FPSC General Science & Ability
Solved Past Papers (Up to 2016)
By Ahmad Thakur
Physical Sciences..............................................................................................................................3
Constituents and Structure .......................................................................................................3
Processes of Nature.................................................................................................................10
Physical Sciences
Constituents and Structure
Describe different methods to estimate the age of the Universe. (2018)
Answer:
The age of the universe is estimated to be about 13.8 billion years based on scientific
observations. Several methods have been developed to determine its age, each relying
on different physical principles.
1. Hubble’s Law (Expansion of the universe)
This method was discovered by and named after Edwin Hubble, who observed
that galaxies are moving away from each other. The rate of expansion is known as
the Hubble constant. By measuring this expansion, scientists were able to
determine how long the universe has been expanding and, therefore, how long the
universe has existed. Current estimates using this method give an age of about
13.8 billion years.
2. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB Radiation)
The CMB is the leftover radiation from the Big Bang. Different satellites have
been used to measure the fluctuations in the CMB. By analyzing these
fluctuations, scientists have estimated the age of the universe to be about 13.8
billion years.
3. Globular Clusters
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the universe. They are clusters
of ancient stars, and their age is determined by estimating the age of the stars
within them. The oldest clusters found in the Milky Way Galaxy are about 12–13
billion years old, providing a lower limit to the age of the universe.
4. Radioactive Decay
Certain radioactive elements like Uranium and Thorium found in stars and other
cosmic bodies have also helped in determining the age of the universe. These
elements have documented half-lives—the time it takes for the element to lose
half its mass due to radioactive decay—and by measuring their abundance in
celestial bodies, scientists have estimated the age of the objects, and hence the
universe, to be about 12–13 billion years old.
Explain the terms Dark Energy and Dark Matter. (2018)
Answer:
The universe is not made up of just visible objects like stars, planets, and galaxies, but
also mysterious invisible components like Dark matter and Dark energy. Together,
these make up about 95% of the universe, yet their nature remains unknown.
1. Dark Matter
Dark matter is an invisible matter that does not absorb, reflect, or emit light. Its
presence is only detected by its gravitational effects on other galaxies or galaxy
clusters. It is assumed that dark matter could be made up of WIMPs (Weakly
Interacting Massive Particles), but it is not made up of normal elements found in
the periodic table. The nature of dark matter is not understood, but it plays a
crucial role in the formation and structure of the universe by holding all the
galaxies together with its gravitational force.
2. Dark Energy
Dark energy is a mysterious force that permeates all of space and is responsible
for the accelerated expansion of the universe. It acts as a repulsive force, pushing
galaxies farther apart. Its nature is still largely unknown but is considered a key
factor in understanding the expansion of the universe.
Differentiate between a star and a planet. What is the magnitude of a star and
how the color of stars is correlated with their temperatures? (2021)
Answer:
The differences between a star and a planet is given by the following table:
Feature Star Planet
Composition and Size A star is a massive A planet is non-luminous
luminous sphere of plasma object made of either rock
that generates its own or gas that does not emit
energy and light due to it’s own light. It is much
nuclear fusion in its core. smaller in size and orbits
around a star.
Light Emission Stars emit their own light. Planets do not emit any
light. They can only reflect
light that falls on them
from a nearby star.
Temperature Stars have extremely high Planets are much cooler
core temperatures, usually compared to stars. Their
in millions of degrees. temperatures fall around a
few thousand degrees.
Examples Sirius, Betelguese Earth, Mars, Jupiter
1. Magnitude of a Star
The magnitude of a star refers to its brightness. It is categorized into two type.
a) Apparent Magnitude: How bright the star appears from Earth.
b) Absolute Magnitude: The intrinsic brightness of the star, i.e. how bright a
start would appear from a standard distance of 10 parsecs.
2. Color Temperature Relationship of Stars
The color of a star directly relates to its surface temperature according to Black
Body Radiation principles. Hotter stars appear blue or white because they emit
high energy but shorter wavelength light, while cooler stars appear orange,
yellow, or red, because they emit low energy but longer wavelength light.
Briefly describe the most popular and accepted theory about the origin of the
Universe. (2021)
Answer:
The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted theory about the origin of the
universe. According to this theory the universe came into existence about 13.8 billion
years ago from an explosion. This explosion occurred from a tiny, extremely hot and
extreme dense singularity and has led to the expansion of space and time.
Evidence for Big Bang
Edwin Hubble observed that galaxies are moving away from each proving that the
universe is expanding. Since the universe is uniformly expanding in all directions that
means that it started out from some singular point. In addition to this, Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation (CMB Radiation) also supports Big Bang. CMB is
the leftover radiation from the Big Bang.
What is a Galaxy? (Possible)
Answer:
A galaxy is a massive system of stars, planets, gas, dust, and dark matter held together
by gravitational forces. It is basic building block of the universe.
1. Features of a Galaxy
a) Galaxies contain millions to trillions of stars,
b) Nebulae (clouds of gas and dust particles)
c) Planetary systems
2. Types of galaxies
Based on their apparent shape, galaxies are divided into three types
a) Spiral galaxies: Have a flat rotating disk with spiral arms.
b) Elliptical galaxies: Have a well defined ellipse shaped and contain some of
the oldest stars.
c) Irregular galaxies: These galaxies have no defined shape and usually formed
by collisions between two or more galaxies.
3. Examples
a) Milky Way Galaxy
b) Andromeda Galaxy
Galaxies are the largest structures in the universe. Understanding them is crucial to
understanding the various components of the universe and how they came to be.
What are Kepler's laws related to the motion of planets? (2024)
Answer:
Johannes Kepler was a 17th century astronomer who formulated three laws of
planetary motion that describe the orbits of the planets around the sun.
1. Kepler’s First Law
“The orbit of every planet is not a circle but an ellipse with the Sun at one of its
two foci.”
This means that all planets do not orbit the sun in a perfect circle and the sun is
never in the center of their orbit but slightly off center at one focus.
2. Kepler’s Second Law
“A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time.”
Since the orbit of a planet is an ellipse, it means that the planet is never
equidistant from the sun at all times. Instead, sometimes it is closer to the sun and
sometimes it is farther away. When it is closer to the sun, it moves faster, but
when it is farther away, it moves slower, but in such a way that the area it covers
in an interval of time remains the same. This is due to the conservation of angular
momentum.
3. Kepler’s Third Law
“The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.”
This law explains the relationship of a planet’s distance from the sun and the time
it takes to complete one orbit. Planets that are farther away take longer to
complete their orbit because they have a larger orbit. Planets that are closer to the
sun and hence have shorter orbits take less time.
Define the term Black Hole. What’s expected inside it? (2018)
What is ‘Black Hole’? How black holes are formed and discovered? (2023)
Answer:
A black hole is an object in space that has an extremely strong gravitational pull. So
strong that even light cannot escape from it. A black hole is formed when a massive
star collapses under its own gravity at the end of its life cycle.
1. Structure of a Black Hole
A black hole is made up of four components:
a) The Singularity
The center of the black hole is a singularity, a small point in space with
infinite density and zero volume. All of the mass of the black hole is
concentrated at this singular point.
b) The Event Horizon
Beyond the singularity is the event horizon. It is the threshold beyond which
nothing can escape. Once something crosses the event horizon, it is
impossible for it to go back.
c) The Accretion Disk
The accretion disk is a swirling disk of hot gas and matter that surrounds the
black hole slowly falling into it.
d) The Photon Sphere
The photon sphere is the region outside the event horizon where light can
orbit the black hole.
2. How are Black Holes formed?
A black hole is formed when a massive star collapses under its own gravity at the
end of its life cycle. This causes the core of the star to compress into a tiny point
called the singularity.
3. How are Black Holes discovered?
Although black holes cannot be seen directly because they absorb all visible light
and other electromagnetic waves, scientists detect them through their effects on
nearby matter and light. Due to their immense gravity, black holes bend light
from distant objects around them. This is known as gravitational lensing. This can
be observed through space telescopes.
The accretion disks around the black holes also emit X-Ray radiation which can
be detected using specialized instruments.
4. What’s expected inside the Black Hole?
Due to the nature of the singularity at the center of the black hole, laws of physics
as we know them cease to exist. The inside of the black hole remains a topic of
theoretical study, but it is believed that, according to general relativity, time slows
down and eventually comes to a stop inside the black hole.
Processes of Nature
Differentiate between the occurrence of Lunar and Solar Eclipse? (2017)
Answer:
The differences between a Lunar and Solar eclipse are given in the following table:
Feature Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse
Position Occurs when the Earth Occurs when the Moon
comes between the Moon come between the Earth
and the Sun. and the Sun.
Visibility Can be seen from Can only be seen from a
anywhere on Earth where small area on Earth.
it’s night time.
Duration Lasts for a few hours. Lasts for a few minutes.
Shadow involved Earth’s umbra (shadow) Moon blocks the Sun from
falls on the Moon. view.
Safety Safe to observe with the Unsafe to observe with the
naked eye. naked eye and requires
protection to view it.
Conclusion
Lunar and solar eclipses occur due to the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth, but
in opposite configurations. While a lunar eclipse can be seen by anyone, a solar
eclipse can only be seen by a few people at a time.
Briefly explain what effects are produced due to Rotation & Revolution of
Earth? (2017)
What effects are produced due to Rotation & Revolution of Earth? Explain
Briefly. (2025)
Answer:
1. Earth’s Rotation
The spinning of the Earth on its axis is called its rotation. Due to this some effects
are produced on the surface of the Earth.
Effects of Earth’s Rotation:
a) Day and night cycles: The rotation of the Earth on its axis causes alternating
periods of daylight and darkness.
b) Coriolis Effect: Rotation deflects the movement of air and ocean currents,
affecting global wind patterns.
c) Flattening of the poles: Due to centrifugal force caused by rotation, the Earth
is slightly flattened at the poles and slightly bulged at the equator.
2. Earth Revolution
The movement of the Earth around the Sun in its orbit is called its revolution.
This phenomenon also produces some effects on the surface of the Earth.
Effects of Earth’s Revolution:
a) Changes of the seasons: Due to the Earth having a tilted axis (23.5 degrees),
different parts of the Earth receive varying amounts of sunlight as it revolves
around the Sun, causing different seasons.
b) Variation in day length: Due to Earth’s tilt and revolution, the length of
daylight it receives during the day also varies throughout the year.
Conclusion
Earth's rotation mostly causes day and night cycles along with wind patterns due to
the Coriolis effect, while its revolution is the reason behind different seasons and
variations in day length throughout the year.
Explain the formation of Lunar Eclipse. (2018)
Answer:
A lunar eclipse is a celestial event that occurs when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in
alignment such that the Earth comes between the Sun and Moon, blocking the Sun’s
light and casting a shadow on the Moon.
Formation of a Lunar Eclipse
1. Alignment: A lunar eclipse only occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in a
straight line, in this exact order.
2. Full Moon Phase: For a lunar eclipse to occur, the Moon should be in a full moon
phase as it is directly opposite the Sun.
3. Earth’s Umbra (Shadow): The Earth needs to be directly between the Sun and
Moon. This way, it blocks the incoming light from the Sun and causes a shadow
to be cast on the surface of the Moon.
A lunar eclipse is usually visible from everywhere on Earth where there is nighttime.
It lasts for a few hours compared to a solar eclipse, which lasts only a few minutes.
Explain the formation of Solar Eclipse. (Possible)
Answer:
A solar eclipse is a celestial event that occurs when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in
alignment such that the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, blocking the
Sun’s light from reaching the Earth.
Formation of a Solar Eclipse
1. Alignment: A solar eclipse only occurs when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are in a
straight line, in this exact order.
2. Full Moon Phase: For a solar eclipse to occur, the Moon should bein a full moon
phase and block the Sun in its entirety.
3. Moon’s Umbra (Shadow): The Moon needs to be directly inbetween the Earth
and the incoming light from the Sun. This way the Moon casts a shadow on the
Surface of the Earth.
A solar eclipse is only visible from certain places on Earth at any given time and it
only lasts for a few minutes compared to a lunar eclipse which can lasts for a few
hours.
What do you understand by Global Wind and Pressure Patterns? Also explain
wind and pressure features at higher altitudes. (2020)
Answer
Global wind and pressure patterns refer to the systematic circulation of air around the
Earth due to uneven heating of the Earth’s surface, the Earth’s rotation, and the
Coriolis effect.
1. Global Winds
There are three major global winds.
a) Westerlies: These winds move from West to East farther away from the
equator.
b) Polar Easterlies: These winds move from East to West at the poles of the
Earth.
c) Trade Winds: These winds also move from East to West but closer to the
equator.
2. Global Pressure Belts
There are four major global pressure belts.
a) Polar high pressure belts: These are caused by the intense low temperature of
the poles and cause the winds to be cold and heavier, thus sinking downward
and increasing air pressure at the poles.
b) Sub-polar low pressure belts: These are Low-pressure belts due to the
convergence of cold polar winds and warm tropical winds.
c) Equatorial belt: A low-pressure belt due to intense heating from the sun
causes the air to get warm and rise, reducing air pressure.
d) Subtropical high-pressure belts: Descending cool air from the tropics
increases air pressure in these belts.
3. Wind and pressure features at high altitude.
Due to decreasing atmospheric density at higher altitudes, various variations in
wind and pressure patterns can be observed.
a) Low atmospheric pressure at high altitudes: Due to the decrease in air density
at higher altitudes, air pressure also decreases.
b) Jet Streams: At higher altitudes, in regions where different temperature air
masses meet, a strong wind known as a jet stream occurs.
What is an Acid Rain and how it is produced. Briefly describe the dangers
associated with it? (2017)
What is ‘Acid Rain’. Describe its causes and how it can be prevented? (2018)
Answer
Acid rain refers to any form of precipitation (rain, snow, hail) that has an unusually
low pH due to the presence of dissolved acids. Typically normal rain has a pH level of
5.6 while acid rain has a pH level lower than 4.
1. Causes of Acid Rain
a) Emission of Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur dioxide is produced by burning fossil
fuels in factories, vehicles and power plants.
b) Emission of Nitrogen Oxide: Nitrogen Oxide is produced by automobile
engines, industrial processes, and electric power generation.
c) Chemical Reactions in the atmosphere: When Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen
Oxide react with water vapour and Oxygen in the atmosphere, they form
Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid. These acids mix with the precipitation and fall
down to Earth in the form of acid rain.
2. Dangers of Acid Rain
a) Environmental destruction: Acid rain causes soil degradation by increasing
the pH level of the soil. It causes harm to aquatic life when the acids in acid
rain enter sea water and rivers. It also causes damage to forests by damaging
leaves and weakening trees.
b) Destruction to buildings: Acid is corrosive by nature and acid rain corrodes
buildings, monuments, and other human built structures.
c) Health hazard to humans: Acid rain can cause various health hazards in
human as well such as skin related issues and various other respiratory
issues.
3. Prevention
Acid rain can be prevented by reducing emissions of Sulphur Dioxide and
Nitrogen Oxide. That can be achieved by opting for green and renewable energy
production methods and using alternative fuels for vehicles that do not produce
these harmful chemicals into the atmosphere.
Natural Hazards and Disasters
Biological Sciences
The Basis of Life
Cell Structures and Functions (Subcellular Organelles such as
Nucleus, Mitochondria and Ribosomes).
Describe the ‘Cell Structure’. Write down at least three differences between an
animal cell and plant cell. (2018)
Answer:
1. Structure of a Cell
A cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living
organisms. It contains various organelles that perform specific functions essential
for life.
a) Cell Membrane
A semi permeable membrane that encloses the cell and controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cell.
b) Cytoplasm
A jelly like substance that holds the organelles.
c) The Nucleus
The control center of the cell that holds the DNA of the cell and is
responsible for cell growth and reproduction.
d) Mitochondria
The powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria. It generates energy in the form of
ATP by breaking down glucose.
e) Ribosomes
It synthesizes proteins by connecting different amino acids.
f) Endoplasmic Reticulum
This is the site for protein and lipid synthesis. It houses Ribosomes.
2. Three Differences between animal cell and plant cell
Feature Definition Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell Wall A rigid Absent Present
structure
surrounding
the cell that
gives it support
and structure.
Chloroplast A specialized Absent Present
organelle that
contains
chlorophyll
that allows the
organism to do
photosynthesis.
Shape The shape of Animal cells Plant cells are usually
the cell as are usually box shaped because
observed round or they have a cell wall
through the irregular. that gives them a rigid
microscope. structure.
Explain the differences in structure & function between a cell wall and a cell
membrane. (2021)
Answer:
Cells are enclosed by special layers that protect them and regulate interactions with
the environment. The cell wall and cell membrane are two such structures, but they
differ in composition, structure, and functionality.
Difference between cell wall and cell membrane
Feature Cell Wall Cell Membrane
Presence Found only in plant cells, Found in all cells
fungi, and bacteria. universally.
Structure Thick and rigid. Soft and flexible.
Permeability Allows all substances to Allows selective
pass through it. substances to pass through
it.
Functionality Provides structure, Regulates transport of
support, shape, and substances in and out of
protection to a cell. the cell.
Conclusion
The cell wall provides structure, support, and protection to plant cells, while the cell
membrane, which is found in all cells, controls the movement of substances in and out
of cells. Understanding their differences is crucial in understanding how different
cells function and interact with the environment.
How a bacterial cell is different from a plant cell? (2023)
Answer:
Differences between bacterial cell and plant cell
Feature Bacterial Cell Plant Cell
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent. DNA floats freely Distinct membrane bound
in cytoplasm nucleus that houses the
DNA.
Organelles No membrane bound Membrance bound
organelles. organelles such as
Mitochondia, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, etc.
Chloroplast Absent Persent. It provides the
plant cell with the ability
to photosynthesize.
Size Smaller Larger
Reproduction Mostly asexual by binary Both asexual and sexual
fission. reproduction (Mitosis and
Meiosis)
Summary
Bacterial cells are smaller prokaryotic cells with no distinct nucleus and lack
membrane bound organelles, while plant cells are larger prokaryotic cells that do have
a distinct membrane bound nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
