1. SURFACE RAILWAY : 8.

AVERAGE SPEED :
Surface railways are the cheapest and most extensively used form of railway service The mean of the speeds from start to stop i.e., the distance covered between
in the world. In this system, railways are provided over the ground. This is the most two stops divided by the actual time of run is known as average speed.
extensively used and best rails throughout the world. In surface railways, various SCHEDULE SPEED :
means like level crossings, over bridge, under bridge etc are to be provided for The mean of the speeds from start to stop i.e., the distance covered between
crossing of the railway and road traffic safely and efficiently. two stops divided by the actual time of run is known as average speed.
METRO RAILWAY : FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHEDULE SPEED :
Metrorail or metro rail may refer to: Rapid transit, a frequent electric rail system ◆Crest Speed or Maximum Speed.
commonly called a metro. Metro tracks are on surface, underground as well as ◆Acceleration.
overhead whereas trains run on tracks laid on the surface mostly. Metro provide ◆Braking Retardation.
relief to commuters inside a city and its suburbs while trains are indispensable for ◆Note - The variations in the acceleration and braking retardation of the train
those needing to move to distant cities. affect the schedule speed in case of shorter run as compared to longer run.
2. ELECTRIC DRIVE : ◆Distance between the Stops.
An electrical drive is defined as an electronic device designed to control certain ◆Duration of Stops.
parameters of the motor for controlling the electrical energy into mechanical power 10. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION :
in a precise controllable way. A specific energy consumption (or specific consumption in short) is the quotient
ADVANTAGES : describing the total energy consumption per unit of output or service in physical
◆Enough overload capacity without loss of life of machine. unit.
◆Four quadrant operation. AFFECTING SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION :
◆Modifiable torque-speed characteristics. The specific energy consumption is equal to the specific energy output divided by
◆No requirement of warming up period. the overall efficiency of the locomotive, hence the specific energy consumption
◆Higher efficiency. Easy control. depends upon the overall efficiency of the electric train.
◆Clean operation, no pollution. 11. MECHANICS OF A TRAIN MOVEMENT :
◆Wide range of speed control. The process of moving a train by means of the driving force is known as traction.
◆They have flexible control characteristics. The motion of the vehicle can be obtained by transferring the tractive effort from
DISADVANTAGE : the edge of the pinion in the motor armature to the driving wheel through the gear
◆ High initial cost due to the presence of power converters and controller wheel
electronics.
◆Regular maintenance and high attention are required.
3. DIESEL ELECTRIC DRIVE :
ADVANTAGES :
Low capital cost due to the absence of overhead equipment. It has high
acceleration and retardation. No requirement of modification in the existing tracks
while converting from non-electric to diesel-electric traction
DISADVANTAGES :
As compared with an electric locomotive, however, the diesel-electric has an
important drawback: since its output is essentially limited to that of its diesel engine,
it can develop less horsepower per locomotive unit.
4. BATTERY DRIVE : 12. ADHESION :
ADVANTAGES : Adhesion is one of the most important terms used in Railway parlance signifying
It causes less pollution. It reduces noise pollution. The battery powered vehicles the ability of efficient heavy haul and safe braking. Adhesion limits the tractive and
required less maintenance because it has no water cooling system to maintain, no braking effort per traction and braking wheel respectively.
filters, belts, or hoses to replace, or no oil to change. It is more reliable because of the COEFFICIENT OF ADHESION :
presence of fuel injectors, compressors, pumps and valve. The coefficient of adhesion is the ratio of the maximum tangential force acting
DISADVANTAGES : along the road on the contact area of the interlocked wheel with the road surface
The capital cost of installing an electric drive is high. Electric drives are suitable only to the normal reaction in the contact area of the wheel with the surface.
on electrified tracks. Electric drives require additional control circuitry. Sometimes, 13. FEEDING POST :
electric drives can cause noise pollution. LIST OF EQUIPMENTS :
5. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH AC TRACTION SYSTEM : ◆ Feed blowers:
One of the major problem in AC traction system is, traction loads are connected to A feed blower is only a tool to simplify hand feeding . There are different
single-phase supply which results in voltage unbalance at point of common coupling blower types based on the ‘carrier’ used for the feed particles which is normally
(PCC) with the utility three-phase system. Unbalanced voltages can result in adverse either air or water.
effects on equipment and on the power system. ◆ Feed dispenser:
6. VOLTAGE BALANCE : A feed dispenser is often confused with a feeding machine, but does not have
The voltage balance is the difference in magnitudes, in percent, of two output the distribution unit. A great advantage with the feed dispenser is its simple and
voltages that have equal nominal voltage magnitudes but opposite polarities. The robust construction.
voltage balance is usually used when referring to dual power supplies. ◆ Demand feeders:
7. SIMPLIFIED SPEED TIME CURVE : A demand feeder is normally a mechanical construction. A great advantage
Speed-time curves are the most convenient means of studying the movement of with using demand feeders is that there is no need for an electricity supply.
trains and their energy consumption. The speed-time curve provides complete ◆Automatic feeders, feed machines :
information of the motion of the train. The speed-time curve gives the speed of the A feeding machine or an automatic feeder consists of four major components a
train at various time instants after the start of the run directly. The slope of the curve feed container (hopper), a mechanism for feed distribution, an electrical power
at any point gives the acceleration at the corresponding instant or speed supply for the distribution mechanism and a control unit for starting and stopping
the distribution mechanism.
◆Feeding systems :
The term feeding system refers to a complete system that takes the feed
directly from the feed silo or hopper, transports it to the fish production unit, and
at the end distributes it to the fish.

14. SECTIONING AND PARALLELING POST :

Zone covering up and down tracks between feeding post and neutral section is
called one section and so each feeding post supplies two sections. The supply to
each section is controlled by a circuit breaker. the power supply arrangement for a
double track line in between a feeding post and a neutral section. Two adjacent
sections supplied by different substations are connected through neutral section to
. avoid bridging of different phases of supply by pantograph.
9. TRACTIVE EFFORT : 15. SUBSECTIONING AND PARALLELING POST :
Tractive effort is defined as the force at the rims or the outer edges of the driving Each section is subdivided into two or more sections by sectioning and
wheels of moving trains. The tractive effort is obtained by multiplying the torque by paralleling posts, normally at a distance of every 10 to 15 km, so as to isolate the
the total ratio of power train and dividing this sum by the rolling radius of the driving faulty section. Each subsectioning and paralleling post consists of two interruptors
tyres. for bridging adjacent subsections and one interruptor for paralleling up and down
tracks. Sometimes only subsectioning post is provided and so there is no
interruptor for paralleling up and down tracks. This is provided very rarely.
16. ELEMENTARY SECTION : . 20. POWER CIRCUIT OF AC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT :
Each subsection is further divided into elementary sections of length approximately The equipment on electric locomotive, depending up on where it is located, can be
1 km so as to ensure rapid isolation of fault on OHE and facilitate maintenance work. classified in three different categories viz.
Two adjacent elementary sections are separated by insulated overlap bridged by 1. Roof equipment :
isolators, which are manually operated on no load. ◆PANTOGRAPH :
17. TROLLEY COLLECTER : The High Tension current (25 kV) for feeding locomotive is taken from contact
The trolley collector is universally employed with tramways and trolleybuses. It wire by means of current collecting device called pantograph. Each loco is provided
consists of a grooved gunmetal wheel or grooved slider shoe with a carbon insert with two similar pantographs on the roof.
carried at the end of a long pole. The other end of this pole is hinged to a swiveling 2. Inside equipment :
base fixed to the roof of the vehicle. ◆VOLTAGE REGULATION EQUIPMENT :
BOW COLLECTOR : The high OHE voltage is stepped down to low voltage by the main transformer
A bow collector is one of the three main devices used on tramcars to transfer comprising of an Autotransformer with 32 taps and a stepped down transformer
electric current from the wires above to the tram below. with two separate secondary windings.
PANTOGRAPH COLLECTOR TYPES : ◆Since the traction motors are DC motors [Link]),
There are two types of pantographs: single arm and double arm. The most common alternating current supplied by secondary windings of main transformer is
type of pantograph today is the single arm pantograph (sometimes called 'Z'-shaped), converted in to direct current by means of two silicon rectifiers (RSI), one each
which has evolved to provide a more compact and responsive design at high speeds. feeding to set of three traction motors.
18 .CONSTRUCTION OF PANTOGRAPH : ◆ARNO CONVERTER :
Pantograph is an apparatus which mounted on the roof of electric train to collect ARNO converter converts the single-phase 380 Volt input from transformer
power through with an overhead tension wire. It lift or down on the basis of the wire auxiliary winding to 3 phase 380 Volt output.
tension. Typically a single wire is used with the return current running through the 3. Under Frame equipment :
track. It is a common type of current collector. Typically, a single wire is used, with ◆TRACTION MOTORS :
the return current running through the track. Pantographs are typically operated by In general, the locomotive is provided with six DC series type traction
compressed air from the vehicle’s braking system, either to raise the unit and hold it motors(TMs).
against the conductor or, when springs are used to effect the extension, to lower it. ◆SMOITHING REACTOR :
As a precaution against loss of pressure in the second case, the arm is held in the As output of rectifier is of undulating (Pulsating) nature, it is passed through an
down position by a catch. For high-voltage systems, the same air supply is used to inductive choke called smoothing reactor (SL) to reduce the undulation of the
“blow out” the electric arc when roof- mounted circuitbreakers are used. current and to make current smoother.
Pantographs may have either a single or a double arm. Double-arm pantographs are ◆BRAKES :
usually heavier, requiring more power to raise and lower, but may also be more fault- Loco is provided with following brakes:
tolerant. 1. Air brake system
2. Independent brake
[Link] brake
4. Dynamic (Rheostatic) brake
5. Regenerating brake
21. NOMENCLATURE OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE :
First letter (gauge):
◆W – Broad (wide) – 5 ft 6 in) (1,676 mm)
◆Y – Metre gauge (yard– 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in)
◆Z – 2 ft 6 in narrow gauge
◆N – 2 ft (610 mm) narrow (toy) gauge
Second letter (motive power):
◆D – Diesel
◆C –electric ◆A –electric (AC overhead line)
◆CA – DC and AC (AC or DC overhead line); CA is considered one letter
◆B – Battery (rare)
19. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE Third letter (usage):
◆G –◆P – Passenger
◆M – Mixed (goods and passenger)
◆S – (switching)
◆U – Multiple (electric) or diesel
◆R – Railcar
22. DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRACTION MOTOR :
◆SUITABLE SPEED - TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS :
In a traction system, the torque required at start is very high, while during the
constant speed.
◆HIGH OVERLOAD CAPACITY :
Traction motors should have high overload capacity. Traction motors are
subjected to heavy loads that cause large rush of current.
◆OPERATE IN PARALLEL :
Traction motors should be capable of operating in parallel. In traction work,
several motors operate at the same time.
23. 6. What are the advantages of series-parallel starting in traction system using ◆ROBUST CONSTRUCTION :
D.C series motor? A traction motor must be robust in construction, so that it is capable to
Answer— withstand continuous vibrations since these motors are subjected to severe
◆Different economical speeds. Two with two motors in the ratio of 1: 2: 3 with four conditions.
motors in the ratio of [Link] ◆WITHSTAND VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION :
and three with six motors in the ratio of 1: 2: 3. In traction work, on account of heavy current in rush at starting, considerable
◆ Owing to low energy loss in the starting rheostats, they are not of cumbersome voltage fluctuation of supply line is a normal feature.
size. ◆WEIGHT OF TRACTION MOTOR :
◆Small energy loss and higher efficiency. The weight of the traction motor should be minimum in order to increase the
◆ Economical speed control. payload capacity of the vehicle.
◆ Higher reliability of operation. ◆SMALL DIMENSION
◆SIMPLE SPEED CONTROL
◆SELF RELIEVING PROPERTY
24. DRUM CONTROLLER : 31. TRACK CIRCUITS :
a rotary contactor mechanism for manual control of motors and electrically A track circuit forms part of the broader signalling system, which comprises many
propelled vehicles. parts to enable trains to move safely around the network.
CONTACT TYPE CONTROLLER : A track circuit itself is an electrical system that detects the absence of a train on a
A contactor is an electrically-controlled switch used for switching an electrical section of track. This information then helps the signalling system know if it’s safe
power circuit. A contactor is typically controlled by a circuit which has a much lower for another train to proceed.
power level than the switched circuit, such as a 24-volt coil electromagnet controlling 32. ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM :
a 230-volt motor switch. ◆ Enables people with disabilities to operate devices at a distance.
◆THYRISTOR CONTROL : ◆Enables people with disabilities to operate devices at a distance
The Thyristor Speed Controller is designed to control the speed of the DC ◆Augments productivity
Motor/Generator in both the open-loop and closed-loop modes of control. The ◆Better positioning
Thyristor Speed Controller module contains a thyristor single-phase bridge rectifier ◆Contributes to consistency
installed in a full-height EMS module. ◆Decreases downtime
25. MAINTAINANCE OF AC SYSTEM : ◆Ease of use
In AC traction system, a high voltage is fed to the overhead line from substations and ◆Easy to configure
is tapped by the locomotive which has a step-down transformer installed in it which ◆Enhances awareness
converts this high voltage to low voltage of the order of 300 to 400 volts. This reduced ◆Freedom of movement
voltage is fed to the AC motor. ◆Helps prevent fatigue
26. REQUIREMENTS OF BRAKING : ◆Improves safety
The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in 33. METRO RAIL ADVANTAGES :
an emergency. But this should also be consistent with safety. ii)The brakes must have
good antifade characteristics i.e, their effectiveness should not decrease with ◆Faster – reduces journey time by 50% to 75%.
constant prolonged application e.g. while descending hills. ◆Very low ground space occupation – 2 meter width only for elevated rail.
27. TYPES OF ELECTRICAL BRAKING : ◆Eco-friendly – causes no air pollution, much less sound pollution.
◆REGENERATIVE BRAKING : ◆High-capacity carriers – very high volumes of peak hour peak direction trips.
An induction motor is subjected to regenerative braking, if the rotor speed exceeds ◆Low energy consumption – 20% per passenger km in comparison to road-based
the synchronous speed of the motor. Under regenerative braking, the machine acts systems.
as an induction generator returning energy to the supply and taking only the reactive ◆Greater traffic capacity – carries as much traffic as 7 lanes of bus traffic or 24
power for excitation. When the rotor speed exceeds the synchronous speed, the slip lanes of car traffic (either way).
becomes negative.
PLUGGING :
Plugging is the braking method in which a reverse torque is generated by applying
reverse voltage or phase sequence to the motor. Plugging is the fastest braking
method since it drives the motor to reverse no matter what the running speed of the
motor is.
DYNAMIC BRAKING :
Dynamic braking is the use of an electric traction motor as a generator when slowing
a vehicle such as an electric or diesel-electric locomotive.
28. SINGLE BATTERY :
A battery with one cell is often referred to as a 'single cell battery'. When there is
more than one cell, they are connected together internally in series, but from the
outside they usually look like a single item
29. SELF GENERATION (SG) :
The voltage of the alternator which varies with the speed of the train is regulated
with the help of RRU and converted to 110 v DC and is used for charging the battery
HEAD ON GENERATION (HOG) :
In electric locomotives, power is taken from the OHE through pantograph to
traction transformer of the locomotive which is provided with a hotel load winding of
945 kVA, at nominal voltage of 750 V single-phase, which varies with the OHE voltage
variations.
END ON GENERATION (EOG) :
the power cars are placed at either end of the rake, the system is termed as End on
Generation (EOG). In HOG scheme, power is fed from the electric locomotive to the
train to cater for the Hotel Load of the train.
MID ON GENERATION (MOG) :
The MOG system was adopted by IR for slow-moving passenger trains which have
the very low generation to non-generation ratio. These trains had one power car in
the middle of the train, which fed power supply to the coaches at either side of power
car.
30. TYPES OF SIGNALS :

◆FIXED SIGNAL :
Fixed-time signals are recommended in all downtown areas, central business
districts, and urban areas in which pedestrians are anticipated or desired and speeds
are intended to be low.
◆HAND SIGNALS :
This signals are used when fixed signals are not working due to certain reasons.
◆DENOTOR SIGNALS :
This signals are used in foggy weathers to indicate the position or locality of a signal
to the driver of approach of locomotive.
◆RED FLASHING HS LAMP :
A flashing red light indicates that a stop is required, and drivers must come to a
complete stop before proceeding through the intersection.