KENYATTA

UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

BLIS 420: FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORKING

Written by:
Rose W. Njoroge
Lecturer

1
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS
LECTURE ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver over some

distance. Data communication is the exchange of digital information between two
devices.
Digital data transfer involves the transmission of bits. A byte is a group of bits
considered as a single unit during processing and usually 8 bits long. Bit rate is the
number of bits that can be transmitted in a second. Data transmission is normally carried
out over various data transmission media.

Computer data transmitted over networks normally includes text, graphics, sound, videos
etc. Data communication over networks has proved to be very effective and cheap.
Moreover computer networks also allow sharing of data and data maintenance to be
carried out remotely.

1.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

1.3 ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Communication hardware.
2. Protocals e.g. www, http, otn.
3. Communication media e.g. network cables, satelites, infra-ted, modems etc.
4. Communication software e.g. os – UNIX Windows NT, LINUX etc.
5. Data and information e.g. Text, animation, video motion, multimedia etc.

COMMUNICATION HARDWARE
e.g. computers, NetWare cables, RJ45s etc.

These involves the hardware computers and the circuits in form of routers, bridges,
etc. that provide for physical connectivity on the networks.

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 Communication hardware can be divided into three classes.

(a) Data terminal equipment

These may comprise of computers, networks, printers, fax, telex machines etc.
This hardware form the sources and destination of data and information.
(b) Data circuit terminating equipment. This make-up the interface devices e.g.
modems, network interface cards, routers, bridge etc.
(c) Data communication channel
These may include electrical, optical or electromagnetic.

2. COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE

This software act as the manager of the network and often include network
operating system (O/S) that have control of sending and receiving data.
Communication software identifies resources in the network and establishes links
between network resources.

3. PROTOCOLS

These are rules and standards that allow the entities to communicate between each
other. Protocols are a set of rules precisely defining the methods used to
communicate. The internet for example, widely uses the http (hypertext transfer
protocol) in its communication

4. COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Data and information, through the network is transmitted via communication

media which may be through data cables, infra-red light, air, and space with the
satellite or coaxial cables.
Communication media in a network greatly determines the speed of the network.
Fibre optics for example are the fastest know cables of communication.

5. DATA/ INFORMATION

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Networks are developed to facilitate transfer of data and information into different
clients sparsely located. Data and information therefore are the main ingredients
for which communication networks are developed.

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1.4 DATA TRANSMISSION METHOD

There are mainly two types or methods of sending data over some media.
(i) Parallel transmission: blocks of data
(ii) Serial transmission: bit by bit

PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

This involves sending of data in blocks over communication channel. A perfect example
where it occurs is within the computer components such as the memory and central
processing unit (CPU) or between CPU and the printer. Data buses on the motherboard
are used for parallel transmission.

PARALLEL

1 1 1

0 1 0

S 0

1
1

0
0

1 R
0 1 0

1 0 1

1 1 1
A T A
1 1 1

ADVANTAGES
1. This method transmits data at a very high speed.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It is limited only to short distances.
2. It is expensive since it requires more hardware resources.
3. Te computer which is electronic device is much faster than the printer which is
mechanical slows down the processing time

NOTE
To counter for different speed between devices, a centronic interface is required (parallel
interface). Centronic interface is a means of handling different speed due to different

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devices in use. A centronic interface is a parallel interface standard needed to prevent
data loss during transmission as a result of speed differences.
This is achieved through a process called handshake.

REVISION QUESTION
Explain the activities involved during the process of “handshake” in data transmission.

SERIAL TRANSMISSION

This method is used for long distances since it is much cheaper and easy to implement. It
involves sending of data bit by bit along a single communication media is sequence. If
data is coming from a parallel source. It means it has to be converted so that it transmits
in a serial form. This is normally done by a shift register. Another shift register converts
serial data back to parallel form.

R
s 11000101 11101011 11000101

A T A

ADVANTAGES
1. it is simple and easy to implement.
2. It is very cheap and supports long distance communication.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It is slower due to the conversion especially from parallel to serial and serial to
parallel.

REVISION QUESTION
Explain how the shift register works in data transmission.

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 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
LECTURE TWO

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Data transmission is the process of conveying data through communication system
normally over distant location. Data communication takes place through some media and
this media can be grouped into two:-

(a) Bounded media

(b) Unbounded media

Bounded media confine the data to specific physical pathway e.g. coaxial cables, fibre
optics.

Unbounded media transmit the data carrying signals through space. It is independent of
cables and these forms of transmission transmit radio signals, T.V, Waves, mobile phone
signals etc.

Unbounded media is normally used incases where it is impossible to use bounded media.

2.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVE

2.3 TYPES OF CABLES

There are some various factors which need to be considered in selection and choice of a
cable. These include:-

(1) The resistance to electromagnetic interference.

(2) Bandwidth – this is the range of frequency that a cable can accommodate.

(3) Attenuation – This is the degree in which signals are lost over some distance.

(4) Cost of the cables

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Silver cables are good conductors but because of cost copper cables are mainly preferred.

Other consideration that should be taken into consideration include:-

(a) Volume of data/information that would be approved in these cables.

(b) The initial cost of installation.

(c) Legal standard requirements of the country of operation.

(d) Possibility and developments or alternative cables.

2.4 BOUNDED TRANSMISSION

The following are types of cables used in bounded transmission.

2.4.1 TWISTED PAIR CABLES

Twisted wire consists of strands of copper wire twisted in pairs and is the oldest
transmission media. Most of the telephone systems especially buildings relying on
twisted wires installed for analog communication.

Twisted wires although designed for analog transmission may also be used to transmit
data.

Twisted wires are relatively low in costs and slow in transmitting data and when high
speed transmission is done over them, they are often faced with problem of transmission
interference often referred to as NOISE.

On the other hand new developments in the telecommunication industry have raised the
capacity of existing twisted wire cables up to 10 megabytes per second which is adequate
for connecting microcomputer and other office devices.

Twisted pair cables reduce cable sensitivity caused by electromagnetic interference. To

reduce this sensitivity and radio emissions a braided shield surrounds the twisted pair
cables.

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Twisted pair cables are designed for short distances and do not work well in long
distances.

ADVANTAGES

1. They are well established.

2. Cheapest type of cable.

3. Best known for analog transmission (voice).

DISADVANTAGES

1. It does not support transmission in very long distances due to its limited capacity in
transmission.

2. They may be difficult to work with since when connected to many people there is a
problem of cross-talking.

2.4.2 COAXIAL CABLES E.G. FOR TV

These types of cables are used for television cable and consist of thickly insulated copper
wire which can transmit a larger volume of data than twisted pair cables. It is often used
in place of twisted wire for important links in telecommunication networks since it is
faster, no interference, free transmission and has speeds of up to 200 mega bytes per
second. However, coaxial cables are thick and hard to wire in many buildings and cannot
support analog telephone conversation.

Coaxial cables are referred as to such because they have two conductors that share a
common access. A typical coaxial cable has the following components:-

(a) Centre conductor

(b) Insulator layer

(c) Outer conductor (sheath) and

(d) A jacket.

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ADVANTAGES OF COAXIAL CABLES
1) They are insensitive to electro-magnetic interference.
2) Due to their thickness they can withstand high environments (e.g.) radiation etc.

DISADVANTAGES
1. They are very bulky and heavy.
2. They are very expensive.
3. They can only withstand electromagnetic interference up to some certain levels
beyond which they get affected by the electron magnetic waves.

NB
Coaxial cables are desirable when you need to transmit sound video and data.
They are also useful when transmission is over long distances and they are less expensive
especially when we consider the distances involved.
They are well known for issues pertaining to security and they greatly support satellite
transmission and therefore heavily used in satellite dishes, T.V transmission.

2.4.3 FIBRE OPTICS

Fibre optic cables consist of thousands of strands of clear glass fibre with the thickness of
human hair which is bound into cables. Fibre optics utilizes light to transmit data over
distances implying that fibre optics transmission is almost the fastest method of bound
transmission. Data are transferred at the rates of 500 kilobits per second. Fibre optics are
lighter, faster and more durable compared to the wire media and supports systems that
require large volumes of data transmission. On the other hand fibre optics are more
difficult to work with, more expensive and more difficult to install. Fibre optics are best
used as backbone of a network and not for connecting isolated devices to a backbone. In
most cases it is used as the high speed trankline while twisted wire and coaxial cable are
used to connect the trank line to individual devices.

ADVANTAGES
1. Because the fibres are small in diameter cable of a given size can contain more
fibres than copper wire pairs.

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2. The fibre optics have higher capacity than the other cables meaning that they have
higher bandwidth capacity.
3. Fibre optic have extremely secure and not prone to cross talking.
4. Fibre optic cables do not radiate radio frequency noise.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It’s very expensive to initially install.

2. Repairs are very delicate and mistakes may cost the organization millions in cost
revenue.
3. It requires special devices to convert light signals to data (diodes).
4. Fibre optics are very sensitive and are greatly affected by electromagnetic
interferences.

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BASE BAND TRANSMISSION

This transmits unmodulated signal. Each cable carries one signal channel and
propagation of a signal is bi-direction stations are connected via I-connectors and there is
no need for a modem.

ADVANTAGES
1. Very simple to implement
2. Easy to install
3. Low cost
4. High data transmission rate.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It is limited to short distances
2. It only handles text and sound
3. Low capacity

BROAD BAND TRANSMISSION

In this transmission, the digital signal is modulated and carried as an analog signal only.
The channel allocation is based on frequency division multiplexing. It also supports bi-
direction transmission.

ADVANTAGES

1. Transmits voice and videos

2. cove long distance
3. Has a high capacity

DISADVANTAGES
1. Costly to install because of the need for modems
2. Lack of well developed standards.

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2.5 UNBOUNDED TRANSMISSION

Electromagnetic waves are another important media of high speed data and do not need
cables to carry out transmission. They use radio waves to carry data especially where it
is difficult or expensive to lay cables.

Microwaves are high frequency signals which can be propagated through the atmosphere.

Two major types of microwave configuration include:-

2.5 1 Microwave communication (line of sight configuration)

This is a land link microwave transmission with dishes located on top of the hill
or on high buildings to give a maximum transmission distance for larger
distances, a series of rely towers can carry the signals much further or satellites
can be used.

2.5.2 Satellite transmission

Satellite are often used for international long distance communication to relay
messages across the globe. They are capable of transmitting data using orbit
satellites to serve as relay stations for transmitting microwave signals over large
distances.

Other forms of unbounded transmission include intra-red technology and cellular (mobile
phone) signals.

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 NETWORK COMPONENTS

LECTURE FOUR

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Network components are the once supporting the network and should these components
fail, then the network is likely to have some problems. Common network components
include:-

(a) PC workstations

(b) File sewers

(c) Repeaters

(d) Bridges

(e) Routers

(f) Hubs

(g) Switches

(h) Connecters

OTHERS

- Multiplexers

- Concentrators

- Modems

- Front – end – processor

4.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

4.3 COMPONENTS

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All these components work towards the substance of the network.

4.3.1 PC Workstations

These workstations act as terminals in the network and enable connectivity between
different terminals through the network. PC workstations act as client to the network and
seek for services from the sewer.

4.3.2 Print Server

This provides for a temporally storage area for print jobs sent to the printer. It queues
jobs on the basis of first come first out.

4.3.3 File servers

These store electronic data in the form of digital image for later retrieval. File servers
act as the major storage devices in a network due to their high capability of storing data
and information. File sewers act as the basis on which clients request for information.

4.3.4 Repeaters

Repeaters have their main purpose of amplifying an income signal to give it a new life
and momentum so that it travels through the network. They are useful since they enable
us overcome limitations of distances in networks.

4.3..5 Bridges

These are intelligent devices that provide for connectivity in two different networks that
are using separate protocols. They greatly support filtering and have ability to provide
for connectivity of physical layer to OSI model.

4.3.6 Routers

These works similar to bridges in that they filter out unnecessary network traffic and
remove it from network segments. They generally work at the protocol level and they are
intelligent since they send the data the most efficient route available.

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4.3.7 Hubs

These concentrates more than one data entry terminal and connects these terminals as one
cable that links to the server. They normally come with data points to support either 6,
12, 24 clients.

4.8 OTHER NETWORK DEVICES INCLUDE

(A) NETWORK ADAPTER’S CARD OR NETWORK INTERFACE CARD.

This is a card (circuit board) that provides fro connectivity and interfaces between local
workstation and the network servers. It converts PCs to become network nodes such that
transmission from the node can be sent to any network device.

An NIC is simply an electrical circuit board used by computers, printers, and other
equipment so that they are able to connect and transfer data in a network.

Software drivers in the NIC provides for interface in the physical and data link layer.
NICs have three major roles in the networks.

(a) To prepare data from the computers ready for network cable transmission.

This involves changing the data into a form that can be understood by the
computer and can be transmitted along the path e.g. 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit,
128-bit, 256-bit expandable.

(b) To send data into another computer by identifying the address of recipient
computers.

(c) Controlling the flow of data between the computer e.g. setting the maximum size
of data to be sent.

- Setting time intervals between sending data.

- Deciding the amount of data to be sent before transmission.

(B) RAID SERVERS

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Stores data redundantly (in so many disks)

- Provides mirror images.

- It provides multiple assess methods increasing response time since most efficient
route is used.

(C) CONCENTRATORS

These are telecommunication computers that collect and temporarily store messages from
terminals until enough messages are ready to be sent economically. The concentrator
then transmits the messages to the host computers in a burst.

(D) FRONT – END – PROCESSOR

In most computers the CPU has to communicate with several devices or terminals at the
same time. Routine communication task may occupy a large portion of the CPU
processing time at the expense of performance. For this reason many computers have a
small secondary computer dedicated solely for communication i.e. Front – end processor.

FUNCTIONS OF FRONT – END PROCESSOR

1. Coding and decoding data

2. Error detection

3. Recovery

4. interpretating and controlling the processes that drive information processes.

5. In addition FEP identify other network resources for communication purposes.

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 NETWORK PROTOCOLS

LECTURE FIVE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

What is a protocol?

What is network protocol?

5.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

5.3 PROTOCOLS

5.3.1 TCP/IP (Transport control protocol/internet protocol)

These are two protocols combined that form a reliable connection and efficient data
transfer method. TCP is the connection oriented protocol that carries out the actual data
transfer and uses connectionless routing provided for by internet protocol (IP)

TCP/IP was implemented to allow computers with different O/S to communicate with
one another. It has enables 1000s of public and commercial networks to connect to the
internet for access by million of users. Just like the OST, TCP/IP involves layers
protocols. It is mainly concerned with middle layers of the OSI model. The set standards
for TCP/IP applications include:-

(1) Telnet – the PC acts as a terminal to a remote universal machine where users can
access resources in the same manner as a locally connected user.

(2) FTP – File transfer protocol

This allows copying of files from one computer to another over the internet.

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(C) E-mail which allows transfers of messages between users. A main server stores
these messages when the user is offline.

5.3.2 X25 Protocol

This is a packet – switching protocol that ensures reliable data communication even over
networks with low qualify transmission equipments. It is used for public data networks
and established links between different networks and hosts. Data packets in X25 can be
in 3 models

(i) Switched virtual circuits

(ii) Permanent virtual circuits

(iii) Datagrams

X25 standards define communication between two types of entities.

(a) Data terminal equipment (DTE) e.g. computer, printers

(b) Data communication equipment (DCE) e.g. modems, routers, bridges etc.

X25 support multiple channels thus several DTE can transmit over the same link. A
multiple is required for these protocols.

5.3.3 IPX (Internet packet exchange)

This was adapted by novel and users NetWare as an operating system. Executable files
like Msword are stored in the file server. Netware makes mini computers and PCS
behave like file serves. Netware servers also store data files for workstations.

IPX is the communication protocol used to transfer information between the NetWare
core protocol and the network shell. IPX controls how each frame of data is routed on a
novel network.

PSN (Public Switched Networks)

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In PSN a message is fragmented into packets of data of fixed length and transmitted
together with its control data. A packet exchange is used as a switching system and the
packets are directed to the next computer using the appropriate route to the packet
destination.

In PSN the original message is fragmented into packets where each packet can arrive at
the destination at it is own time. Packets of the same message may travel via different
routes.

e.g. KENSTREAM – telecom

VSAT (very small application technology to connect to internet.

5.3.4 CSN (Circuit Switching Networks)

Data can be switched by circuiting (hard wiring) in a similar way to the telephone. Here
the time is allocated during the course which transmitting a specific data should be
carried out along a particular route. After that time, no other circuit can be transmitted.
This method of switching is uneconomical since it results to underutilization of the path.

5.3.5 ISDN (Integrated service Digital Networking)

ISDN are types of networks that are mainly developed to support analog/telephone
systems and also support digital systems. (SDN have the capability of hosting and
supporting a large number of telephone networked system across large areas. For this
reason, ISDN is used to support telephone operations within a country and between
countries. ISDN forms a universal standard of telephone networks.

5.4 NETWORK STANDARDS

Network standards provide a common ground for data transmission and designing
operating system use on a new network.

Other functions of network standards include:-

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1. They define the maximum time a packet has to travel through one node to another
before it reaches its destination.

2. They define what to do in case of partial transmission on a packet.

3. It establishes how to prevent confusion when too many packets are sent at once.

5.5 STANDARD BODIES

1. ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

This determines the screen display guidelines for fibre – optic cable transmission.
It is mainly used in the U.S.A.

2. ISO (International Standards Organization)

This is a global body that determines standards in manufacturing and using

networks in different application areas. It has set standards like ISO 9001 among
others and it has also defined the OSI (Open System Interconnection).

3. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering).

It has set standards for LANs and has also set standards for integrated voice and
data networks.

4. CCIII (Consultative Committee On International Telegraph and Telephony).

This sets stands for modems, E-mails, Digital data systems, etc.

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 OSI REFERENCE MODEL

LECTURE SIX

6.1 INTRODUCTION

OSI allows for interactivity between different networks. This is due to different
standards available it provides a platform in which these networks can interact.

It was developed in 1974 by ISO to allow interconnectivity between networks and

different protocols. It has 7 layers.

6.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

6.3 LAYERS IN THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Application
Presentation Application
Session
Transport
Network
Data link Data transportation

Physical layer

In the development of early data communication network and formulation of standards,

little consideration was given to the existing standards, protocols and the systems
architecture. This was perhaps due to the vendors who wanted to exploit a competitive
edge.

Therefore OSI was developed by ISO in 1974 so as to standardize network architecture in

implying that routers, modems, bridges etc from several vendors are compatible to any
network.

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It comprises of 7 layers as shown above i.e.

1. Application

2. Presentation

3. Session

4. Transport

5. Network

6. Data link

7. Physical layer

The OSI model can be further sub-divided into two categories.

The upper layer and the lower layer.

The upper layer of the OSI model

(1) Deal with application issues and generally implemented only in software.

The highest layer, the application layer is closest to the end user. Both users and
application layers interact with the software applications that contain a
communication component.

(2) The lower layer of the OSI model handles data transport issues.

The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software.
The lowest layer i.e. the physical layer is the closet to the physical network medium e.g.
cables and is responsible for actually replacing the information on the medium.

6.3.1 Physical layer

This is the lowest layer of the OSI model and it provides for physical connectivity
between data and transmission. It defines the electrical, mechanical and procedural and
functional specification for activity and de-activity the physical link between
communicating network systems. Physical layer specification define characteristics such

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as voltage levels, timing of voltage charges, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances and physical connectors. It specify the electronic, logical and procedural
specification required in transmitting data across the physical media. It can be
categorized as either.

LAN (Local Area Network) specification It deals with transmission of raw bits. The
protocol used by the physical layer should be independent of the transmission media so
that the terminals can be attached to various media e.g. optical fibre.

Examples of physical layer protocols

- RJ 45

- RJ 11

- RJ 232 C

- BNC (T)

6.3..2 DATA – LINK LAYER

This is layer 2 and it deals with the transmission of data units or frames between adjacent
nodes in a network. It therefore deals with

(a) Providing a reliable transfer of each network packeted across the physical link i.e.
Construction of each packet.

(b) It maintains a reliable connection between adjacent node particularly for an error
prove physical channel.

(c) It provides for a mechanism for addressing multiple nodes or workstations.

(d) Provides for effort free node to node connectivity example, include media access
control layer referred to as (MAC) found in asynchronous transmission method.
Asynchronous (character by character, serial).

Data link layer provide reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Different
data-link layers specification define different networks and different protocol

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characteristics including physical addressing, network topology, error notification,
sequencing of frames and flow control.

Physical addressing as opposed to network addressing define how devices are addressed
at the data link layer.

The network topology consists of data-link layer specification that often defines how
devices are to be physically connected e.g. ring, Bus, etc topology.

Error free notification alerts the upper layer protocol that a transmission can occur and
sequence of data frames re-ordered frames that are transmitted outside a sequence.

Flow control moderates transmission of data so that the receiving device is not
overwhelmed by more traffic than it can handle at any one particular time.

6.3.3 NETWORK LAYER

This controls the passage of packets along a network. It is the third layer and allows
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.

This layer is responsible for

1. Routing of data packets along a network.

2. Switching and controlling flow of information between hosts.

3. Addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical
addressing.

4. To determine the route from the source to the destination host or computer.

5. To enable the network adapter on the router to break data into smaller units called
packets and at the end of network layer these packets are re-assembled into
original message.

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6. It provides control for network congestion and recognizes message priority and
sends messages in the correct order.

7. It handles inter-networking in both connected and unconnected networks i.e.

bounded and unbounded.

Examples of network protocols include internet protocol (IP), X25, virtual circuit
protocols, Novell and IPX (Internet Packet Exchange).

Since this layer defines the logical network layout routers can be used in this layer to
determine how to forward packets. For this reason much of the design and configuration
for internet works happens at layer 3.

6.3.4 TRANSPORT LAYER

At the transport layer, the model is concerned with integrity of data (error free). It
ensures an error free hose to host connection since the data link layer has already checked
for errors at bits level. Transport layer checks for errors at the frame. It accepts data
from the session layer and segments the data for transport across the network.

Generally the transport layer is responsible for making sure that the data is delivered free
of errors and in the proper sequence. For this reason, at the transport layer flow control is
carried out. Flow control manages data transmission between two devices so that the
transmitting device doesn’t send more data than the receiving device can process.

Multiplexing is used here to enable data from several applications to be transmitted onto
a single physical link virtual circuits are established, maintained and terminated by the
transport layer.

Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors,
while recovering involves acting such that the requesting data can be re-transmitted to
resolve any errors that occur. The transport protocols used in the internet are TCP and
UOP.

6.3.5 SESSION LAYER

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This is the 5th layer and it establishes, manages and terminates communication sessions.
Communication sessions consists of service request and service responses that occur
between application located in different networks. The session layer is also responsible
for carrying out any synchronization and translation between network devices.

6.3.6 PRESENTATION LAYER

This provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied at the
application layer. It translates the data format of the sender to the data format of the
receiver. It also establishes the syntax in which data is exchanged between two hosts. It
provides user services such as data compression, file encryption etc. the presentation
layer ensures that information sent from the application layer of one system would be
readable by application layer of another system. Some examples of presentation layer
coding and conversion schemes include data representation format, common data
compression scheme, data encryption.

Representation format enable the interchange of application between different types of

computer systems.

Conversion scheme are used to exchange information with systems by using different
texts and data representation such as ASCII and EBCDIC.

6.3.7 APPLICATION LAYER

This is the 7th layer and it serves the user directly by providing information services to
support applications and to manage resources. Some of the applications expected at this
layer include: - file management

- message handling e.g. E-mail

- file transfer

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 - Network management

This layer is the closest to the end user which implies that both the OSI application layer
and the user interact directly with the software application. The application layer
interacts with the software applications that implement a communicating component.
Such application programs fall outside the OSI model.

When determining communication partners the application layer identifies availability of

communication partners and the application with data to transmit. In determining
resource availability, the application layer decides whether sufficient network resources
for the requested communication exists.

In synchronizing communication all communication between applications requires co-

operation that in managed by the application layer e.g. of application layer
implementation include FTP for File Transfer Protocol Telnet and SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer)

6.4 PRINCIPLES OF THE OSI MODEL

1. The model was developed to ensure smooth information flow between layers and
these information flow should be kept as minimum or as low as possible.

2. Each layer was created when a different function was needed thus each layer has a
unique function different form the other (abstraction).

3. OSI Model has led to development and standardization of networks.

4. Each layer has been developed to perform a well defined function within the
framework of communication.

The OSI Model has provided numerous benefits to networks since it has allowed
for networks to communicate between each other with no regard to restrictions in
terms of protocols or manufacturers preference of network hardware.

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5. It has enabled for easier upgrades of networks since it allows administrators OSI
model rather than the whole software.

6. OSI has provided for a cost effective network platform by allowing network
equipments and equivalent products from different vendors to communicate
freely.

7. OSI model has enabled more efficient data transmission across networks and
achieves and tries to display data in the same format it was sent.

8. It has greatly improved issues pertaining to security and management of networks.

Use of controls

- Passwords

- Fire waves

- Rules and privileges

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NETWORKING

Categories of Networks

An alternative way of classifying networks is by its scale. They are divided into Local
Area (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).

4.7.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or
campus. These are used to share resources (may be hardware or software resources) and
to exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
categories: their size, transmission technology and topology. The most common LAN
topologies are bus, ring and star.

4.7.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

MAN is designed to extend over the entire city. It may be a single network as a cable TV
network or it may be means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so
that the resources may be shared. For example, a company can use a MAN to connect the
LANs in all its offices in a city. MAN is wholly owned and operated by a private
company or may be a service provided by a public company.

4.7.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and information over
large geographical areas that may comprise a country, continent or even the whole world.
In contrast to LANs, WANs may utilize public, leased or private communication devices,
usually in combinations, and can therefore span an unlimited number of miles. A WAN
that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often referred to as enterprise
network.

Advantages of Computer Networks.

The following are some of the advantages of computer networks.

 File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file
sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can
easily see the files present on the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do
so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by
using a storage device. In addition to that, many people can access or update the
information stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate.
 Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer
network. For example, if there are four people in a family, each having their own
30
 computer, they will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and four
printers, if they want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on
the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing. In
this way, all the four computers can be interconnected; using a network, and just one
modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all four members. The
facility of shared folders can also be availed by family members.
 Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network
which can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great
extent. A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many
computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case.
One can also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage
capacity.
 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many types of software available in the market
which are costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue
as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by
the different workstations.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks.

The Following are some of the major disadvantages of computer networks.

 Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the

security issues involved. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes
necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a
computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of
big organizations, various network security software are used to prevent the theft
of any confidential and classified data.
 Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets
affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting
affected too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the
interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the computers
have important database which can get corrupted by the virus.
 Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high
depending on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like
routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a
computer network. He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for
each of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt.
 Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a
computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big
networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it
expensive.

31
We should always be well acquainted with the advantages and disadvantages of computer
networks, before setting one up our personal or office use. Knowledge of the pros and
cons of computer networks can help us in designing a useful system for oneself.

A network is a communication system that enables computer users to share resources e.g.
memory, files, electronic documents, data programs, modems, printers etc.

Networking connect users often referred to as ‘clients’ between sparce geographical

locations and identifies each client independently as a node.

In peer to peer communication each computer is able to ‘talk’ directly with any other
computer on the network. Networks heavily rely on services to enhance sharing of
resources.

There are several types of servers.

(a) File server

This is a computer with an operating system that enables multiple users to access data
and information and share the software applications and data files in a networks.

(b) Print servers

Networks have made it possible for printer sharing and printout distribution. Printer
sharing is accomplished by installing print servers at key locations on the network where
users can access. A print server is normally a computer (or a server) where the network
printer is attached which in turn allows various users in the network to print on one
shared printer.

(c) Communication servers

These provide connection to the PC’s modems, printers and other terminals in the
network.

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A single communication server usually has multiple serial nodes available for use and
each port is connected to the network e.g. the mail server.

Network software (e.g. windows NT, LINUX, UNIX

An application is loaded on networks from a file server onto the client operations of these
applications will be done from the client to the server via the networks. Data can be
stored in two or more clients within a network with the network O/S providing the
security to determine access to each work station. Network operating systems have the
following functions:-

1. Routing messages in a network.

2. Controlling the flow of traffic in a network

3. Providing security measures for network resources, hardware and software files.

4. Establish communication links between devices.

5. To enable trouble shooting incase of problems.

NOTE

Various network operating system exist today but each operating system has its own
capabilities and features.

Revision question

Discuss the features and capabilities of the following operating systems.

(i) Ms Dos

(ii) Windows NT

(iii) UNIX

(iv) LINUX

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE CHOICE OF NETWORK OPERATING
SYSTEM INCLUDE:-

1. Ability to support multiple protocols simultaneously.

2. Ability to allow data manipulation through database management systems or

Relational Data base Management System. This means that the software should
be able to support different users to access different files.

3. Support of the range network devices and other hardware.

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 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

LECTURE SEVEN

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Topology stems from pure mathematics which means the study of shapes in networks.
Topology is commonly used to discuss the properties of various types of network. It
refers to the design layout of the network. Networks have shapes and the shapes of a
network have much to do with the way it functions. When selecting a topology a
topology one needs to consider the following:-

(a) The impact of cable breakage on the network.

(b) Impact of removing and adding nodes.

(c) The flow of messages and how the nodes see the messages.

(d) The ability to use nodes as replicators.

(e) Maximum physical size of the network.

(f) Type of cable used.

7.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

7.3 TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES

Topologies are either physical or logical. Physical topologies include

(i) Star topology

(ii) Bus topology

(iii) Ring topology

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Physical topologies show the physical appearance/layout of the cabling skill used on a
network. To implement the physical topology, the logical topology is used. Logical
topology concerns itself with the flow of data logically through the physical network
layout. The logical topology is closely related to the mechanism used to manage the way
stations access the network.

7.3.1 STAR TOPOLOGY

File server/Hub

workstation

In this topology each device connects to a central point via a point to point link. It has
roots in the mainframe computer where one machine form a host to which all other nodes
are connected to. The machines on the peripherals (nodes) are connected to the host
(server) and not to each other.

FEATURES

(1) Control over the nodes is exercised by the server.

(2) Failure of the host computer affects the entire network.

(3) Sharing of resources is possible.

36
(4) All messages are directed to the central node.

(5) Duplication of resources is not possible.

ADVANTAGES

(1) Network control is centralized at one point. Intelligence of the network is limited.

(2) Central connection.

(3) Security pf the network easily maintained by maintaining the host.

DISADVANTAGES

(1) Congestion at the central host causes low transmission rates.

(2) Failure of the central station renders the network useless.

(3) Workstations can only communicate with each other, through the host.

(4) The central station has limitations to the number of connections it can hold.

7.3..2 RING TOPOLOGY

This is a physical closed loop consisting of point to point links. Each node acts as a
repeater and receives transmission from the previous node and sends it to the next. Flow
of message or data is one direction only.

Node

FEATURES
(1) None of the computers is viewed as a host.

(2) Failure of one computer does not affect other computer in the network.

(3) Transmission is in one direction.

37
(4) Duplication of resources is possible.

(5) There is sharing of transmission lines.

Examples

IBM token ring

FDDI (Fibre distributed data interface)

Token Ring

ADVANTAGES

(1) All nodes share a common communication media

(2) Loss of one node does not affect functionality of network.

(3) Cost of the single stored communication medium is low.

DISADVANTAGES

(1) Response speed of the network decreases wit the increase in the size of the
network.

(2) Adding a node to the network interferes with the network.

7.3..3 FDDI

This is a standard developed in the mid eighties to provide high speed data
communication. It enables a significant data throughput on busy networks. The data
assessment is by token passing which is sometimes timed. FDDI supports real time
applications, voice and video.

38
7.3.4 BUS TOPOLOGY

Here all devices are attached to the same transmission medium. The medium has a
physical beginning and end. All buses are implemented using electrical cables usually
coaxial and the ends of the cable must be terminated with terminating resistor knows as a
terminator. In this topology all data signals are broadcasted through the backbone. It is
important to have an addressing mechanism so that each node understands which it
should ignore. The cable can be connected from one workstation to another using a T-
connector.

Bus

Nodes
FEATURES

(1) Single communication channel.

(2) Sharing of resources (through communication channel)

(3) Nodes can be added or removed easily.

(4) Each device can communicate with all others.

ADVANTAGES

(1) It is cost effective since it uses a single medium.

(2) The loss of one workstation does not affect the functionality of the network.

(3) The network supports high speed data transmission.

39
DISADVANTAGES

(1) Has limited geographical area

(2) Faults in the cables are hard to determine.

(3) Failure of the backbone communication medium renders the whole network
useless.

7.4 MAC (MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL)

This is implemented at the data link layer of OSI model. It provides for channel access
methods where several nodes are sharing the same channel. Media access control is
achieved through the following:-

(1) Contention

(2) Token passing

(3) Slotted ring

7.3 .1 CONTENTION

Networks carrier multiple access with collision detector (CD) and carrier sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance (CA) are used.

CSMA/CD is mainly exemplified by ETHERNET (bus topology). It is an IEEE standard

where address fields can either be 16 or 18 bits.

Multiple Access (MA) means that several nodes are contended to transmit the shared bus
channel. Carrier sense (CS) means that every node wishing to transmit must first ‘listen’
to the bus before sending. Collision detector (CD) means that nodes ‘listen’ to the bus
when sending to detect frame collision.

ADVANTAGES

(1) It is a very simple access method.

40
(2) The actual user data throughput is rather high at low traffic levels.

DISADVANTAGES

(1) Channel access is probabilistic rather than deterministic thus equipment that can not
tolerate delay cannot use this method.

(2) Number of nodes that can be connected is limited since an increase in the number of
nodes increases number of collisions in the bandwidth.

FUNCTIONS OF MAC

(1) Provides for multiple access of nodes over a shared channel.

(2) Establish presence of transmitting media and that of the destination.

(3) Resides in the data link layer where it detects errors before transmission.

7.4.2 TOKEN RING/PASSING

Logically a token ring network is configured as a continuous ring with no starting or

ending points. Strings of beads called token are continuously transmitted on the ring to
determine whether a node can transmit when a node wishes to transmit. When a node
wishes to transmit it must capture the token, build a data packet with the starting
delimiter and the access control field at he beginning of the packet.

ADVANTAGES

(a) it offers the highest data throughput and a high traffic conditions.

(b) It is deterministic and thus each station is guaranteed an opportunity each time the
token travels round the ring.

(c) Some token passing system enables you to set priorities for devices that need control
access to the token.

41
DISADVANTAGES

(1) Token passing involves complicated protocols for managing the network and
recovering from errors.

(2) The throughput is low when nodes are few.

(3) All devices require complicated software that need to be modified whenever
station is added or removed.

7.4.3 Slotted ring

It is an IEEE standard 802.2 sharing a ring topology initiated for a standard of fixed
number of slots of fixed sizes with each slot being able to hold data mini-packet. Each
data mini packet each slot of packet contains a bit field that indicates whether a slot is full
or empty.

Transmission occurs by detecting an empty slot, inserting a mini-packet inserting a mini

packet and making the slot as full.

42
 NETWORK SECURITY

LECTURE EIGHT

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Providing and maintaining security is critical to the management of networks and the
information system infrastructure in general. The user dependence on the network is so
high so much so that networks have become priorities in so many organizations. These
therefore means that costly losses are incurred incase of data loss.

Security of networks will minimize the down time and data loss as a result of human
interferences and natural hazards.

8.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

A network manager should address the following security issues.

(1) Password and password maintenance.

(2) Encryption

(3) Roles and privileges

(4) Back-ups and recovery.

(5) Fault tolerance and system redundancy.

(6) Firewalls and filters

- Network manager decides file type and size to be sent or received on the
network.

(7) Virus monitoring

43
(8) Disaster recovery

(9) Performance tuning.

8.3.1 PASSWORDS

A password is a special word, symbol or code that is required to access a computer

system. One major problem with password is that they are in high risk of being guessed.
To avoid this problem a password should never use a name, letters, numbers and symbols
for security purposes.

Since many systems require many passwords e.g. screen, power on passwords etc. a
condition often referred to as password “overload”.

Biometric systems attempt to arrest this situation by using natural features. These
features may use finger prints, eye retina etc to access the system.

Different accounts should have different passwords leading to different work group
situations. Ideal situation in work group account may include:-

(a) Work group administrator account

(b) user account

(c) supervisor account etc

Work group administrator account may have authority to create new accounts for
workgroup and perform other administration functions.

User accounts are mainly concerned with profile given to individual user normally with
the same privilege and controls.

8.3.2 ENCRYPTION

This is a digital code or password that must be known to both the sending and receiving
terminal. Cryptography ensures that any data wrongly accesses (illegally) cannot be read.

44
Data is vulnerable when being transmitted across networks and therefore encryption is
almost a necessity.

Encryption involves scrubbing of the data so that it makes no sense at all and would only
be sensible after it has been decoded. Encryption normally uses special combination of
code to scrabble the data. The authorized receiver normally has the decoding key.

8.3.3 POWER

Reliable power is necessary for network equipment. Power surges and spikes are power
fluctuations that may damage the network hardware. Power quotation therefore adapts
equipment like power fitters and UPS (un-interrupted power supply) to protect networks.
Power filters protects the system from surges (voltage faults). Such protections block
power spikes but does not prevent low power situations.

The UPS is a box of rechargeable batteries that supply power during power outrage.

There are some equipments that combine the power filters and the Ups in one box. UPS
are mainly of two types:-

(a) Online Ups where the Ups gets power from the switch ad stores the power in itself
and then continues supplying power to the units.

(b) Off-line: here the Ups provide the power straight to the computers while backing up
some power in itself so when the power goes off the Ups supplies power to the
computer.

8.3.4 SYSTEMS BACKUP

Back-ups have to be carried out with respect to file back-ups, system back-ups and back-
up facilities should be instituted in bridges, routers, switches etc. This is to facilitate
consistency and continuity in case of device failure.

8.3.5 DISASTER RECOVERY

45
This is mainly a physical method of network security and it involves physically
recovering the hardware equipment when it is subjected to risks. Disaster recovery will
thus entail recovering as much as possible after a disaster strikes. It will therefore
consider using fire proof saves, proper drainage in places where computers reside and fire
fighting equipment.

8.3.6 VIRUS

This is perhaps the most dangerous vulnerability to information systems. Virus are
software programs that affect the general performance of the network and come virus
software are known to destroy the very executed files. To be safe, anti-virus software’s
are employed in an attempt to arrest these problems.

Viruses have the ability of multiplying themselves and attaching themselves to different
files. This causes the network to be very and in some cases virus can totally ground the
network to a halt.

8.3.7 PERFORMANCE TUNING

Activities in the database cause increment in the volume of data stored. For this reason,
databases must be managed and monitored to ensure that the response time is maintained
at a high rate. The response time I the time taken to obtain after a request has been made.

8.3.8 ROLES AND PRIVILEGES

Although the network administrator has given authorized access to different users
through passwords, these users have different roles, responsibilities and job description.
This means that what a manager can carry out in the system is different from what a clerk
is capable of doing. This is achieved by assigning different roles and privileges to
different password holders.

8.3.9 FAULT TOLERANCE

Fault tolerance involves designing systems that can withstand hardware and software
failures. Some of these techniques in fault tolerance include disk mirroring through

46
(RAID) Redundancy Array of Independent Inexpensive Disks. This occurs through a
sewer in layering method such that one data record is stored in different redundant disks.

47
48
 NETWORK MANAGEMENT

LECTURE NINE

9.1 INRODUCTION

Most network management architecture use basic structures and set of relationships
workstations or nodes in the network and other nodes run software that enable then send
alerts when they recognize problems. Upon receiving these alerts management entities
are programmed to react by executing one or several actions including:-

(a) Operator notification

(b) Event logging

(c) System shutdown

(d) Automatic attempts to repair systems

9.2. LECTURE OBJECTIVES

9.3 NETWORK MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

Management entities can also poll end stations to check the values of certain variables.
ISO has provided for standards to carry out network management.

The model presented by ISO include

(a) Performance management

(ii) Configuration management

(iii) Fault management

49
(iv) Security management

(v) Accounting management

9.3.1 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

The goal is to measure and make available various aspects of network performance so
that internet working can be maintained at an acceptance level.

Performance management normally addresses

- Network throughput

- User response time

- Line utilization

- Configuration management

The goal is to monitor network and system configuration information so that the effects
on network operation on various versions of hardware and software elements can be
tracked and managed.

9.3.2 ACCOUNTING MANAGEMENT

The goal is to measure network utilization parameters so that individuals or group of user
on the network can be regulated appropriately.

9.3.3 FAULT MANAGEMENT

The goal is to detect, log, notify users and automatically fix network problems to keep the
network running effectively. Due to the effect caused in fault of devices or network, fault
management is perhaps the most widely implemented of the ISO network management
elements.

9.4 NETWORK MANAGER

50
FUNCTIONS/DUTIES

- Network maintenance

- Allocate duties and responsibilities.

- Evaluation of the performance of the people and the network.

- Stability of the network

- Stability of the work.

9.3.4 NETWORK MAINTENANCE

This involves the following

 Ensure power supply stability.

 Making back-ups

- Incremental back-ups – (day after day hourly)

- Full back-up (fixed duration of time)

- To manage or enhance fault tolerance.

- To run virus audits on clients.

- Do scans for illegal software installed on clients.

51
9.3.5 BAND WIDTH MANAGEMENT

Bandwidth management is a technique that allows the use of bandwidth to be protected or

limited for a given class of applications. Using the technology the institution can make
sure that adequate bandwidth I always available for mission critical applications while
allowing non-mission critical application to complete for the remainder of this
bandwidth.

BANDWIDTH

Bandwidth is the amount of information that can flow through a network. Consider the
analogy of how traffic flows along in a highway. The cars on the highway represent the
data you are trying to move between end points and the lanes represent the bandwidth
available to move the data. The more lanes (bandwidth) the highway has, the larger the
number of cars (data) can drive between the end points over a given period of time.

Networks function in a similar manner. When high volume applications consume large
amounts of bandwidth or viruses flood the network, bandwidth becomes congested.
When this occurs, used report slow response times or even loss of service. This event is
comparable to what happens to many urban highways during rush hour. The end result is
that all cars move slower down the highway because there are so many of them. It then
takes much longer for the driver to reach his or her destination.

BANDWIDTH MANAGEMENT

Although an institution may increase internet capacity by purchasing additional

bandwidth from one or more ISPS (Internet Services Provider), it is very expensive to do
so and cannot be done affordably at the same rate unmanaged applications would
consume it. As such, it is necessary to make sure those resources are available to the
institutional community.

To help address the problem of bandwidth utilization, bandwidth management was

developed as a technique designed to manage the resource consumption or priority of
various applications consuming bandwidth on the network. The most common technique
52
used to implement bandwidth management is based upon a technology called QoS
(quantity of Service). QoS identifies application traffic passing through a network and
then applying policies designed to protect, prioritize, or restrict the bandwidth consumed
by them. In this manner, mission critical applications can be managed to prevent over –
consumption. Without bandwidth management, mission critical applications could
starved of bandwidth disrupting, services that impact the operational activities of the
organization.

Network traffic is classified to provide adequate bandwidth to key applications and

manage volume that would be consumed by others. Typically, those application that are
more critical to the organization are given greater resources on a network and those
applications that are less critical are given fewer. This approach guarantees that non-
mission critical applications do not over-consume bandwidth to the point that none
remains for mission critical applications.

Examples of applications used to manage bandwidth (e.g.) packetshaper.

Packetshaper appliances is normally used to identify and prioritize traffic passing

between an institution network and the internet. This product uses application based
signatures to provide a fair and equitable amount of bandwidth for all users. Using
signatures, restrictions are set on specific types of data transfers. Any traffic going
between computers connected to the campus network is not restricted. Restrictions apply
only when this traffic is exchanged between a computer connected to the campus network
and the internet.

INFORMATION PORTALS

Portals provide personalized access to information, application, processes and people.

Get information from local or remote data sources, e.g.) from databases, or remote web
sites.

Aggregate information into composite pates to provide information to users in a compact

and easily consumable form.

53
Portals provide access to information, applications, processes and people. Typically,
portals get information from local or remote data sources, e.g. from databases transaction
systems, syndicated content providers, or remote websites they render and aggregate this
information into composite pages to provide information to users in a compact and easily
consumable form.

In addition to pure information, many portals also include applications like-email,

calendar, organizers, banking, bill presentiment, host integration etc.

54