 —(WBr + Wk+ Wh + Ws + Wg) - I

For combed counts,

YR(%) = 100 — (WBr + Wk + Wc + Wh + Ws + Wg) - I

where
WBr: blow room waste %,
Wk : card waste %
WC : comber noil %,
Wh: yarn waste %
Ws: Sweep waste %,
Wg :gutter loss %,
I : invisible loss %
 Adjustment to stock in process
Material stocked in form of blow room laps, in blow
room or on cards should be expressed in terms of bale
cotton by multiplying by a factor,

100
Multiplication factor
(100—BR waste %)

where BR waste% = %waste extracted at blow room

Similarly, corresponding multiplication factors should be

used for materials at different stages like after carding
and combing.
 Allowances for Hankmeter Records
Hankmeter gives the length of fibrous strand delivered by ring frame

 Hankmeter keeps running as long as ring frame is running.

Factor I: Idle spindles

Idle spindles are the spindles that remain inoperative for
long period because of different reasons
overall value of idle spindles is usually about 0.5 to 1% &
depends on condition or age of ring frame
These spindles should not be considered in production
calculations
Allowancesfor HankmeterRecordS (cont)
Factor II: Bonda Waste%

Consists of material from pneumafil waste box, waste

collected by ring frame piecers during piecing and roller
cleaning
It should be expressed as percentage of material fed
to ring frame
Bond a waste k g)
Bonda waste % = X 100
Yarn production {k g) + Bonda waste k g)
- 840
 Calculation of yarn production from
hankmeter reading

Length must be
Twisted
shorter due to
structure
twist contraction

When calculating production weight from hankmeter readings,

-wrapping count considered is count of twisted yarn
-which is shorter than the length recorded by hankmeter & shorter than untwisted strand
delivered by front roller

Hankmeter hanks must be adjusted for twist contraction, and for this
value of twist contraction must be calculated
Twist Contraction for Hankmeter Records

Therefore yarn contraction can be calculated by

measuring following quantities,
[Link] delivered
[Link] count
[Link] bonda waste
[Link] of idle Spindle during observation period
[Link] weights of all doffs during the period
 Twist Contraction for Hankmeter Records

Where, B=bonda waste %,

I = Idle Spindles %,
K= hankmeter gain %

The calculated twist contraction can be used for converting recorded

hanks to true weight in kg
 Accounting reusable soft waste
• Soft waste or usable product waste is mixed with fresh
cotton at blow room stage for same yarn
• It is in order of 6% for medium & fine counts, while it
is 8-12% for coarse counts
• Total soft waste generated in a month would be almost
equal to total soft waste added to the mixing
It can be added to the Cotton consumed,
Cotton consumed = cotton issued
+ adjusted opening stock
+ total soft waste added to mixing
- adjusted closing stock
- total soft waste left over
 Invisible loss

• Invisible loss refers to loss caused by evaporation of part of

moisture content in the cotton and by escape of some fibres
and dust into atmosphere at various processing stages.
• Its neither a large quantity (< 2%) nor physically controllable.
• In practice, Invisible loss is total unaccounted loss & consequently
reflects any mistake or systematic error in record keeping.

Invisible loss as an index of accuracy of record keeping

 Control of Invisible Loss
Causes
•Loss due to evaporation of part of moisture content in cotton
•Escaping of fibres and fluff into atmosphere at various stages of
operation
•Could be due to some error in record keeping or weighing of wastes
Ways to reduce Invisible loss
•Moisture content in yarn is equal or little higher than that of the mixing
Normal moisture content in mixing: 6-7%
Moisture content in yarn: 4.5-5%
After conditioning: 6-6.5%
•Storing the yarn for 12-16 hours in humidifies atmosphere
•Using conditioning plants for yarns: restores natural properties like
moisture content, strength, elongation and produces balanced yarn
(twist setting)
•Conditioning of the yarn improves moisture content by 1-1.5%(by
restoring the natural regain of yarn)
•RH in yarn winding and packing department should be 65 & 70%
•Proper calibration of balances should be done
 Fibre properties affecting yarn realisation
1. Trash % in mixing
If cotton has more trash%, more amount of waste to be removed at Blow
room and card to get required quality compared to cotton with lower
trash%.
2. Short fibre content
More short fibres more blow room waste and higher invisible loss
3. Moisture content in cotton
If moisture content is more, it will get evaporated, higher invisible loss
lower yarn realization.
4. Micronaire and Maturity ratio
If micronaire is lower, fibres may be immature, and may get damaged in
BR and card w BR and card waste will increase
If maturity ratio is less more fibre rupture in BR and card waste
will be more
5. Honeydew content or stickiness in cotton
More waste lower yarn realisation
 Norms for types of waste & yarn
realisation
Norms for yarn realization are different for different mixings and yarn
counts

Content Carded Combed MMF

Count W9 10-13 1 W25 26—34 2W34 35—44 45—70 71-99

Trash% 11 10 7 5 4 3 2
B.R. dropping 12 11 7.7 14 5.4 4.4 3.2 2.2 0.1
Card waste 4.2 4.2 4.4 45 4.5 4.3 4.3 6.4 0.1
Comber
9 10.9 12 13
waste

Sweeping 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.2 1 1 0.5

Clearer waste 0.6 0.5 0.4 D4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1

Hardwaste 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
Invisibleloss 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Y.R.% 78.1 79.7 83.6 86.5 77.5 77.4 77.9 77.9 97.6
Process Control in Blowroom
 Blowroom Objectives
Opening & Cleaning
Opening: action of progressively breaking up fibre
mass into smaller clumps
Breaking of fibre tufts brings impurities to surface
Cleaning: removal of unwanted trash by mechanical
means

Mixing / blending
mixing of fibrous tufts from opened bales to produce a
homogenous mass for consistent yarn
properties
Removal of dust Even feed to card
 Blowroom Process
Each machine that opens & cleans fibre mass may be
referred to as ‘cleaning point’

Machines are placed sequentially in a cleaning line

to progressively intensify the degree of opening and
cleaning & to blend the tufts

Material transportation through airflow from one

machine to other

At the end of cleaning line, 40 to 50% of impurities are

removed
 Opening & Cleaning

• Opening & cleaning machines employ one or

more of actions

[Link] of opposing spikes (opening action)

[Link] of beater and grid bar (both opening &
cleaning)
[Link] of air currents (cleaning)
 Opening & Cleaning: action of opposing spikes
Mixing bale opener, bale breaker, or hopper feeder
Effectively an openingaction: for opening bale cotton to
large size tufts
traditionaI way of initially opening the fibre mass
Spike covered lattice/
Feed apron evener lattice
Stripping or doffing
roller

inclined apron
Opening & Cleaning: action of opposing spikes
Automatic Bale Openers
Rotating opening rollers fitted with toothed discs, traverse
line of preassembled cotton bales
The toothed discs pluck tufts from each bale as they move

Bale laydowns can be up to 180 bales

Production rates 400 to 1400 kg/h
tuft size is in range of 30 to 80 mg
Opening & Cleaning: Action of Beater & Grid Bars
Most effective opening & cleaning of fibrous material
Utilized in cleaning stages following the initial opening
as well as at final intensive opening & cleaning action

There are three different ways of applying the beater

and grid bar action

Striking the fibre mass while it is

[Link] transported by airflow
[Link] by a spike
[Link] by a pair of feed rollers
Action of Beater - Grid Bars & Airflow
 Action of Beater
Striking from spike Beater & feed roller
Step Cleaner

Perform opening on large

tufts by actions of opposing
spikes & with grid bars
Action of Beater- Beater & feed roller
Opening & Cleaning: Action of air currents (cont)
[Link] of trash particles by an imbalance of centrifugal &
aerodynamic forces on the particles
[Link] of perforated screen to separate tufts from dust-laden
airflow
Opening & Cleaning: Action of air currents
2. Use of perforated screen to separate tufts from dust-laden airflow

&cfinp To Fan

12
 Determining trash content in cotton
1. Shirley trash analyzer is used
2. 100 g cotton sample is processed & fibrous
portion collected in ‘trash tray’ is processed again
through trash analyzer
3. Collected trash (after 2nd passage) is weighed
& expressed as % of weight of cotton
4. It is trash % of cotton & invisible loss is ignored
5. Non-lint content = 100- Iint % is not used (as it
includesinvisible loss)

Obtained trash content gives good correlation with

B/R droppings, & can be used to predict process
waste in B/R
 Determining trash content in cotton
If cotton consists of seeds...
[Link] 100g fresh sample (without seed) for trash %
2. Estimate % of seed weight by manually separating seeds
from 1 kg of cotton
3. This weight % of seeds should be added to trash % of
cotton to obtain total trash content
E.g. Trash content in cotton is 5.5 % and weight of seeds is
20 g in 1 kg, then total trash content is,

20
Total trash content = 5.5 + x 100 = 7.5%
1000
 Determination of Seed coats
Due to use of hybrid cottons, proportion of seed
coats has increased
These seed coats have fibres attached to it, and are
difficult to remove
Causes thick places, neps, & short Iength slub-like
faults in yarn
Therefore, % of seed coat type trash in mixing must
be determined

Can be measured by sieving trash obtained in

above procedure through a mesh -10

Matter that remains above is called as seed coats

 Cleaning Efficiency
Trash content of cotton fed to machine & cotton delivered
from it can be used to calculate cleaning efficiency

Cleaning efficiency of machine

Trash in Feed (%) —Trash in delivery (%)

X 10 0
Trash in Feed (%)

Cleaning efficiency of sequence of machines is not equal

to sum total of cleaning efficiencies of individual
machines in sequence
 Effective Cleaning
• While cleaning the cotton, some fibres are also lost
along with trash particles,

Therefore, Effective Cleaning (EC) of machine or sequence

is

F
Effective Cleaning (EC) = x 100
Where, W T = mass of waste
WF = mass of fibre in waste
W,n = mass of trash in feed material
 Estimation of Effectiveness of Opening
Intensity of Opening
For assessing opening action of beater
It is defined as amount of fibrous mass in milligrams per
one striker of a beater for a preset rate of production
& beater speed

Where, I = intensity of opening (mg)

P = production rate (kg h)
nb = beater speed (rpm)
N = number of strikers

‘I’ is an estimate of tuft size produced by a given beater

Estimation of Effectiveness of Opening (contd)
• From values of ‘Intensity of opening’ number of fibres
nf in a tuft produced by a beater can be given by,
Ix 1 05
number of fibres nf = Lf xT f
where Lf = average fiber length (cm)

Tf = average fiber linear density (mtex)

Blows per kg (Nk)

It gives an indication of the degree of treatment

60 x nb X N
Nk = Blows per kg = p
 Openness Value

Plexiglas disc
200 g
Volume of fibre
Specific volume of fibre mass =
weight of fibre

Cotton tufts

4000 ml Pyrex beaker

 Yarn Properties Influenced Blowroom
• Yarn properties that are influenced directly or indirectly
by blowroom are

Characteristic Affected by
Evenness Number of short fibres generated
Imperfections Number of short fibres generated and degree of
cleaning and opening

Neps Additional neps generated and degree of cleaning

Hairiness Number of short fibres generated
Consistency in count Delivery of a uniform product
Consistency in properties Consistency in blowroom process
Cleanliness Degree of cleaning achieved and possible rupture of
large trash particles
 Limitations of cleaning equipment
It should be noted that, cleaning equipment
currently available, cannot adequately clean the
stock without...
-Sacrificing some spinnable fibres as waste
- Stressing some fibres to point of rupture
- Generating some neps

Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that,

- Extracted waste consists of unwanted foreign matter &
minimum spinnable fibres
- Minimize generation of short fibres by avoiding rupture of fibres
as far as possible
- Minimize generation of neps
 Exercising Process Control in blowroom
• Operations: opening , cleaning and mixing

Process Control in Opening

• Hard pressed cotton bales tufts of uniform size

Higher variation in tuft size may result in-

• Large amount of foreign matter in card web
• Higher number of neps
• Undesirable yarn characteristics like variation in
count, strength & imperfections

Opening is therefore very important first stage in

blowroom
 Process Control in Opening
It involves following main processes

1. Plucking with automatic bale pIucker

2. Interaction between tufts and opposing
spikes
3. Impact of strikers on tufts (in Axi-flow, mono
cylinder cleaners)
4. Teasing of tufts in nipped state by needles,
pins or sawtooth elements
 Process Control in Opening (contd)
Factors affecting opening intensity
Action Factors affecting intensity
Plucking Depth of penetration. (reducing penetration has a
negative effect on productivity unless the speed of
plucking is increased at the same time)
Interaction between Speed;
Tufts and opposing distance between interacting surfaces (setting);
spikes spike density; throughput rate.
Impact Striker rotation speed; density of strikers;
Distance between feed roller and striking element
(setting);
speed of suction fan; throughput rate.
Speed of needle or sawtooth roller; density of
Teasing needles or saw teeth;
angle of inclination of needle/saw tooth;
distance between feed roller nip and sawtooth
roller; through put rate.
Guidelines for Optimizing Opening Intensity
1. Process parameters for device that treats fibres
gently (those at the beginning of line) should
be manipulated first
2. Reduction in throughput rate and/or thickness
of feed improves opening capability of
machine
3. Speed should be adjusted first, before
changing any other machine parameters
4. Blunt opening elements are detrimental
5. Maintaining of proper atmospheric conditions
is important
 Process Control in Cleaning
•The cleaning efficiency of modern blowroom lines is
50- 60%
•But modern blowroom lines offer higher degree of
opening, which allows better cleaning during carding
•Lint loss is less in modern blowroom only 20-30%
(depending on trash level in cotton)
•The overall cleaning efficiency of blowroom & carding
processes combined should be about 95%

Different Machines
Coarse cleaners: Effective for large and heavy loose trash particles
Cleaning equipment with moderate intensity: Effective for medium sized
trash particles
Fine cleaner: small & lightweight trash particles strongly adhered to fibres
 Process Control in Cleaning
Liberation and separation of trash
Action Factors affecting intensity
Liberation by: Rotational speed of opening element; diameter
Centrifugal force of drum or roller; velocity of air flow; radius of
curvature of bend in duct.
Speed; setting between feed nip and line of
Impact
action of opening equipment.
Pneumatic force Speed of suction fan.
Frictional force Sharpness of grid bars; angle of inclination;
distance between interacting surfaces.

Separation by:
Gravity
Size of slot; setting between grid bars.
Suction
Size of screen perforations; air discharge rate.
Buoyancy Velocity of air flow; location of separation
edge.
Magnetic force Magnetic power; location of magnets.
Cleaning performance vs % Trash in mixing
 Process Control in Mixing
• As fibres from different bales get mixed in tuft
form, smaller tuft sizes lead to greater
homogeneity

• Use of a larger number of reserve chutes in the

mixing equipment allows greater homogeneity

• Use of two blenders working in series or in

tandem produces a more homogeneous
result that one blender of the same capacity
working alone
 Correct Strategy for Blowroom Processes

Trash should be checked on quantitative & qualitative

basis, to know % of trash as well as type of trash
If opening & cleaning capabilities of machines to be
adjusted, coarse cleaner should be adjusted first,
followed by fine cleaner
Fine cleaner can remove seed coat fragments to some
extent. But excessive increase in speed will cause fibre
damage, fibre loss & nep formation
Reduction in production rate => improve cleaning
capability of all machines
The cleaning efficiency of blowroom should be fixed at
around 50%
 Correct Strategy for Blowroom Processes
Total nep increase should not be allowed to
exceed 80- 100%

For a given production rate, flow of materials

should be made uniform without too many
stoppages of individual machines (correctly
adjusting throughput rate)

 2.5% span length or upper quartile length of

fibre should not fall below 1 mm

 Atmospheric conditions should be maintained

at appropriate level
Magnetic metal extractor (Marzoli)
 Norms for Blowroom (SITRA 2019)
Trash material in feed material to card
Trash % Very good Good Average Poor
< 3% 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
> 3% 1.10 1.50 2.0 2.4

 Cleaning Efficiency of modern blowroom lines

(Chute feed system)
Trash % in Mixing Number of beating Cleaning efficiency
points (%)
5.1 and above 4 60
3.1 to 5.0 3 55
1.0 to 3.0 3 55
 Norms for Blowroom (SITRA 2019)
Blowroom waste %
Same as the trash % in mixing for good cleaning
efficiency

Nep generation
If 2.5% span length or UHML of material in final
beating point decreases by more than 3.6%
fibre rupture may be suspected

Increase in neps after processing material through

Blowroom should be below 70%
 Norms for Blowroom (SITRA 2019)
Cleaning efficiency of individual beating point
Sr. Type of beater Cleaning Efficiency
No. %
1 Uniclean/Varioclean 30-35
2 Uniflex/Flexiclean 20-25
3 Mono cylinder 25-30
4 ERM Cleaner 25-30
5 Step Cleaner (Six beaters) 25-30
6 Saw toothed opener 25-35
7 Cleanomat (CVT-1) 40-50
Cleanomat (CVT-3) Virgin cotton in OE mixing 50-60
8 RK cleaner 15-20
9 RN cleaner 15-20
10 RV cleaner 15-20
11 RSK Beater 20-25
Process Control in Carding
 Carding
Objectives of Carding

1. Opening into individual fibres

2. Elimination of impurities
3. Elimination of dust
4. Disentangling neps
5. Elimination of short fibres
6. Fibre blending (transverse)
7. Sliver formation
 Process Control in Carding
Both process-related & machine-related parameters
are important for the process control in carding
AIso, wire maintenance & control of card waste also
significant

Process parameter:
 Relating to speed
 Relating to settings or gauge
 Relating to properties of material

Machine parameter relate to clothing of various parts

 Process Control in Carding (cont.)

Process parameters Machine parameters

Speeds Settings Material

Production rate Licker-in to feed plate or roller Thickness of lap Licker-in clothing

Licker-in speed Licker-in to cylinder Sliver count Cylinder clothing

Cylinder speed Cylinder to flat
Doffer clothing
Flat clothing
Flat speed Cylinder to doffer

Cylinder to front plate

Cylinder to back plate

Pre carding segment to flats

Flats to post-carding segment

Cylinder to suction Hood

Mote knife/carding bar to Licker-in

 Licker-in Zone
•Main function: open the fed fibres and
transfer them to main cylinder

Major Parameters
Speed of Iicker-in
 Setting of Iicker-in to feed plate or feed roller
 Setting of mote I‹nives or carding bars to Iicker-
in
 Licker-in Zone: Speed of Iicker-in
In high performance cards, Iicker-in rotational speed of
is 800-2000 rpm for cotton, & 600 for synthetics

Circumferential speed up to 21 m/s (76 km/h)

 Typical draft between feed roller & Iicker-in is about

1000
Opening of the material...

Treatment is very intensive but not very gentle

 Licker-in Zone: Speed of Iicker-in (cont.)
Most frequently adjusted parameter: speed of Iicker-in
Consequences of increasing speed of Iicker-in
Action Consequences
Intensive opening of fibre tufts More trash may be exposed
Reduction in tuft size on Iicker-in Smaller tufts are passed for carding
Greater force exerted on fibres as they Increased liberation of trash particles
are teased out from the feed nip with possible risk of fibre damage
(especially for long & fine fibres)
Higher centrifugal force experienced More trash may escape, and immature
by tufts on the Iicker-in surface fibre clusters may become trapped
within tufts, leading to risk of fibre loss
Aggressive opening action between More trash may be liberated, with
combing bar segment and Iicker-in possible risk of fibre rupture
Lessening of draft between Iicker-in Difficulties in transferring fibres to
and cylinder at excessively high speed cylinder
 Licker-in Zone: Speed of Iicker-in (cont.)

For transfer of fibres from licker-in to cylinder, draft

between them should be maintained

 Draft should be 1.5-1.7 for cotton, and for

synthetic fibres 2.5 - 2.9

Excessive increase in speed of Iicker-in will reduce

this draft & may lead to poor transfer of fibres
Licker-in: Setting of Iicker-in to feed plate or feed roller
Conventional system

Guide surface
Licker-in: Setting of Iicker-in to feed plate or feed roller

Distance between clamping point and line of action of

Iicker-in
Licker-in Zone: mote knives or carding bars to Iicker-in
Mote knives
This setting affects quality & quantity of waste
Closer the mote knife to Iicker-in, more
waste (waste has higher lint)
Setting is usually 0.018 inches
Carding bars
Carding bars further open tufts before
transferring to cylinder
Aggressiveness of action depends on distance between carding
bars & Iicker-in, and relative speed between them
Closer setting => greater opening (too close setting may cause fibre rupture)
 If distance higher => tufts may be inadequately opened
Carding bars to Iicker-in setting is generally 0.019 inches
 Cylinder Region
•Number of process parameters to be
controlled & optimized

These are
speed of the cylinder
speed of the flat
Setting of the cylinder to the flat &
Setting of the pre- and post-carding segments
 Cylinder Speed
• Cylinder dia 1280-1300 mm; cylinder speed 250-500 rpm (600
rpm)
• Rieter C 60 cylinder dia. 814 mm, & cylinder speed of 900 rpm
• Speed of cylinder plays significant role in transferring fibres to
doffer
• Increase in cylinder speed
• Intensive opening action between cylinder-flats and cylinder-
carding segments more individualization of fibres, liberation of
trash particles, seed coats & improved opening (higher stress
exerted on fibres)
• Increased centrifugal force on fibres and trash particles
• Increase in transfer efficiency with concomitant decrease in
cylinder load & improved opening.
However,
• It may lead to generation of short fibres, particularly when long & fine fibres are
used
• Increase in cylinder speed increases carding force
 Flat Speed
Flat & cylinder form the main carding zone
Substantial speed difference between flats &
cylinder leads to fast loading of flats, & flats loose
their opening capacity
 Therefore, flats must be removed from carding
zone for cleaning & should be replaced with
fresh flats
Optimum flat speed is influenced by staple length
of fibre, amount of trash in fibre, weight of lap fed,
& waste % to be removed
Increase in flat speed results in increase in card
waste %, affecting lint loss & overall yarn quality
Direction of Flats

16
 Cylinder-Flat Setting
Aggressiveness of opening action depends on this setting
There is an optimum setting for type of fibre (based on
fineness, dust level, & tenacity)
Over entire flat zone, setting is gradually reduced in
material flow direction (to increase opening)
If setting is too close: intensive opening, liberation of dust,
trash; but neps & short fibres may increase due to high level
of fibre stress

From Feed side to delivery

side settings are 0.25, 0.2,
0.2, 0.2 & 0.2 mm
 Cylinder-Flat Setting (contd.)

If setting is too wide: insufficient opening & nep

disentanglement , which increases short neps & short
thick areas of yarn

The neps level should therefore determine

optimum cylinder-flat setting
Setting of Pre & Post carding segments
Modern cards have stationary flats between
Iicker-in & flats and between flats & doffer
For compensating loss of opening ability caused
by high production rate

 Carding segments ensure

•further opening
•reducing flock size & primarily spread out, thereby
•improving distribution of flocks over total surface
area

Pre-carding segments handle tufts while post

carding segments handle opened fibres
Setting of Pre & Post carding segments (contd)
• Setting should be close enough to allow fibre tufts to
be thoroughly pre-carded to release dust & short fibres
• Post carding similarly releases some dust & husk
particles which are also immediately extracted
 Sliver Forming Zone
 Main parameter to be controlled: hank of sliver which is related
to speed of delivery
 Its often impossible to achieve high delivery rate & fine
sliver (due to mechanical limitation & difficulty in processing
finer sliver)
 Production of coarser sliver is not mechanically restricted, but
may lead to different processing difficulties
• E.g. fine sliver will lead to creel breaks whereas coarse sliver causes
problems in drafting

Quality aspects
At a given production rate, production of coarser sliver increases load on
cylinder, which
•Increases nep level
•allows unopened fibre clusters to pass through
•Increase in majority hooks
Hence, it is advisable to produce finest sliver possible considering quality,
processability & productivity of the yarn
 Machine Parameters: Control of Card Clothing

Clothing of various parts is principle machine

parameter

Cylinder Clothing
Three important parameters of clothing are
i. Point density
ii. Inclination angle
iii. Height

Wire point density mainly influences carding intensity

Most important parameter is no. wire points available per
unit time
Combination of low Speed & high density or high Speed &
low density can be expected to provide same results (not
always)
 Control of Card Clothing (cont.)

•For a given fibre & production rate, higher point

density gives better carding effect (up to certain
optimum), above this, effect is negative

•This optimum depends on material

•Coarser fibres need few wire points, whereas finer
fibres need more points (if material throughput is
same)
•After optimum value, negative effect is due to
clogging of inter wire spaces by fibres
 Control of Card Clothing (cont.)
Selection of wire point density dependent on,
[Link] of fibres: easy to separate out hence do not
require high density
[Link] of fibres: Synthetic fibres require lower point
density due to longer length & increased bulk
[Link] level
[Link] level

Cylinder (Points/sq. inch) Doffer (Points/sq. inch)

Cotton 240-1000 380-440

Synthetic 400-450 350-520

 Control of Card Clothing (contd)
2. Inclination angle (Carding angle)
Carding angle of clothing decides
- Aggressiveness of clothing &
- Hold on fibres

Carding angle for Carding angle also determines

Licker-in wire points +5° to -10° carding intensity
Cylinder wire points +12° to +27° Transfer efficiency
Doffer wire points +20° to +40°
Flats wire points +10° to +15°
3. Height of clothing
• Height of metallic clothing on cylinder is 2 to 3.8 mm
• Shorter teeth height means less space available for fibres to escape carding action & better
carding occurs
• Clothing with shorter height is also less prone to chock with dirt particles
• Smaller height can accommodate more number of wire points (for a given carding angle)
 Grinding of Card Clothing
Operating life of clothing is quoted in terms of total throughput
of material
For cylinder it is normally between 300000 to 600000 kg
Processing such huge quantity of material, wears down the
teeth, they become rounded at tip & lose their aggressiveness
This increases nep content of sliver
Therefore, wire point must be sharpened from time-to-time
a Mills limit for nep

b General rse in
Number of neps
nep level
in web

Grinding interval
 Grinding of Card Clothing (contd)
Each new grinding, reduces number of neps, but the level
never returns to that prior to the previous grinding
Lower nep limit increases from ‘a’ to ‘b’
Deterioration in quality from one grinding interval to the next
arises due to
o teeth are ground down to successively lower heights
o lands at the teeth points become steadily larger &
o softer metal layers are gradually exposed
Interval is selected based on mills nep limit (c)
- — —c Mills limit for
Nep
b General rise in
neplevel
Number of neps

1 2S
Grindinginterval
 Grinding of Card Clothing (cont)

Grinding intervals
Carding part Cylinder Flats
First Grinding (kg) 80000-150000 80000-150000
Each additional grinding after (kg) 80000-120000 80000-120000
Doffer works less : so should be ground only half as
often or even less frequently
Licker-in clothing should not be ground, but should be
replaced after 100000-200000 kgs
Stationary flats must be changed after every 150000
kgs as with Iicker-in wires
 Control of Card Waste
• Card waste (droppings) are not reused
• Waste control must be done, but this should not affect
cleaning efficiency or yarn quality (good fibre loss is to be
minimized)
[Link] & settings of licker-in
• Higher Iicker-in speed, increases the droppings in
Iicker-in zone
• Settings of mote knives and Iicker-in

II. Card attachments or modification

• Use of double combing segments at Iicker-in
• Stationary flats at back and front of card
The use of double combing segment under Iicker-in
generated higher waste but overall waste remains the same
 Control of Card Waste (cont)
Overall cleaning efficiency is comparable but number of neps at the end
of process is found to be low
III. Flat speed and direction of rotation

IV. Setting between cylinder undercasing to cylinder

•This setting affects fly waste, which are mainly good fibres
•Waste level of 0.2—0.3% in this region is satisfactory
•Setting of 0.034”—0.056”—0.068”—0.102”should be maintained
from entry to exit
•Undercasing should be kept smooth by regular cleaning & polishing
V. Atmospheric conditions
Lower relative humidity (RH) may cause
•frequent web breakages
•excessive fly liberation
•lapping on the doffer (Fibre breakage)
If RH is more, licker-in & cylinder can become overloaded
Temperature : 29-32°C
RH: 55 - 60 %
 Some common process control problems

• Blowroom process
• High variation in output material
• Nep formation in the blowroom
• Poor cleaning efficiency in the blowroom

• Carding process
• Nep formation in cards
• Holes or patches in the card web
 High variation in output material
• Insufficient opening of cotton and wide variation in tuft size leads to
inconsistent material
• Use of incorrect type of equipment, like beaters.
Human errors:
• use of excessive soft waste in the mixing
• uneven mixing of soft waste with cotton
• unequal feeding of the mixing in hopper bale brewer
• improper synchronization in the count of material fed and delivered from
the beaters in processing sequence
• Irregular air flows due to improper setting of dampers
Mechanical problems:
• Intermittent failures of the fee/delivery mechanism
• Inadequate sensitivity of the piano-feed regulating motion
• worn links in the feed-regulating motion
• dust and dirt clogging the cage
• Insufficient pressure in the condensers after the beaters
• Extreme variation in atmospheric conditions
 Nep formation in the blowroom
• Blowroom processes introduce neps into the fibres, but number of
neps can and should be regulated by adequate process control.
• Too high or too low moisture level of the cotton will result in
unacceptable degree of nep formation
• Extremely fine cottons with high trash content will usually result in
increased neps.
Human Errors: poor setting
• Excessively narrow settings between feed roller or pedal and beater
• Excessively wide setting between stripping rail and beater
• too high or too low beater speeds
• and the Use of more beaters than required
Machine failure
• rough or blunt blades and bent pins on beaters
• Damaged and rusty grid bars
• bent Conveyor pipe lines
• worn out stripping rails
• air leakage and obstruction of cotton flow through the pipe line
 Poor cleaning efficiency in blowroom
Can be caused by incorrect settings and speeds of various
equipment in blowroom like,
•Improper adjustment of angle of grids;
•too close setting between grids/grid bars and the beater;
•Excessively wide settings between evener roller and inclined
lattice
•Excessive feed to the beaters
Other factors that can contribute to poor cleaning efficiency
are:
•beaters with blunt striking edges
•air leakage in the beater chamber and dust receptacle
•high variation in trash content in the different cottons used in
the mix
•and excessive waste accumulation at the air passage
Nep formation in cards
 Nep Formation & Removal in Carding
Carding machine generates neps & it also
removes neps
Removal of neps is more in number than
creation of neps
If machine & process are maintained correctly,
machine parameters are chosen properly, then it
always results in reduction in neps
But, if machine is not maintained, process is
not set properly, then there will be tremendous
increase in neps
Nep Formation & Removal in Carding (contd)

Nep formation is because of buckling of fibre during

processing
Sudden release of stored elastic energy a result of
stretching during carding action

Frequency of nep formation is related to Euler's

parameters
(1)
where N = number of neps
F is stress on fibre,
E is elastic modulus of fibre
I is the fibre cross-sectional moment of inertia,
I is the fibre length
Nep Formation & Removal in Carding (contd)

•Fibre factors which affect neps formations

° fineness of the fibre,
° the maturity value
° the length of the fibre
° impurities in cotton

Magnitude of tensile stress acting on the fibre in

carding zone also affects nep formation
Any process parameter, that increases carding
force may enhance generation of neps
Nep Formation & Removal in Carding (contd)

Carding force will increase with

Increase in Iength of fibre
Too close setting between cylinder & flats
With increase in cylinder speed

Reasons for neps formation

Nep formation is because of buckling of fibre during
processing
Sudden release of stored elastic energy a result of
stretching during carding action
 Nep Formation in Cards
• Neps can also be formed as a result of incorrect settings and other
issues at the card
Main factors that lead to unacceptable nep formation:
• high licker-in speeds
• too wide a setting between licker-in and feed plate
• blunt licker-in wire or dull flats
• too wide a setting between cylinder and flats or doffer
• Too much space between licker-in cover and feed plate
• undercasing dirty or choked with fly waste
• cylinder/doffer not stripped properly after lapping
• too wide a setting between back plate and cylinder
• rough surface on the front and back plate
• use of blunt grinding stone
• insufficient stripping; and higher doffer speeds
 Counting of Neps at Card
•Nep count:
Is number of neps per 100 sq. inch card web forming a
standard hank of sliver of 0.12 on a card 40 inch wide
From each side & middle of card, webs are collected on a
black board (11.5” x 5”)
Over top of each web, sample counting template is placed
with dimensions (11.5” x 5” x 1/8”) with 34 holes in it,
each with area of 1 sq. inch
During sample collection card continues to run
 Counting of Neps at Card (contd)

• Number of neps in each hole is not counted (we don't

obtain mean number of neps in that way)

• Instead, a method based on statistical characteristics of

poisson distribution

• Each cell may have none, one, two, three or more number
of neps

• The neps being randomly occuring event, the frequency

distribution these events (successes-finding the neps) is of
Poisson form
 Holes or patches in card web
•Clusters of fibres embedded on cylinder wires and
an excessive number of unopened cotton tufts can
both cause problems with the card web
• Too wide setting between Iicker-in and cylinder can
lead to forming of holes or patches
Equipment faults and damages
•damaged cylinder/doffer flat wires
• cylinder/doffer wires embedded with excessive
seed coats and grease
•faulty air current under the Iicker-in, cylinder and
doffer
Norms for Carding (SITRA 2019)

3L
 Trash leveI in Card sliver

Trash (%) in mixing

Type of Card
Up to 3.4 3.5 and above
PG* 0.10 - 0.15 0.05 - 0.10
CG** 0.06 - 0.10 0.03 - 0.10

PG* - Previous generation cards (10 to 15 years old)

CG** - Current generation cards (less than 10 years old)
 Combined cleaning efficiency of
blowroom & cards

Combinations
Trash % in Blowroom Blowroom
mixing & PG* & CG*
cards cards
Up to 3.4 90 - 95 95 - 99
3.5 and above 95 - 98 98 - 99

PG* - Previous generation cards (10 to 15 years old)

CG** - Current generation cards (less than 10 years old)
 Waste (%)in cards

Type of Licker-in
Mixing Flat strips Others Total
card droppings
PG 3.0 3.5 0.5 7.0
20s to 40s
CG 3.0 3.2 1.3 7.5
PG 3.0 3.0 1.6 7.6
Above 40s
CG 3.0 3.5 1.5 8.0

Note: Permissible variation in waste % between cards = Average ±0.5%

Neps in card sliver* in PG/CG cards
Neps/g
Mixing
Range
20s to 40s 40 - 50
Above 40s 60 - 70
*based on instrumental analysis

Nep removal efficiency of cards

Type of card Nep removal efficiency (%)
PG 70
CG 75
 Unevenness of card sliver

Type of card Unevenness(U%)

PG 3.5
CG 3.0
CV% of card sliver based on 5 m wrapping: 3.0% to 3.5%
CV% of card(tuft feed) sliver based on 5m wrapping: 2.5% to 3.0%
 Settings for single Iicker-in cards {cont.}

S Card model C 60 / C 70 TC5 / TC 10 LC366/LC300A—V3

NO Description Setting in mm Setting in mm Setting in mm

15 Cylinder to front plate bottom 1.00 055 055

16 Cylinder to SFD-I, II 0.40 0.20/0.20/0.20 0.25

17 Cylinder to SFD-knife 0.40 0.30/0.30/0.30 0.25

18 Cylinder to doffer 0.200 0150 0.125

19 Doffer to take—up rol ler 0150 0.175 0.180

20 Take—up rol ler to crush rol ler 0400 0.175 0.180
21 In between crush rol lers 0400 0130 0.125
Process Control in Combing
 Degrees of Combing (% noil)
• Percentage of waste extracted depends on
- Short fibre content of mixing
- End use of yarn
- Economics w.r.t. yarn cost

For cotton there are Four quality classes a: yarn strength b:

yarn evenness
• Semi-combed (upgrading): noil percentage below 12 %; c: yarn imperfections

• Normally combed: noil percentage between 12 and 18 %;

• Highly Combed: noil percentage between 18 - 22 %;
• Super combed: noil percentages above 22 %
 Preparation of Stock for Combing
Configuration of fibres in card sliver
•Over 50% of fibres exhibit trailing hooks
•About 15 % fibres have leading hook
•15% fibres have both end hooks (double hooks)
•small proportion of fibres are without hook formation

During combing, fibres longer than detachment

setting should not go into noil (because of its
configuration)
Fibres must be fed to comber with leading hooks
During coiling & subsequent removal from can,
repeated reversal of hook disposition occurs, so
even number of machines must be provided
between card & comber
 Theory of Noil Extraction
 Shows effect of detachment setting and feed distance
moved per cycle on noil %
 Gives correlation between feed distance moved per
cycle (in forward & backward feed) & noil %

 Forward feed

 Backward feed
Parameters Influencing Combing Operation
Material preparation
 parallelization of the fibres in the sheet (batt)
batt thickness
batt evenness
orientation of the hooks
Machine settings
feed distance
type of feed
detachment setting
point density of the combs
circuIar comb clothing (angles & density of teeth, etc.)
depth of penetration of the top comb
Piecing
Draft
drafting arrangement settings
Influence of Feed Stock on Combing
I Parallelization of fibres in batt
great influence on result of combing operation
optimum value should be achieved as
maximum & minimum both are unfavorable
Lack of longitudinal orientation, leads to elimination
of longer fibres with noil

As cylinder combs pass through

disordered fibrous batt, they get
overloaded, therefore plucking & tearing
of stock occurs
Thereby carrying bunches of fibres
 I Parallelization of fibres in b a t t ( c o n t d )
With constant machine settings, as parallelization of
fibres increases, noil % decreases

Therefore, higher noil % is not always

associated with better yarn quality

If the fibres are too aligned, it has certain disadvantages

 I Parallelization of fibres in bat (contd)
Disadvantages of Excessive Parallelization of Fibres
SeIf-cleaning effect of batt
About 1/5 to 1/6 of fibres presented to detaching rollers are
drawn out of batt
During this stage, impurities, neps are held back in fed batt.
This retaining power, is also called as ‘self-cleaning effect of
batt’
Self-cleaning effect will be greater, if the disorder of fibres
within the sheet is higher
If fibres are excessively parallel, the retaining power can be
severely reduced
Some of these neps also pass
through top comb
Neppiness of product increases
 I Parallelization of fibres in batt (contd)
Disadvantages of Excessive
Parallelization of Fibres
If the fibres are too parallel, single
layers of lap do not hold together well
It lacks cohesive strength of layers
compared with that of fibre-to-fibre
adhesion at surface of lap layers
Mutual separation layer from layer is
disturbed
High degree of parallelization always
leads to considerable hairiness of lap

Degree of parallelization depends on

the total draft between the card &
comber
 Influence of Feed Stock on Combing (contd)
II Batt thickness (weight)
SeIf-cleaning has very high influence on combing operation
SeIf-cleaning depends on disorder of fibres as well as their quantity
Thick batt always exerts greater retaining power
Up to certain level, clamping effect of nippers is better with higher batt volume
However
Thick batt always exerts heavy load on comb, resulting in uncontrolled combing
Fibres away from circular combing escape combing action
A compromise must be struck between quality & productivity

• Ideal batt weight :72 to 80 ktex for short &

medium staple cotton
• For long staple cotton > 1¼” , between 64
to 74 ktex
Influence of Feed Stock on Combing (contd)
III Evenness of the batt sheet
More even the batt sheet (web) is across its width, better
is clamping effect at nipper clamping line
Evening out of web is therefore important
Slivers must be arranged neatly relative to each other &
evenly over the entire working width of lap former

IV Disposition of hooks
Fibers must be presented to comber in such a way that
leading hooks predominate in feedstock
It influences opening of hooks, as well as cleanliness of web
If batt is fed in wrong direction, it increases loading of top
comb & circular comb, & finally nippiness
Influence of Machine & Components Settings on Combing

1. Feed amount moved per cycle

Feed per cycle influences
- Noil %
- quality of combing operation
- production rate
High feed amount increases production rate, but causes
deterioration in quality (cleanliness of web)
 High feed distance increases amount of fibres handled by
combing mechanism (reduces combing efficiency & increases short fibre %)
Yarn imperfections show increasing trend with increase in
feed amount per cycle
 when quality requirements are higher, feed amount per
cycle must be set lower
Influence of Machine & Components Settings on Combing
2. Type of feed
• Feeding of fibres can be done in forward or backward
direction
• Forward feeding: high production rate is required but
quality requirements are not too rigorous (noil up to
12%, max. 14 %)
• Backward feed: when quality requirements are high
(noil 12 to 25%)
Machine Components Settings (contd)

4. Number of wire points

Cylinder Wire points
On conventional machines, needle
points were used (point density &
fineness adapted to raw material).
Now, cylinder wire points use saw
tooth clothing (robust, less
maintenance, universally applicable)
There are no. of sections in cylinder
clothing (3 to 6)
Wire point density is less at start
and increases toward end part
(increases aggressiveness of action)
Machine Components Settings (contd)

4. Number of wire points

Top comb needles have flattened cross-
section & formed with bend
Wire point density of top comb: 23-32
needles/cm
Wire point density also depends on
micronaire of cotton (micronaire value of < 3.6,
30 needles/cm & micronaire >3.8, 26
needles/cm are used)
Fewer needles are used when higher
production is needed with lower waste
elimination
 Machine Components Settings (contd)
5. Depth of penetration of top comb
 Depth of penetration of top comb also influences noil %
Lowering top comb by about 0.5 mm, increases noil by about 2%
Main improvement is in elimination of neps
But, optimum setting must be established as…deep penetration
of top comb disturbs fibre movement during piecing, and leads to
deterioration in quality
Top comb setting
Position of top comb w. r. t.
nippers also influences noil %
Top comb if set near to
nippers reduces noil%
Also, top comb distance
from detaching rollers can be
adjusted
 Machine Components Settings (contd)

6. Piecing
After combing of fringe, detaching rollers draw some
fibres from fed sheet
Length of tuft detached depends on fibre length, but
lacks internal coherence
During piecing, these newly formed strips of web are
led over each other so coherent web & in turn endless
sliver is formed
This piecing is distinct source of fault, due to process
being discontinuous
Sliver produced have distinct wave-like structure, i.e.
it has periodic thick-thin variations
 Machine Components Settings (contd)

6. Piecing
 Wave length of piecing wave is given by
Wave Length L = piecing distance X total draft
 Machine Components Settings (contd)

7. Timing
Timing refers to regulating various individual actions, so
they occur in proper sequence & at correct moment in
combing cycle

The settings may be perfect, but if timing is not correct,

poor combing will result

Correct timing can be set using index gears

 Nep Removal Efficiency in Combing
Main task of comber is to remove short fibres
Many researchers claimed that, combing represents final
possibility of significantly reducing nep level (depends on noil
% & cotton type)
Nep removal is influenced by needling of cylinder & top
comb, their settings & maintenance

Measures for improving nep removal efficiency

Replacement of poor top combs
Correction of improper top comb penetration setting
Correction of top comb to back top detaching roller setting

Nep removal efficiency of individual head in a comber can be

good indicator of condition of machine components
 Nep Removal Efficiency in Combing
 Following design features of modern comber improve nep
removal efficiency
• High cylinder diameter
• Hap laps covering 120’ of cylinder
• Circumferential nippers help to maintain constant settings

When nep value deviates beyond control limit, besides checking

settings involved,
• condition of machinery component such as top comb, &
cylinder comb should be checked
• and replace them promptly if it is worn out
 Fractionating Efficiency
The comber is expected to remove all the fibres
shorter than detachment setting E while
All the fibres longer than E+S should go to sliver
Fibres with intermediate length between E & E+S
would go into noil or sliver based depending on
their position in feed cycle

These theoretical expectations, generally do not

hold good in practice because of following
assumptions
a. All fibres in comber lap are straight, without
hook parallel to lap axis
b. Fibre movement is not influenced by
frictional contact
 Fractionating Efficiency (cont.)
The term fractionating efficiency refers to the degree
to which a comber succeeds in removing all the fibres
shorter than detachment setting E, without loosing any
longer fibres than E+S
It can be measured in two ways
i. Short fibre content in lap fed & combed sliver
ii. Improvement in mean length

Improvement in mean length together with waste

extracted gives practically some information

Therefore, norms for fractionating efficiency are given

in terms of improvement in mean length at given noil %
 Control of Waste at Comber
Waste at comber needs to be checked regularly &
controlled accurately because,

More than nominal waste results in financial loss

Less waste than nominal may lead to unacceptable

yarn quality or performance

Differences between combers working on a given

mixing could contribute to between bobbin lea count
variation
 Control of Waste at Comber (cont.)
Procedure for controlling waste level
Method for controlling comber waste must specify
•procedure for determining waste
•duration of test
•frequency of checks &
•tolerance beyond which comber should be
adjusted
Both headwise as well as overall comber waste can
be determined accurately by collecting & weighing
headwise noils & combed slivers from can (during 5
min)
Control of Waste at Comber (cont.)
Norms for Comber
 Norms for Comber
1. Process sequence
Sliver lap-ribbon lap
Draw frame-Lap former
2. Total No of doublings
Minimum: 120
Maximum: 192
Optimum: 144
Lap weight
• Linear density of lap: 50 to 85
g/m
• CV % of 1 m length of lap : 2

Variation in Comber Noil

Between combers : ±0.5%
Between heads within combers: ±1.5
Nep removal efficiency of modern comber

Noil Extraction (%) Nep removal efficiency (%)

12 to 14 45 - 50
15 to 17 55 - 60
18 to 20 65 - 70
21 and above 75
Short Fibre Removal Efficiency in Modern
Comber

Rating Short fibre removal efficiency (%)

Very good 70
Good 60
Average 55
Poor 45
Process Parameters for Combers

Parameter 12 — 16 % noil 17 — 20 % noil

Type of feed Forward Backward
Feed length (mm/nip) 4 —7 4— 5
Lap weight (g/m) 50 — 76 50 —76
Setting between half lap and 0.3 — 0.4 0.3 — 0.4
bottom nipper (mm)

Sliver breaks or roller lappings: 4 per comber shift

 Comber Sliver Unevenness U%
Sliver hank rating 0.12 to 0.16 > 0.16
Very good 2.0 2.8
Good 2.5 3.2
Average 3.5 4.0
Poor 4.0 45
Reduction in yarn imperfections at different
levels of noil extraction
Comber noil (%) Reduction*
in yarn imperfections (%)
12 70- 75
15 75- 80
20 80- 85
*compared to carded yarns
Quality Control of
Yarn
Yarn Count Variation
 Quality Parameters of Yarn

Yarn count

Yarn strength

Yarn Evenness
 Yarn Count Variation
• Process capability in terms of minimum variability
between individual units of production

• The first step in control of yarn count variation

determination of coefficient of variation (CV%) of
weight of leas (or count of yarn)

Yarn count variation can be of two types

[Link]-bobbin count variation
[Link]-bobbin count variation
 Reducing within-bobbin Count Variation
The Iength of fibrous strand at each stage of process,
producing one lea of yarn at ring frame for 40s Ne carded
yarn is:
Process Draft given in For one lea 110 m For one bobbin
each process (120 yds) 70 g
Yarn 25 110 m 5000 m
Roving 10 4.4 m 200m
Drawing II 6 44 cm 20m

Drawing I 6 7.33 cm 3.33m

Card 100 12.22 mm 0.55m

Blow room 0.12 mm 5.55mm
Note:
Variation in length less than those given in Column 3, will not have any added influence on within- bobbin
count variation, because all such variation will occur within leas & not between leas. Thus, these lengths can
be taken as minimum lengths which can cause within-bobbin lea count variation.
Similarly, figures given in Column 4 are minimum lengths for between-bobbin count variations.
 Within-bobbin Count Variation
Control at Draw Frames
Factors affecting count variation at Draw Frames
- Drafting waves & roller slip waves
[Link] slippage
Roller slip wavelength 25 cm to 50 cm
[Link] tension draft
Creel draft
Web draft
[Link] parallelization and doubling
[Link] roller setting
In process fibre length for roller setting (using AFIS or Digital fibrograph)
Setting Zone Back zone setting Front zone setting
Breaker draw frame 5% length + 4 mm 5% length
Finisher draw frame 5% length + 6 mm 5% length + 2 mm
5. Sliver U%
Increase the sliver U%, shows increase in the lea count variation
 Within-bobbin Count Variation
Control at Speed frame
Contribution to count CV at Speed frame could be due
to two reasons,

[Link] drafting

[Link] stretching
-Variation in roving hank

Control at Ring frame

On ring frame source of within-bobbin count variation is
stretch between creel and back roller because
- lower twist in the roving
- mis-alignment of creel roving in relation to creel roving guide
 Between-bobbin Count Variation

Sources causing between-bobbin count variation are

1. Differences in the average count between creel

bobbins

2. Any pronounced trend in the hank over a creel bobbin

[Link] in effective draft between spindles of

group of ring frames spinning a given count
 Between-bobbin Count Variation
Differences in average hanks between-bobbin could be due to

[Link] between blow room laps over such long period that
are unlikely to be evened out in subsequent doubling
Draks difference between groups of cards and comber, the slivers
from which tend to get processed without interdoubling
[Link] differences between draw frames and speed frames
[Link] hank variation between front and back rows of bobbin
on speed frames
[Link] trend in hank over speed frame bobbin caused by
irregular control of bobbin speed
Quality Control of Yarn

Yarn Strength
 Control of yarn strength
Control of average lea strength is necessary

[Link] see strength does not fall short of that expected

from quality of mixing that is being used
[Link] ensure that the lea strength is adequate for
satisfactory weaving
3. To meet the specification of the tensile strength of
yarn or fabric
 Control of yarn strength
Within-bobbin variation
-large part can be attributed to inherent testing variations
- reduction in within-bobbin count variation is the key to control
Between-bobbin variation
affected by three factors
1. the level of twist
2. between-bobbin count variation
3. between-spindles differences in condition of drafting system
between spindles
-Top arm pressure, spacer size used, diameter of cots, condition
of cots and aprons, pressure between aprons etc.
 Control of yarn strength
Factors affecting yarn strength
1. Quality of drafting at ring frame:
Parameters: 1. Total draft
Total draft same as count for count range 12s to 20s
Total draft 20 to 25 for count range 22s to 36s
Total draft 28 to 36 for count range 40s & above
2. break draft in relation to twist in roving
Its range 1.3 to 1.7 based on make of drafting system
3. the apron spacer
As minimum as possible with satisfactory performance.
4. Mechanical condition
2. Quality of carding
Mechanical condition of carding surfaces influence yarn strength
 Control of yarn strength
Factors affecting yarn strength
[Link] of combing
Level of comber noil extracted and mechanical
condition of comber influences yarn strength
The noil % and fibre length distribution type affect
yarn strength
4. Other processing factors
In blow room beater speed, setting or changes in the
number of machines in sequence: no influence except
(neps and trash particles)
Direction of hooks generated at card, during feeding
of roving to ring frame (trailing direction: higher strength)
 Control of yarn strength
Factors affecting yarn strength
5. Quality of Mixing
After best processing conditions are ensured, next step
in meeting yarn strength is proper mixing
Bale management system to be adopted for
appropriate mixing quality
Effect of yarn twist on weavability of the yarn to be
considered
For mixing with better fibre properties(than norm) => twist
multiplier can be reduced (higher production and better feel of
fabric) (but reduction in TM below 0.3 may have adverse effect)
For mixing with satisfactory fibre properties, increase in twist
level does not show improvement in weaving performance
For mixing with poorer fibre properties, increase in twist level
may help in improving weaving performance
A minim al level of twist, depending on mixing quality is desirable for good
weavability
Quality Control of
Yarn
Evenness/ Irregularity
 Evenness/irregularity
Irregularity in different properties of yarn like mass/unit
length, diameter, twist, and hairiness, strength.
1. Mass per unit length variation
 Called as ‘basic irregularity‘
Directly dependent irregularities: twist, strength and
diameter variability

2. Diameter variability
Diameter variation has very high influence on fabric appearance
Related to variation in mass/length
Variation in twist enhances effect of diameter variation
 Evenness / irregularity
Irregularity in different properties of yarn
3. Twist variability
Length of yarn is with higher twist and length of yarn with lower twist
This Effect may get pronounced after dyeing the fabric
If such yarn is used as weft yarn, it will give weft bars

Twist variation could be because loose spindle

tapes, or jammed spindles

4. Strength Variability
• Strength variability is directly related to diameter variation or mass/unit length
variation; Higher strength variability higher mass/unit length variation
• Because of variation in number of fibres in yarn cross-section
• Yarn breaks at weakest point higher strength variability more end
breakages
 Evenness / irregularity
Irregularity in different properties of yarn
5. Hairiness variation
Some length of yarn is having high
hairiness and some length of yarn has
lower hairiness

Such yarn when converted to fabric, will

give streaky appearance

If used as weft, it will give weft bars

Excessive hairiness will affect shed

formation in weaving
Evenness / irregularity

Mass per unit length

 Causes of Evenness / irregularity
1. Properties of raw material
• Variation in fibre materials: diameter, length of fibre varies
• presence of short fibres drafting waves

2. Inherent short comings in yarn making and

preparatory machines
Large number of fibres, highly flexible and diameter/thickness in microns so
difficult to control
3. Mechanical defect in machinery
Defect in drafting system

Defect in gears driving the rollers Poor grinding & damaged wire points in
carding
 Causes of Evenness / irregularity
4. External factors: working conditions

If in spinning shed, humidity is not maintained properly, it

will lead to various problems

If relative humidity is more, cotton fibres may absorb

moisture, and roller lapping problem may increase.

If relative humidity is less, then forfibres like polyester, the

problem of static electricity generation will lead to roller
lapping.

So variation in working condition may result in

unevenness
 Types of Irregularity
Three types of variations in weight per unit length are,
1. Random irregularity
2. Periodic irregularity
3. Quasi-periodic irregularity
1. Random irregularity
If we cut the yarn with unit length, weigh it and plot in a graph shown
below, we will get irregularity trace.
In random irregularity trace, the variations will be random without any
pattern
 Limit IrreguIarity (cont.)

Roughly, N for yarn with Cs English count,

Index of Irregularity
Index of Irregularity, I=

Index of irregularity is measure of irregularity of spun material.

Index of irregularity is used for comparing the spinning performance.
Defect in fabric due to periodic Defect in fabric due to periodic
variation in yarn on shuttle looms variation in yarn on shuttleless looms

3. Quasi-periodic irregularity
•It is also a periodic variability but having varying
wavelength and amplitude
 Short, medium and long term defects
Periodic variation in the fibrous strand are classified
according to their wavelength with respect to fibre Iength

Short term variation: wavelength 1 to 10 times fibre length

Medium term variation: wavelength 10 to 100 times fibre length
Long term variation: wavelength 100 to 1000 (or more) times fibre
length
For fibre length is 5 cm,
If wavelength is 5 Cm to 50 cm —> Short term variation,
If wavelength is 50 cm to 500cm (5 m) —> Medium term variation
If wavelength is 5 m to 50 m (or more) —> Long term variation
 Short, medium and long term defects

If the variation is generated at ring frame, it cannot be long

term variation
Defect generated at later stage will have higher amplitude
 Principle of measurement of Unevenness
Electronic Capacitance Principle

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 Categorization of faults
Yarn which is not uniform means it has irregularity along its
length
It has thick-thin places along its length

Classification based on size, length & frequency of occurrence of faults

1. Unevenness or irregularity
2. Imperfections
3. Objectionable yarn faults
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 1. Unevenness or Irregularity
• In yarns made from staple fibres: fibre distribution
along the length of yarn varies

• Variation in number of fibres per cross-section

• Affected by fibre fineness, fineness variation among the

fibres and material type

• It is known as Irregularity or Unevenness and

expressed in terms of Um% and CVm%
 Unevenness: Um % and CVm % (cont.)
• Unevenness Um % most common parameter to express
mass variation

Mathematical expression for Um% can be given as,

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 2. Imperfections
Extremes of variations i.e. thick places, thin places and neps are
usually referred as ‘imperfections’

Lying between ± 100%

Are due to poor raw material quality or imperfect process

parameters

Expressed as Imperfection Index (IPI): number of

imperfections (total of thick places, thin places and neps)
per 1000 meters.

Are categorized into three categories

i. Thick places
ii. Thin places
iii. Neps
 Imperfections: Thick places
Number of places where mass (at thick place) exceeds
set sensitivity %

Length threshold is 4 mm (thick place length > 4 mm)

If length is less than 4 mm, it will be counted as nep

Thick place sensitivity level

+35% / +50% / +70% / +100%

 Imperfections
Latest generation of imperfection tester can measure
imperfections at different sensitivity level

But certain sensitivity is considered to be standard, and

the Standard Values are as follows,
Thick place : +50%
Thin place : -50%
Neps : +200% (+280% for open end yarns)

Expressed as Imperfection Index (IPI): number of imperfections

1000 meters (total of thick places, thin places and neps) per
1000m
 Spectrogram
It shows how many times a mass variation repeats
itself in a total length of yarn
X-axis represents wavelength of fault (logarithmic
scale)

Y-axis is without scale but represents amplitude of

fault in yarn

The spectrogram of fault free cotton yarn is shown below.

 Spectrogram
The fault free spectrogram of yarn spun from synthetic
staple fibres would be as shown below,

Maximum height will be at wavelength = 2.7 x mean fibre

length

At wavelength equal to fibre length, the spectrogram

height is zero
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 Spectrogram analysis: Periodic faults
• If periodic mass variation appears at wavelength ’ λ’ in the
yarn, a peak appears at wavelength λ in spectrogram

Seriousness of fault

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 Spectrogram analysis: fault types
• There are two types of Spectrograms as far as fault types
are concerned
i. Chimney type and
[Link] type

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
 Spectrogram analysis: Neighboring peaks
Spectrogram ha5 Iimited number of channels
If a periodic fault ha5 wavelength between two channels, then
both the channel5 are actuated
But height of the peak is reduced. For analysis purpose, we have to
consider the height by adding these two heights

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning Dr. G Thilagavathi and Hr. T Kartik Woodhead Publishing
India) is for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered at MRSPTU, Bathinda.
Spectrogram analysis : Shortening of wavelength
• When periodic fault wavelength corresponds to circumference of
package produced,
• The peak in spectrogram moves in the direction of shorter
wavelength as the material is wound off from the package

Eccentricity between bobbin and flyer has resulted in above periodic variability. The full
bobbin diameter is 12.5 cm (therefore the peak appears at 12.5xπ = 40 cm), and the empty
bobbin diameter is 5 cm (therefore the peak appears at 5x π = 16 cm)
 Spectrogram analysis: Hill type spectrogram
• Hill type of spectrogram results from drafting waves in the yarn.
• Range of wavelengths are raised, because of variation in
wavelengths of drafting waves.
• Drafting waves generated at different processes will have
different
maximum wavelengths, given by following expression

Material K
λmax= K x (mean fibre length) Yarn 2.8
Roving 3.2
Sliver 3.5
Process Control in
Winding
 Scope of Process Control
Length of yarn on ring bobbins is not sufficient to
be used on warping

Therefore, purpose of winding is to produce a

good package containing long length of yarn
which will unwind well during warping

Also, to remove objectionable faults from yarn

during winding

Emphasis should be on quality of preparation,

rather than productivity
 Approach to Process Control
To exercise effective process control
Quality of splice must be checked regularly
To minimize package faults, appropriate machine settings &
machine conditions must be maintained
Collection of end breakage data on warping due to package
faults will be helpful
Testing yarn before and after on Uster Classimat system may
help in determining level of fault removal
Maintain productivity at satisfactory level
Process control program should consists of :
a) Regular checks on quality of splice
b) standardization and maintaining process parameters
c) system of machine audit to ensure machine settings &
condition
d) regular recording of end breakage rate due to various
causes &
e) control of productivity
 Unwinding Tension in yarn
Unwinding tension in yarn depends on type & count of
yarn, winding speed, ballooning height, dia. of bobbin at
unwinding point

where n = number of loops of height h in ballooning height H, usually h= H/n

A & B are constants, (A is generally more 50 times that of B)

 During unwinding from ring bobbin short term

and long term variations are observed
 Short term unwinding point movement from
tip to base
 Unwinding Tension in yarn (cont)
Long term over long time yarn unwinding point moves towards base of
bobbin

As balloon height increases progressively, mean unwinding tension also

increases with it
In the final stages, dia. at shoulder decreases from one to chase to another,
resulting rapid increase in yarn tension
 Some factors affecting unwinding tension
Selection of suitable guide distance
Distance between bobbin tip and first thread guide
influences tension and tension patterns
To keep final tension low and reduce tension variation, guide
distance, G, should be

L = lift of bobbin (mm), n = any integer

Few experiments are necessary to find optimum distance

Unwinding accelerator
The size & shape of balloon is influenced by unwinding
accelerator
reduces tension during unwinding
 Some factors affecting unwinding tension
Optimum tension
Optimum tension good package firmness
Unwinding tension is kept around 1 cN/tex
Care of tensioner
ShouId be kept clean and should not have localized wear
Contact between disc and yarn should be line contact
Alignment of bobbin holder
Improper alignment of bobbin to first thread guide
increases tension
Incorrect alignment may cause end breaks
 Tension control on modern winding machines
• On modern machines, tension is kept constant by
continuously measuring & controlling it.
Saurer Schlafhorst : ‘Autotense’ system

The Figure used here (from. Principles of woven Fabric manufacturing Abhijit Majumdar CRC Press) is for academic purpose only and and
intended for students registered at MRSPTU Bathinda
 Optimizing the Quality of Preparation

1. Control of Yarn clearing, fault removal

2. Control of Splice quality

3. Package quality and faults

 1. Yarn Clearing
Objective is to remove Objectionable faults

Not all the faults are removed in the yarn, only

objectionable faults are removed

Objectionable faults is a fault that can spoil the

fabric appearance or disrupt subsequent processes
 Principle of Measurement
Modern winding machines use two principles for
identification
[Link] Principle
[Link] Principle

Capacitance principle measures yarn mass at given test length

Optical principle measures yarn diameter
•Capacitance based measurements
are more sensitive deviation (10%
deviation in diameter will actually
cause 21% deviation in the mass)
•But optical tests are better in
predicting fabric appearance
 Yarn Faults
• Seldom occurring defects

• Cause end breaks or affect fabric appearance

• Faults are evaluated by Classimat Testers (have

different variants (Classimat 3, Classimat 4,
Classimat 5)

• Faults are classified according to mass & length

of faults

• Expressed as faults per 100 km (per 100000 m)

 Classimat 4
In addition to 23 faults of Classimat 3, 10 additional faults are
classified under two new categories
[Link] short thick faults (A0, BO, CO, DO)
[Link] thin faults (TB1, TC1, TD1, TB2, TC2, TD2)
Therefore, total number of faults are 33

The Figure used here (from. Principles of woven Fabric manufacturing Abhijit Majumdar CRC Press) is for academic purpose only and and
intended for students registered at MRSPTU Bathinda
 Classimat 5
•Number of fault classes are increased to 45
•23 standard classes, and 22 additional

The Figure used here (from. Principles of woven Fabric manufacturing Abhijit Majumdar CRC Press) is for academic purpose only and and
intended for students registered at MRSPTU Bathinda
 Setting of yarn clearer
• In clearer settings on modern winding machines, user
has flexibility to choose the settings, class of faults that
is to be removed from above Classimat fault matrix.

• Based on the user requirements, setting can be changed

and effected from control panel of the winding machine.

Among short thick faults: A4, B4, C3, C4,

D3, D4 are considered as objectionable
Now, A3, B3, C2, D2 are also considered as
objectionable for high quality yarns
,
 Performance of Yarn Clearer
• Performance of yarn clearer can be assessed with
following parameters,

This measure considers spurious breaks

Higher yarn clearing efficiency factor, and lower splice
factor (close to 1) => more successful clearing
With above factors, total number of breaks actually arising
can be calculated as
Total number of breaks = E XKXn
n = number of objectionable faults
 2. Splicing & Splicing Performance
• Splicing is a process by which two yarns are joined
• Most winding machines dealing with spun yarns, use
pneumatic splicers
• Splicing parameters like air pressure, overlapping Iength
of two yarn ends & duration of air blowing: influence
splice quality.
Splice quality is evaluated with following parameters,

Higher retained splice strength and lower splice breaking ratio shows
good splicing performance
 3. Defects in wound package
1. Patterning or formation of ribbon
- Generally happens on winding machines when traverse ratio
becomes integer
- Successive coils are laid on one another and ribbons are formed

To avoid patterning:

 Package is lifted momentarily or

pressure between package and
drum is reduced creating
intended slippage
 On some machines, anti-patterning
device is used
 Defects in wound package(cont.)
2. Stitches
 Stitches are formed when yarn falls outside the edge of winding package

Causes
• Improper traverse guide at edges of package
• Variation in tension during winding

3. Soft nose or base will be caused,

If pressure between package & drum is not uniform along the line of contact
If alignment of package and drum is not correct along the axis of the package
If position of traverse guide is not at center of drum
4. Slough off
Unwinding of multiple coils from package during unwinding
If package density or gain is not adequate, slough off will occur
5 Chaffed yarn
A portion of yarn is made weak by abrasion against any surface is called as chaffed
yarn
If broken end stop motion is not working properly, package is not lifted, and tenter
does not attain such spindle then top layer of yarn gets abraded by drum
If suction arm touched package, severe chaffing of yarn occurs
 Defects in wound package (cont.)
4. Slough off
Unwinding of multiple coils from package during unwinding
If package density or gain is not adequate, slough off will occur

5. Chaffed yarn
A portion of yarn is made weak by abrasion against any surface is
called as chaffed yarn
If broken end stop motion is not working properly, package is not
lifted, and tenter does not attain such spindle then top layer of yarn
gets abraded by drum
If suction arm touched package, severe chaffing of yarn occurs
 Comparing end breakages with norm
• Before drawing any conclusion from the data on end breakages,
it must be ensured that the observed difference (between
current performance and norm) is not because of inevitable
variability between samples. For this following test can be
used,
(0— N/)2
N
≥4
where 0 = observed total number of end breakages
N= expected number of end breaks over same number of bobbins.

To check influence of any change of process parameter on

the end breakage rate, appropriate test is,
{A —B) 2
A+ B ≥4
where A & B are total end breaks for same number of bobbins with two different
parameters.

If the difference is greater than 4, the observed difference is significant

Working Conditions in Winding Department
For satisfactory working in winding about 60% relative
humidity and dry bulb temperature of 29OC should be
maintained.

Lower humidity may increase yarn hairiness, end breakage

rate & cause excessive liberation of fluff which deteriorates
quality of package.

RH higher than 70% is also likely to increase end breaks &

lappers on drum etc.
Process Control in
Warping
 Warping Process
Objective of warping is to convert yarn packages
into warper's beams having desired width and
required number of ends with uniform tension
on individual ends.

Different methods of warping

1. Direct warping or beam warping

1. Sectional warping or indirect warping

 Scope & Approach : Process Control in
Warping
Cost of warping is lowest of all processing
costs in weaving department
Therefore, emphasis should be on quality of
preparation than productivity
Any stoppage of machine is likely to
deteriorate quality of beam

Therefore, process control program should aim at -

 Minimizing end breakage rate
 Production of satisfactory beams that unwind well
 Ensure satisfactory level of productivity
 Minimizing End Breaks in Warping:
1. Control of Tension Level
On warping machine, there are two types of tension
variations,
[Link] different stages of unwinding of package
[Link] ends

First type of tension variation is because of variation in

balloon height and balloon diameter as the package at
creel unwinds

Second type arises from

• Length of yarn from first thread guide — headstock
• Number of guide points
• Angles of deflection in the path of yarn
 Minimizing End Breaks in Warping:
1. Control of Tension Level (cont.)
Between ends tension variation is governed by arrangement
of grouping the ends in the beam

If neighboring ends are grouped row wise (from same row) tension
measured end by end will exhibit ‘saw tooth’ pattern (Fig. a)
If ends are grouped column wise (from same column), tension
variation will exhibit ‘V’ shaped pattern (Fig. b)
 Minimizing End Breaks in Warping:
1. Control of Tension Level (cont)
Minimizing tensions variations
1. unwinding at different stages of packages
2. between ends

First type of tension variation can be minimized

by minimizing the distance between package & first
thread- guide
Scond type of variation has to be minimized by
proper design of creel
The average tension in yarn should be adjusted according
to yarn count and should not exceed 5% of single thread
strength
 Minimizing End Breaks in Warping
2. Condition of machine
(a)Alignment of package at creel
- non-alignment of package with first thread guide causes
high end breakage rate
- Good alignment => axis of package should pass through first
thread guide
(b) Eccentricity of guide rollers (mostly conventional
machines)
- On conventional machines with mechanical stop motion,
several guide rollers are used at headstock
- If such rollers have eccentricity => cause short term tension
variations of high amplitude
c) Thread guides
-Thread guides to be checked for deep cuts or accumulation
of dust
-If found with cuts, guides should be replaced
-And if found dirty, these should be cleaned with suitable
chemicals
 Minimizing End Breaks in Warping
3. Minimizing defects produced at winding
Winding package defects and control has been discussed in winding part
4. Checking end breaks and comparing with norms
To ensure end breakage rate during warping is at satisfactory level,
regular check on warping performance in terms of breaks per unit
length of yarn is necessary. (e.g breaks per 400 ends/1000m)
According to mill condition, count wise norms must be established
Cause wise recording of end breaks help in identifying corrective
actions
At least one lakh meter of yarn must be tested for real estimate of
breakage rate
Statistical test given here can be used,

where O = observed total number of end breaks in large length of yarn

N= expected number of end breaks for the same length of yarn

If the difference is greater than 4, the observed difference is significant

 Quality of Warping Beams
Depends on machine settings, mechanisms, and machine conditions
(a)Stop motion and brake
Once end breaks, machine should be stopped promptly
Quick response stop motion and advanced brakes are necessary
If broken end gets buried, it takes lot of time to mend, and also it
may lead to crossed end
(b)Length measuring motion
If Iength of warp on beams produced on different machines is not
same, and such beams are required to be used in same set on sizing
machine, it will lead to wastage of yarns
On modern machines, full Iength stop motions are provided, we have
to set the required Iength. The task is simple but important
(c) Density of beams
- Density of beam is controlled by yarn tension, pressure roller or both
- In case of spindle driven beams, yarn tension and hydraulic pressure
rollers are used to control tension
- Width of expanding comb should be adjusted equal to beam width
 Quality of Warping Beams (cont)
(d) Condition of driving drums
 On some machines, beams are driven with frictional drum contact.
 In case of end break, beam is stopped quickly, during which drum acts as brake,
and abrades outside layers of yarn on beam.
 If drums are of wood then these should be covered with synthetic coated
canvas tape to avoid damage to yarn
(e) Condition of beam flanges
- If beam flanges are damaged, unwinding of yarns near the flanges will not be
satisfactory
- This will cause difficulties in sizing & weaving Flanges get damaged due to
improper handling or storage conditions
(f) Cuts in accessories in path of yarn
Stop motions, guide rollers, reed dents, tensioner parts etc. should not have any
groove or cut as these will damage the yarn
(g) Barrel diameters of beams
- Smaller barrel diameter => higher unwinding tension at sizing
- It is advisable to use beams of 20 cm barrel diameter
 Control of Productivity
Productivity of warping depends on machine efficiency and machine
speed
Causes of Low productivity
[Link] in end breakage rate
Warping machine efficiency is highly sensitive to end breakage rate
[Link] Utilization of magazine creel
If magazine creel is not ready for use by the time packages in the
running creel are over, warping productivity will fall
[Link] in average set length
Lower set length reduces machine efficiency at warping
[Link] of tenters per machine
Number of tenters per machine determine time to mend end breaks,
and therefore, influences machine productivity
[Link] due to machine break down
Stops due to machine break down, shortage of empty beams,
cones/cheese etc. will lower the efficiency/productivity of warping
machine
 Common Problems in Warping

1. Missing end

2. Cross-end

3. Slack end

4. Ridges

5. Placement of thread
 Working Conditions in Warping Department

• For satisfactory working in warping about 60% relative

humidity and dry bulb temperature of 29°C should be
maintained

• Lower humidity may increase yarn hairiness, end

breakage rate & cause excessive liberation of fluff

• The fluff ultimately passes to beam, if not removed, and

gives difficulty during sizing

• RH higher than 70% is also likely to increase end breaks

Fabrics Quality in Weaving
Control of Some Specific Fabric Defects
1. Warp streaks
Warp streaks are narrow, bare and dense stripes running along warp
direction of the fabric
Causes:
1. Variation in density of adjacent groups of warp ends across warp
direction of the fabric (could be because dent spacing variation in
reed)
2. With uniform dent spacing of reed, wrong drawing through dents
may cause change in end density
3. Difference in count between adjacent groups of warp ends (if yarn
with different counts get mixed up)
4. Difference in luster, reflectance, or dye pick-up of adjacent groups
of warp yarns (may be caused due to difference in raw material,
blend composition, tension levels, yarn construction etc.
Remedies/Control:
Use good quality reeds, correct drawing-in, avoid mixing of different
batches of yarn etc. 2
 2. Reediness
 Characterized by general grouping of warp ends drawn
through individual dents of reed, with fine crack between
each group
 The defect is also referred as ‘poor cover’
Causes
Ends through one dent do not spread evenly because,
i. Insufficient tension difference between shed lines during
beat-up
ii. Excessive warp tension
iii. Late shedding

Remedies/Control
a. Troughing of shed
b. Avoiding high warp tension
c. Early shedding &
d. Use of finer reeds
3
 3. Irregular Reppiness
Characterized by prominence of alternate picks over small areas on
the face fabric, on the other face other set of picks is seen
prominently
Causes
 For number of consecutive picks, particular set of alternate ends
remains at low tension & bend more around the weft than other set
 It could be because of faulty movement of heald shafts carrying
these ends & low warp tension for short durations
Remedies/Control
Worn out tappets & treadle bowls to be
replaced
Troughing: back rest to be raised w.r.t. fell
line
Use of good emery rollers: worn out rollers
do not grip cloth tightly & cause low tension
at certain places across cloth width
Increase warp tension within workable limits help to reduce this defect
 4. Small weft loops (Phurkies)
 Phurki is a weft loop protruding from cloth surface, and length of
yarn is not sufficient to permit snarling
 These loops may protrude from both faces of fabric

 Incidences of phurkies are generally higher in

stiped fabrics woven from dyed yarns
 Also, its chances of formation are higher
towards selvedge
 Caused by entanglements of threads in warp
sheet between reed and fell of the cloth
 When weft in inserted, it forms kink; as reed
moves forward, it carries the weft with kink
 At subsequent beat up the kink forms phurki
(loop outside the fabric surface)
5
 4. Small weft loops (Phurkies)
• Remedies/Control:
Early shedding: with this weft is beaten
into fell in crossed shed, weft is held tight
by warp threads
Reducing Warp entanglement: tension
should be increased within workable limit
for clear shed formation. Staggered
shedding reduces entanglement
Use of Good temples: Worn out temples
should be replaced, which will reduce
formation of phurkies near selvedge
Adequate size pick-up: size pick-up for
dyed yarn should be kept about 12%
6
 5. Curled & folded selvedge
 Characterized by appearance of curls &
folds in the fabric selvedge, which
becomes prominent after wet processing
 A selvedge which gets curled & folded
during wet processing, is slack & wavy,
exhibits corrugated appearance at grey
stage
Causes
 Incorrect selvedge construction which
results in low crimp in its threads is the
major cause
 Faulty stitching during wet processing can
also cause this defect

7
 5. Curled & folded selvedge
Remedies/Control
•Curling & folding may be avoided if selvedge has more crimp than
yarns in body
•Denting order: no. of threads/dent I selvedge should be 50-100%
higher than that in body of fabric, (except two extreme dents)
•Selvedge construction: fabrics like drills, satins have higher
tendency to curl at selvedge, therefore proper weave should be
chosen at the selvedge to avoid curling of the selvedge (Selvedge
should have shorter float of warp)

8
 6. Weft Snarls
 A weft snarl in fabric is caused by a short length of three fold yarn
of which two folds are intertwisted
 Snarls may contain some amount of tanged yarn at one end
Causes
• Lively weft yarns: on shuttle looms, during picking, when shuttle
leaves the shuttle box, the weft starts slackening between shuttle
eye and selvedge
• Tension on the yarn drawn from shuttle is not uniform
Remedies/Control:
Proper setting of the twist in
the yarn

9
 7. Weft bars
Dark or light bands across the width of fabric shows up
prominently, particularly in dyed fabrics
Causes
 Difference in fibre composition, count/denier, twist, colours,
shade, luster, or pick spacing
 Faulty let-off or take-up motion (worn out, damaged gears,
eccentric emery roller etc.)
Remedies/Control:
 Control over blend proportions, proper maintenance of let-off and
take-up mechanisms,
 Avoiding mixing of different counts or different lots of man-made
fibres, or weft yarns from different dyed lots

10
 8. Double ends
• Two or more threads unintentionally get woven as one,
• The defect is characterized by thick bar running along the warp

Cause
Wrong drawing or taking more
ends through one heald eye

Remedies/Control
Defect can be corrected by pulling out one extra thread with the
help of needle, bare patch formed can be filled by combing by
metallic comb 11
 9. Missing End/Ends
Causes
Missing ends are caused if
broken ends are not mended
immediately
If ends are missing in the beams
(for some length of warp sheet)
The basic yarn has poor strength
The weaver is careless in tying
the broken ends in time

12
 10. Oil or other stains
Causes
Improper oiling or greasing on loom
Improper handling of fabric from
doffing stage
Dropping of oil-contaminated lint or packing material
Oil dropping at folding machine

Remedies/Control:
Keep the stained fabric on absorbent pad, apply stain remover, wetting
the stain, and surrounding portion thoroughly
Rub the fabric to loosen the stain
Spotting gun can also be used, but spray pressure and concentration of
jet of the spotting gun should be adjusted to suit fabric weave or

structure 13
 11. Oily Weft
Causes
•Cleaning and oiling when the yarn is on the ring frame
•Weft package falling on oily ground
•Handling weft yarn with oily hands
•Unclean environment in winding and
weaving department
•Dropping of oil on weft package during oiling of winding machine
and looms

Remedies
 Cleaning of these stains can be done as explained in oil stains
 Weft packages should be handled with care and
 Cleanliness in the loom shed should be maintained
14
Causes
12. Weft crack
Faulty let-off and take-up motion
Faulty weft-stop motion
Loom brake not functioning
properly
Anti-crack motion not set properly
Fell of the cloth not being adjusted
after loom stoppage for mending

Remedies/Control:
Maintaining the different motion, control system (listed above) in
proper conditions, and also correct settings should be maintained
15
 13. Hole, cut, or tear
Causes
Sharp edges on the cloth roll or front rest
Hard substance between layers of fabric in the cloth roll
Cloth roll striking against sharp pointed edge during
transport or when being doffed
Coarse temples are used for fine fabrics

Remedies/Control:
This fault cannot be mended
Therefore, maintaining proper conditions of cloth roll, front rest
etc., & avoiding damage to cloth roll during doffing & transport

should be strictly followed 16

 14. Broken ends
Cause
Failure of weaver in attending to
warp breaks properly

Remedies/Controls:
 Maintaining the warp stop motion in proper condition
 Mending the broken end immediately

17
 15. Gout
• Foreign matter(s), usually lint or waste, are being
woven in fabric by accident
Causes
Fly and waste dropping into the loom during weaving, or
being caught in yarn during spinning or in raw material

18
 16. Broken Pattern
• One or more ends are drawn through heald and/or reed in a wrong color
pattern

Wrong Color end Wrong drawing of end

19
 17. Lashing in/Dragging in
• Extra weft yarn is tucked into the selvedge of the fabric

• Loopy Selvedge / Rough Selvedge/

Beaded Selvedge
An improperly woven selvedge of uneven width or a
selvedge which contains irregular weft loops
extend beyond the outside edges

Possible Causes
Improper control of weft tension during tuck-in
selvedge information 20
Process Control in Sizing
 Scope of Process Control
Sizing is essential to make the yarn weavable, without sizing
end breaks particularly for single yarn warp becomes very
high & weaving becomes impossible

But it cannot improve basic quality of yarn

Objective of sizing should be to impart the yarn those

properties that it does not possess but are necessary for
weaving

For satisfactory weaving, good quality of beams is also

important

Therefore, process control program at sizing should aim at

ensuring that the sized yarns & beams these characteristics
for achieving good weavibility
 Approach to Process Control
 Increase in abrasion resistance and tensile strength after
sizing depends on,
• Recipe of size mixing • Its degree of penetration into yarn &
• Size preparation • Sizing conditions
• Level of size pick-up

 Size pick-up has to be controlled through solid content of size paste,

and control of process parameters
 Moisu
 Reduction in extensibility of yarn
• First reason: fibres are bound together
• Second reason: Tension in the yarn during sizing causes
stretch in yarn which reduces extensibility of yarn,
therefore, stretch has to be controlled to minimum
 Moisture content in the sized yarn has to be monitored
continuously to maintain it to required level
 Approach to Process Control (cont.)

The process control program should comprise

•Selecting correct size recipe and size pick-up %

•Ensuring correct preparation of size paste
•Control of size pick-up, stretch,moisture content, quality
of beam, machine speed & machine efficiency
•Method to calculate expected level of productivity
 Measurement Parameters
Size paste concentration, size pick-up & size add-
on are defined as follows
 Measurement Parameters
Size paste concentration, size pick-up & size add-on are
defined as follows
Oven dry mass of size materials
Size paste concentation (%) x 100
Mass of size paste

Size Add ciii (%S) x 100

Mass of size paste

Wet l i c k 1
'' Oven diy mass of imsized yarn

Wet pick
'' 1
Concentration (%)
 Factors Governing Formulation of size recipe
Following are the factors that influence size recipe formulation

(a) Count of yarn

- In general, medium counts require less size than coarse or finer
count yarns
- Lower specific surface area of coarser yarns needs more
concentrated size paste
- Finer count yarns lower strength more concentrated
size paste

(b) Construction of cloth

- Construction density of warp & weft yarns i.e. EPI & PPI
- Medium count yarn & light construction requires less size pick up
Fina count yarn & heavy construction more size pick-up is
required
 Factors Governing Formulation of Size recipe
(c) Twist of the yarn
- A soft yarn necessarily less strong requires more size
than hard twisted yarn
(d) Squeezing roller covering
- Squeezing rollers have robber covering with hardness around 45°
shore (different for different materials)
- If roller hardness is more squeeze will be more more
concentration of size paste is required to maintain same size
pick-up

(e) Speed of sizing machine

It is found that lower concentration of size paste allows higher speeds
because lower viscosity of size paste provides better
control over size pick-up
- For size paste with higher viscosity, small change in concentration
results in large variation in pick-up
 Sizing-Weaving Curve
 The optimum size % with given size recipe and particular
fabric construction can be decided by controlled trials
 The relationship between size % and weaving performance is as
shown in figure below (Sizing-Weaving curve)

There is always an optimum

Size% for a particular sort which gives
Ieast Warp breaks on loom
Flat portion of curve shows the Iimits for
optimum Size add-on
Normal value of size % somewhat in
the middle of flat zone, or to be on safer
side .05 to .1% higher
Optimum size add-on will depends on: Type of fibres, Type of size materials ; yarn spinning
technology: yarn count and twist, Level of hairiness in yarn
 Size Penetration & Encapsulation
 It is possible to have different weaving performances even at
same level of size add-on
 Reasons: (a) Size penetration & (b) Size coating or
encapsulation

 In first case, size material has formed a uniform coating on

yarn surface, But penetration of the size material is in
adequate
 In second case, coating or encapsulation on yarn surface is
inadequate
 The third case is optimum one where a thin but uniform
coating has been formed by size materials on yarn surface
 And also the size materials have also penetrated to some
extent
 Control of Size Pick-up
Sizing conditions to control average size pick-up
(a)Viscosity of size paste in size box
- Any variation in the concentration & temperature of the
size paste alters the viscosity of size paste which affects size
pick-up & extent of penetration
- As viscosity of size paste increases, size pick-up increases
- As viscosity increases, penetration of the size paste reduces
- Temperature should not fall below 90°C
- Viscosity cup or Zahn cup is used for viscosity
measurements, (in terms of time required to drain off the size
paste from the cup)
 Control of Size Pick-up (cont)
(b)Squeezing pressure & condition of squeeze nip
Squeezing pressure determines extent of penetration of size
paste in yarns & level of size pick-up
Optimum squeeze pressure depends on type & count of yarn,
number of ends in set, covering of squeeze roller, viscosity of
paste and machine speed
 Hardness of squeezing roller
is of great importance

 Hardness of squeezing roller, alignment of squeeze roller &

size roller must be uniform along its length, or variation in
size pick-up across warp sheet will result
 Control of Size Pick-up (cont)
(b) Squeezing pressure & condition of squeeze nip
Squeezing roller design on Modern Machines

On modern machines, squeezing pressure is very high which

cause bending in squeezing roller. And results in uneven
pressure along the squeezing roller Iength
The rollers on modern machines are designed in such way
that diameters gradually reduce towards its ends from
center
Therefore, with bending of the rollers even pressure is
applied on the warp sheet along the nip line
 Control of Size Pick-up (cont)
(c) Speed of sizing machine
Other conditions remaining same, size pick-up increases with increase in sizing
speed and vice versa
Because time available to squeeze out excessive size past reduces as machine
speed increases
To reduce such variations, squeezing pressure has to be varied accordingly
(d) Depth of immersion roller
It determines the time for which yarn remains immersed in
Size paste
& Influences level of Size pick-up & depth of penetration of Size
paste in the yarn
(e) Level of size paste in the size box
It may cause within and between beam size pick-up variation
Level of size paste is must be maintained constant
(f) Density of ends
When end density is higher difficulties are encountered in obtaining adequate &
uniform Size penetration
 If ends are not Iaid directly on drying cylinder, migration takes place
Therefore, whenever possible for heavy sets, warp sheet should be Split into two
sheets
 Stretch in Yarns during sizing
Tension in the yarns during sizing causes some permanent
stretch in the yarn

This stretch reduces elongation at break of the yarn

Higher stretch higher loss of elongation at break may

causes breakages in weaving

Mechanism of generation of stretch

Warper's beams are not positively driven, yarns have to
provide the torque, and in this, they get stretched
The zone where yarn will get stretched depends on the point
which grips the yarn & pulls it towards headstock
Besides, if there are two positive nips and that are not
synchronized, it causes stretch
 Stretch in Yarns during sizing
Mechanism of generation of stretch
Number of points in which Stretch can occur depends on
type of machine
Zones on modern sizing machines

There are five zones on modern sizing machines as shown in figure

Total stretch should not be allowed to exceed 0.5% in creel zone, and
1.5% in wet, drying, splitting zones taken together
 Control of yarn stretch on modern sizing machines

Control of warp yarn tension in beam creel

Yarn sheet tension in measured in front of size box for feedback
control
Beam diameters are measured with non-contact type detectors,
& control yarn tension even during acceleration and deceleration

Band brakes: braking is beams is precisely controlled by computer,

with pneumatic cylinders and band brakes
 Modern sizing machine : Digital Stretch Control
Digital stretch control with multi-section drive
•Individually driven motors are located in each take-up, drying,
& sizing sections
•Stretch is digitally controlled using T-MDS Machine Data Station

Stretch is controlled between: positive dry nip to squeezing nip; squeezing

nip to first drying cylinder, first drying cylinder to take-up roller
 Control of moisture in sized yarns
A moisture content of 8 - 10% should be
maintained in sized cotton yarns

Excessive drying makes size film brittle & harsh

Very high moisture content makes the size film weak and
yarn sticky

Modern machines are equipped with moisture controlling

devices
 Quality of Sized Beams
Below are the some beam faults that should be avoided
(a)Density of beams
- Loosely packed weavers beam does not work well during
weaving, therefore, density of beam has to be appropriate
- In modern machines, hydraulic or pneumatic pressing motions are
provided
(b) Defective selvedge
- Sunken and bulged selvedge are the faults to be avoided
- These defects can be avoided by using proper width of expandable
comb at the headstock
- Suitably adjusting the density of threads in the comb if the selvedge
threads have different count than body ends.
- Pressing rollers should reach both flanges or it should be mounted on
traversing trolley.
- Beam flanges should be in proper conditions
 Quality of Sized Beams (cont.)
(c) Broken ends, missing ends, crossed ends, sticky ends
- The major sources of these faults is Sappers and invisible breaks.
- Lapper is accumulation of layers of yarn on warper's beam, squeeze
roller, drying roller or any guide roller, caused by presence of free
end in warper's beam because of
- Unmended broken end during warping, or because of end break
during sizing
- Both lapper and invisible break result in broken end and missing end
- Crossed end occur when leading end yarn is not available at its in
appropriate place on the beam
- Sticky ends are caused when broken end from one warper's beam
migrate to another yarn sheet
- Broken ends should be mended properly at warping, stretch should
be properly maintained etc. which increases lappers and invisible
breaks
(d) Ridges on beam
- When the treads are taken through one reed dent do not spread out,
ridges are formed on beam
- It creates problem during unwinding of beams
 Quality of Sized Beams (cont.)

Therefore, the problems discussed

above in the weavers beams should be
avoided for satisfactory weaving
 Performance of Sized yarn
* The real performance of sized yarn can be assessed during weaving
* However, the performance of sized yarns can also be forecasted with
some properties sized yarns like —

1. Abrasion resistance of yarn

- During weaving of yarn, abrasion takes place between warp
yarns & loom parts
- Sized yarns can be subjected for abrasion test and number of
cycles required to break the yarns can be measured
- from which mean abrasion cycles can be calculated that can be
resisted by sized yarns
Alternatively, sized yarns can be subjected to fixed number of
abrasion cycles and then % deterioration in tensile strength can
be calculated using following expression,
Yarn Abrasion Tester
Process Control in Weaving:
Scope, Approach
 Scope of Process Control

Role of Weaving manager

The weaving manager has to achieve targets of quality

and production while minimizing the total cost added
by his department
 Scope of Process Control
Loom productivity: Contribution of yarn, winding,
warping & sizing
Most common factor affecting loom efficiency between different
mills is warp breakage rate
If machine is reasonably maintained, then loom cannot be
manipulated to drastically reduce end breakages
Warp breakage rate is governed by
Yarn quality
Yarn clearing
Efficacy of sizing
Minimum yarn quality is necessary for weaving
Sizing makes yarn weavable, without sizing weaving of single
yarns is not possible
Besides yarn quality and efficacy of sizing, removal of faults
during winding influences the weavability of yarn
 Scope of Process Control
Control of fabric quality
Quality of fabric two aspects
[Link] properties: drape, texture, strength, wrinkle
resistance etc.
[Link] from faults

Functional properties of fabrics depend on : design specifications of

the fabric: type of fibre material, count, twist,....
Control at weaving department:
[Link] specification from winding to weaving
[Link] from yarn faults as much as possible
[Link] of fabric defects from preparatory to weaving

Causes of other defects or damages

[Link] quality of spares
[Link] of specific mechanism in preparatory or weaving
 Scope of Process Control
Control of cost of production

Minimizing the cost of production has three aspects

1. Achieving optimum machine and labour productivity
2. Minimizingthe wastage of yarn and other raw material
3. Reducing the consumption of stores and accessories
 Approach to Process Control
The approach for meeting quality requirements, production norms
along with minimum cost of production
Quality of fabrics & productivity at loom depends on operations
from winding to weaving
Process should not be looked independently, but in manner they
affect quality and productivity at loom
Preparatory and weaving contribute to fabric quality and loom
productivity but loom shed contributes more to cost, so preparatory
should emphasis on quality than productivity
QuaIity should not be compromised for productivity at preparatory
processes
Difficulty in assessing the efficiency of winding or warping processes
At sizing, we can check increase in strength and decrease in
elongation, but testing is time consuming, & becomes historical
rather than remedial
In weaving the quality of fabric can be quantified in terms of
number of fabrics defects by inspecting
Therefore, for maintaining quality during weaving an approach
 Setting of norms and Schedule of checks
• Norms can be established through experimentation or industry-
wide data collection
• In first method : optimum performance is main criterion
e.g. yarn tension levels in winding, warping, stretch during sizing etc.
• Experimentation is necessary to with different levels of parameters

• Second method is appropriate for certain processes or product

characteristics
e.g. speed of loom, consumption of accessories etc.
Upper quartile of frequency distribution of data rather than average which
ensures value is not achieved by large majority of mills
Norms cannot remain static...have to be modified
Suitable schedule of checks for norms should be designed to maintain
the key parameters. While designing schedule consider,
i. The extent to which the parameter influences quality & productivity
ii. Ease with which it can be checked & adjusted
[Link] with which it gets disturbed after adjusting
Beside routine check, machine audit can also help in maintaining key parameters
 Machinery Audit
 It is periodic critical examination of machines to identify
the aspects of mechanical condition of various machine
parts & settings which can affect the quality &
productivity

 An essential addition to direct control

 Variability of life span of spare parts and accessories is

very large

 Premature replacement of machine part becomes costly

 If done correctly, bridges gap between schedule

replacement & break-down maintenance
 Impact of Machine Conditions
on Processing Performance and
Yarn Quality
Test Instruments for Machine Audit
The checklist given in Table 11.5 is done mostly
on the basis of the visual or tactile judgment of an
experienced technician.

There are very few items for which instruments

are used (e.g quality of card wire grinding, roller
slip etc)
Look at bottom roller leads to suspicion that
many rollers are eccentric beyond tolerable limit,
but checking by roller eccentric tester shows
there are only few.