GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS (CVE03) ●​ Synclines are downward-arching folds that show the youngest​

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY rock layers at the center when eroded.

●​ Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of In both fold types, the bedding ages become progressively older as​
rock units and their deformation histories. you move away from the centerline
●​ It aims to uncover the strain and stress that shaped present rock FAULTS
geometries. ●​ Faults are fractures in the Earth's crust along which rock​
●​ This understanding helps geologists link deformation to geologic events blocks have moved.
like mountain building and rifting. ●​ They form due to stress or strain causing movement​
●​ It contributes to understanding regional patterns caused by plate tectonics relative to each side of the fault.
Attitude of beds ●​ Faults are classified by the direction and nature of​
●​ The attitude of beds refers to the orientation or position of rock layers displacement
relative to the Earth's surface. Types of faults
●​ It describes how beds are inclined (dip) and in which direction they extend ●​ Normal faults occur when the hanging wall moves downward relative to
(strike). the footwall due to extensional forces.
●​ Attitude is commonly described using two main measurements: ●​ Reverse faults occur when the hanging wall moves upward due to
STRIKE compressional forces, often in mountain-building zones.
●​ Direction of a horizontal line on a tilted bed ●​ Strike-slip faults involve horizontal movement along the fault plane
●​ Measured clockwise from north caused by shearing forces, such as the San Andreas Fault
DIP Joints
●​ Angle of bed’s inclination from the horizontal ●​ A joint is a natural fracture in rock with no measurable movement parallel
●​ Measured perpendicular to strike to the fracture surface.
●​ Ranges from 0° (flat) to 90° (vertical) ●​ A joint set is a group of parallel and evenly spaced joints sharing similar
Use of Attitude data orientation and spacing
o​ Strike and dip measurements define the three-dimensional orientation of ●​ A joint system includes two or more interlocking joint sets identified
beds. through mapping and structural analysis
o​ This information is key to understanding folding, faulting, and bed Classification of Joints
geometry. Genetic Classification
o​ Geologists use attitude data to make geologic maps with symbols for ●​ Tensional Joint: A shrinkage joint caused by tension​
strike and dip. in the rock.
o​ Attitude analysis reveals tectonic processes and the geologic evolution of a ●​ Shear Joint: A joint developed due to the sliding​
region. history of geological strata.
Outcrops ●​ Tectonic Joint: Joints formed from tectonic activity​
o​ An outcrop is where bedrock or rock formations are exposed at the Earth's and categorized by the attitude of the beds.
surface. Geometric Classification
o​ It allows geologists to observe rock composition, structure, and ●​ Strike Joint: Joints that strike in the same direction​
deformation directly. as the rock formation.
o​ Outcrops are found in places like cliffs, riversides, mountains, and road ●​ Dip Joint: Joints where the strike is parallel to the dip​
cuts. of the rock formation.
o​ They are essential for accurate geologic mapping and studying Earth’s ●​ Oblique/Diagonal Joint: Joints where the strike​
history in site makes an inclined angle with the strike of the rock​
Types of Geological Maps formation.
1.​ A geological map is a specialized map that shows the geological features Importance of Geological Structures in Civil Engineering
and formations of a specific area. Geotechnical site investigation
2.​ It provides detailed information about rock types, geological structures, Folds, faults, and joints affect subsurface rock and soil properties,
and other features on the surface or subsurface. influencing stability, strength, and deformation, crucial for foundation
3.​ These maps are made by geologists and geographers who study Earth's design and slope stability analysis.
composition, history, and processes. Structural integrity
4.​ Data is gathered using field observations, sampling, remote sensing, and These geological features impact the stability and durability of buildings,
geophysical surveys. bridges, tunnels, and infrastructure, making their consideration essential in
There are several types of geological maps, each designed to provide specific design and construction.
information about the geology of a particular area. Some of the most common types of Groundwater and Contaminant flow
geological maps include: Faults and joints act as pathways for groundwater and contaminants,
​ Bedrock maps affecting water supply, contamination risks, and resource management.
▪​ Bedrock maps show the location and distribution of different rock Rock and Mineral Resources
formations at or near Earth’s surface. Folds, faults, and joints control mineral accumulation and accessibility,
▪​ They identify the age, composition, and structure of rocks in an helping locate economically viable mineral deposits
area. Construction and Excavation Planning
▪​ Bedrock maps are useful in evaluating rocks for use as natural These structures impact excavation stability, support system design, and
resources construction methods, requiring thorough analysis to ensure safe
​ Surficial maps operations.
▪​ Surficial maps display the distribution of materials like soils,
sediments, and glacial deposits. ROCK MECHANICS
▪​ These maps are used to study past climate changes and locate Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of
natural resources like water and minerals. rock and rock masses. Rock mechanics deals with the mechanical properties of rock
▪​ They also help identify areas at risk for soil erosion and landslides and the related methodologies required for engineering design.
​ Structural maps ·The subject of rock mechanics has evolved from different disciplines of applied
▪​ Structural maps illustrate the orientation and location of geologic mechanics. It is a truly interdisciplinary subject, with applications in geology and
structures such as faults and folds geophysics, mining, petroleum and geotechnical engineering.
▪​ They help analyze the tectonic history of an area. ROCK MECHANICS involves characterizing the intact strength and the geometry
▪​ Structural maps are used to assess the potential for earthquakes and and mechanical properties of the natural fractures of the rock mass. Rock engineering is
other natural hazards. concerned with specific engineering circumstances, for example, how much load the
▪​ One example is a depth structural map showing faults and rock will support and whether reinforcement is necessary.
hydrocarbon-bearing anticlines. Rock Material
​ Mineral maps A Rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles. The physical and mechanical
▪​ Mineral maps indicate the location and distribution of different properties of rock materials determine the rock's performance under specific
minerals and mineral resources. conditions.
▪​ They help in understanding the geology of an area. Physical Properties (known as Index Properties) - describes the rock material and
▪​ Mineral maps are valuable for economic development, mining, and helps in classifying them.
resource extraction. [Link] Composition, Structure, and a. Texture
​ Geologic hazard maps This is the intrinsic property controlling the strength of the rock. Although there exist
▪​ Geologic hazard maps show areas with potential for natural more than 2000 kinds of known minerals, only about nine of them partake decisively in
disasters like earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions forming the composition of rocks.
▪​ These maps are used to identify high-risk zones. [Link] Gravity and Unit Weight
▪​ They help in planning and developing strategies to mitigate the Specific Gravity - the ratio of the density of solids to the density of water. The specific
effects of natural hazards gravity can tell us, based on its value, if the object will sink or float in our reference
substance.
Study of Geological Structures Unit Weight - also known as specific weight, is one of the terms that, loosely speaking,
●​ Observing geological structures reveals past stresses within the Earth. describe and relate size (volume), amount (mass), concentration (density), and force
●​ This knowledge helps us understand plate tectonics, earthquakes, (weight), as well as specific gravity.
mountain formation, metamorphism, and Earth resources. [Link], Void Ratio, and Porosity
●​ Important structures to study include folds, faults, and joints. Density - an object in a given volume is a measure of how compact or heavy it is. The
●​ Structural geologists examine orientations and movement along faults to density of rock material varies and is often related to the rock's porosity. Most of the
interpret deformation major rock-forming minerals in the Earth's crust, like quartz, feldspar, and calcite, have
FOLDS very similar densities, which is around 2.6 to 3.0 grams per cubic centimeters.
Folds are wave-like bends in layered rock formed by ductile​ Void Ratio - Voids or cavities are open spaces in the ground that are commonly
deformation, usually under compression. encountered as unforeseen ground conditions in engineering geology. Void Ratio is the
Parts of folds ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids and is closely related with porosity.
●​ Hinge (Axis): The axis is the point of maximum curvature in a folded bed. Porosity - of a material tells how densely it is packed. It is the proportion of non-solid
●​ Axial Plane: The surface that connects all the axes of a fold; it can be material volume to total material volume. It decreases with increasing age of the rock
vertical, inclined, or horizontal. and the depth of the rock.
●​ Limb: The sides of the fold on either side of the axial plane. 4. Moisture Content and Degree of Saturation
●​ Crest: The highest point of a folded bed. Moisture Content - Rock moisture content, also known as water content, refers to
●​ Trough: The lowest point of a folded bed. the quantity of water present within a rock sample. It's typically expressed as a ratio,
●​ Crest Plane: The line that connects all the crests of a fold. usually a percentage, of the mass of water to the mass of solids in the rock.
●​ Trough Plane: The line that connects all the troughs of a fold. Degree of Saturation - It refers to the ratio of the volume of water within a rock
Types of folds sample to the total volume of its voids or pores. It's a measure of how much of the
●​ Anticlines are upward-arching folds that show the oldest rock​ empty space in the rock is filled with water.
layers at the center when eroded. Effects of Saturation:
Saturation can influence various aspects of rock behavior:
• Strength: The strength of a rock can decrease as it becomes saturated, especially if 2.​ Love wave also known as Q-wave (Quer: German word for lateral) Love
the pore network is well-developed and the rock becomes wet. wave cause the horizontal shifting of the earth's surface during an
• Deformation: Water pressure within the pores can affect the deformation behavior of earthquake. It travels slower than P-wave and S-wave but faster than
rocks, potentially leading to phenomena like pore pressure and pore water movement. Rayleigh wave.
• Freeze-Thaw Damage: In cold regions, the freezing of water within the pores of Wave and Energy
partially saturated rocks can cause expansion and damage, particularly during ●​ A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space
freeze-thaw cycles. ●​ Waves travel through a medium
5. Permeability and Electrical and Thermal Properties ●​ A medium is any substance or region through which a wave is transmitted
Permeability - Permeability refers to how connected pore spaces are to one (solid, liquid, or gas);
another. If the material has high permeability than pore spaces are connected to one ●​ transfers energy only without any net movement
another allowing water to flow from one to another, however, if there is low Basic Factors affecting wave velocity
permeability then the pore spaces are isolated and water is trapped within them. ●​ Wavelength (Longer wavelength can mean faster wave under the same
Importance: frequency)
Understanding permeability is crucial for various applications in rock ●​ Frequency (Higher frequency = more cycles per second)
mechanics, such as: ●​ Medium (Wave speed changes based on whether it's a solid, liquid, or gas)
• Geothermal energy production ●​ Temperature (Higher temperature can either increase or decrease speed
• Reservoir engineering depending on the medium)
• Groundwater hydrology ●​ Speed of wave = wavelength x frequency
• Civil engineering
Electrical Properties - The electrical properties of a material define its behavior when Other Factors affecting wave velocity
an electric field is applied. The two principal electrical properties are the dielectric 1.​ Density - velocity decreases w/ increasing density (Denser materials resist
constant and conductivity. wave motion more. Ex: Waves travel slower in lead than in granite)
Thermal Properties - These refer to a rock's behavior and characteristics when 2.​ Shear modulus - velocity increases w/ shear modulus (More rigid
exposed to heat. These properties describe how heat is transferred within and through materials = faster S-waves. Ex: Steel vs rubber.)
the rock, and how it influences the rock's physical and mechanical properties. 3.​ Bulk modulus - velocity increases w/ bulk modulus (Resistance to
6. Swelling, Anisotropy, and Durability compression. Ex: Diamond has high bulk modulus → faster P-waves.)
Swelling - The volume of a mass increases as a result of water suction or prolonged 4.​ Pore pressure – velocity decreases w/ increasing pore pressure (Fluids in
contact with water. Swelling is more common in weaker rocks. pores slow wave speed)
Anisotropy - It refers to the directional dependence of a rock's properties, meaning its 5.​ Effective pressure & lithostatic pressure - velocity increases w/ increasing
characteristics vary based on the direction in which they are measured lithostatic pressure (More compact rock = faster waves)
Durability - It is a rock's ability to resist degradation and maintain its strength and 6.​ Saturation - less saturation low velocity; higher saturation higher velocity
other physical characteristics over time, particularly under weathering and other (Water in rock pores can help carry waves better, but too much can slow
environmental conditions. it)
Mechanical Properties Modulus of Elasticity or Elastic Modulus
●​ Also called “Strength Properties” Elastic modulus, also known as modulus of elasticity, is a measure of a material's
●​ Describe how rock materials behave under different loading conditions. ability to resist deformation under stress. It quantifies the relationship between stress
●​ These properties are essential in understanding the performance of rocks (force per unit area) and strain (proportional deformation) within the proportional limit
in engineering and geotechnical applications of the material.
Linear Elasticity - Material’s ability to resist deformation and return to its original Formula: E = Stress / Strain
form after the stress is removed. Types of Elastic Constants
●​ In this behavior, stress and strain are directly proportional. [Link]'s Modulus (E): Measures stiffness under tensile or compressive
●​ To analyze this, engineers and geoscientists need elastic stress.
parameters/constants such as Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus, and Shear [Link] Modulus (G): Measures stiffness under shear stress.
Modulus to predict how rocks will behave under load, which is needed to [Link] Modulus (K): Measures resistance to uniform compression.
be considered in designing tunnels, reservoirs, and other structures. Static vs. Dynamic Modulus
●​ Thus, to get these parameters, we can rely on Laboratory Tests and Static Modulus: Measured under static loading conditions.
Geophysical Logs. Dynamic Modulus: Measured under dynamic loading conditions, often
STRESS AND STRAIN using seismic or ultrasonic methods.
Stress - refers to the force applied per unit area on a material such as rock. Modulus of Elasticity Importance in Engineering
​ 3 Forms of Stress: [Link] Structures: Elastic modulus is crucial in designing structures
1.​ Axial (tensional or compressional) that can withstand various loads and stresses, such as bridges, buildings,
2.​ Shear (tangential) and mechanical components.
3.​ Hydrostatic (equal pressure from all sides) [Link] Selection: Understanding elastic modulus helps engineers
Strain - refers to the resulting deformation or change in shape, size, or volume of the select materials that meet specific requirements, such as stiffness, strength,
material. and durability.
Stress VS Pressure [Link] Behavior: Elastic modulus enables engineers to predict how
ELASTICITY VS PLASTICITY materials will behave under different types of loading, including tension,
Elasticity compression, and shear.
●​ Material’s ability to deform temporarily and return to its original shape Seismic Reflection Test
and shape once stress is removed. ●​ A geophysical method that uses seismic waves to image subsurface
●​ This follows Hooke’s Law which states that stress is directly proportional structures.
to strain. Seismic Refraction Test
●​ There is no permanent change happening in the rock. ●​ A method that measures the refraction of seismic waves as they pass
●​ Elastic deformation is instantaneous and reversible. through subsurface layers.
Plasticity Grouting
●​ is the ability of solids—including rocks—to permanently deform when ●​ A construction technique that involves injecting a grout material into voids
subjected to stresses that are stronger than what causes elastic or fractures.
deformation, but not strong enough to cause failure. ●​ Grouting can enhance rock strength by filling fractures, reducing stress
●​ In rock mechanics, rocks can change their shape and flow slowly under concentrations.
stress especially when temperature and pressure are high. ●​ Reduce rock deformability by increasing rock stiffness and reducing
2 Geological Processes in Plasticity in Rocks fracture deformation.
1.​ Rock Folding ●​ Improve rock stability by enhancing rock mass cohesion.
2.​ Rock Flow
STRENGTH GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL​
●​ The ability to resist external forces without failing. ENGINEERING
●​ In rock mechanics, strength refers to the force per unit area needed to Site Investigation - the process of collecting information about the physical properties
cause rupture under specific conditions. of the ground where a construction project will take place.
6 FACTORS THAT AFFECTS ROCK STRENGTH Why is it Important?
1.​ Mineral Composition 1. Ensures Safety
2.​ Grain shape and Texture 2. Supports Proper Design
3.​ Crystallinity 3. Avoids Unexpected Problems
4.​ Layering and Lamination 4. Saves Time and Money
5.​ Effects of Heat and Pressure 5. Helps with Legal and Environmental Compliance
6.​ Weathering and Cementation 6. Improves Construction Planning
TYPES OF ROCK STRENGTH Objectives of the Site Investigation
1.​ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH - resistance to failure under uniaxial 1. Determine Soil and Rock Properties
compressive load. 2. Identify Groundwater Conditions
2.​ TENSILE STRENGTH - maximum tensile stress a rock can endure before 3. Assess Site Suitability
failing. 4. Detect Potential Problems
3.​ SHEAR STRENGTH - resistance of rock along planes of weaknesses; 5. Provide Data for Design
important in the analysis of slope stability, fault movement, and 6. Plan Safe and Efficient Construction
geomechanical measures 7. Estimate Costs and Risks
DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS Stages of Site Investigation:
Types of Waves Desk Study → Walkover Survey → Preliminary → Detailed → Monitoring
1.​ Body waves-travelling/propagating within the earth. Surface Methods
2.​ Surface waves-Travelling/propagating on the surface of the earth. Surface methods focus on what we can observe or measure from the
Types of BODY Waves ground or above it. They help us form a big-picture understanding of the
1.​ S-wave is a shear wave. Also a transverse wave. It is the second wave to site before we dig deeper
detect by the seismograph (the reason why it is called "secondary"). Surface Exploration
Unlike P-wave, S-wave cannot travel on fluids, only on solids. Subsurface methods explore what lies beneath the ground, which is
2.​ P-wave is a compressional wave. It is also a longitudinal wave. P-wave or essential for foundation design and safety
Primary wave has the fastest velocity and the first wave to detect by the Geological Methods - Refers to the techniques and procedures geologists use to study
seismograph (the reason why it is called "primary"). It can travel through the Earth's structure, composition, processes, and history.
solids, liquids, and gases 1.​ Field Methods - involve direct observation, measurement, and sampling of
Types of Surface Waves rocks, soils, and landforms at the Earth's surface. These techniques form the
1.​ Rayleigh wave also known as Rolling wave. It causes the rolling motion foundation of geological investigations.
of the particles of the earth's surface during earthquakes. Slowest seismic Key Components:
wave.
 Geological Mapping - creating maps that depict the​ ●​ Edmond Halley is considered as the founding father of geophysics.
distribution of different rock types and geological​ APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICS
structures. ●​ Subsurface Exploration: Identifying and locating resources such as oil,
Stratigraphic Logging - Recording the vertical sequence of rock layers to gas, minerals, and groundwater.
understand depositional environments and geological history. ●​ Hazard Assessment: Monitoring seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, and
Sample Collection - Gathering rock, mineral, and fossil specimens for landslides.
laboratory analysis ●​ Environmental Studies: Investigating contamination, mapping aquifers,
2.​ Remote Sensing and GIS - These technologies facilitate large-scale and analyzing land subsidence.
geological studies. ●​ Archaeology: Non-invasively mapping buried structures.
Key Components: ●​ Planetary Science: Applying Earth-based geophysical techniques to study
Remote Sensing - Utilizes satellite or aerial imagery to identify geological extraterrestrial bodies.
features based on their spectral signatures. This approach is valuable for IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
mapping inaccessible areas ●​ Non-invasive subsurface investigation
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) - Integrates various data types (e.g., ▪​ Detect cavities, voids, buried pipes, and utilities without
geological, hydrological, topographical) to analyze spatial relationships and excavation
support decision-making ▪​ Identify water-bearing aquifers and soil layering (Morales &
3.​ Geophysical Methods - These are remote techniques that measure physical Morales, n.d.)
properties of rocks beneath the surface without digging. ●​ Speeds up site investigation process
Key Components: ▪​ Provides continuous data streams, reducing need for
Seismic Reflection and Refraction - Utilize seismic waves to image extensive drilling
subsurface structures. Seismic methods can detect vertical and lateral ▪​ Helps target critical zones before costly soil exploration
contrasts in rock properties (Morales & Morales, n.d.)
Gravity and Magnetic Surveys – measure variations in Earth's gravitational ●​ Supports infrastructure design and construction
and magnetic fields to infer the distribution of different rock types and ▪​ Assesses pavement thickness, rebar layout, and structural
structures integrity non-destructively
4.​ Borehole Drilling and Sampling - This method involves drilling into the ▪​ Used in foundations, walls, dams, tunnels, embankments, and
ground to collect soil and rock samples for analysis of subsurface railroads (Everest Geophysics, n.d.)
conditions. ●​ Cost-effective and time-saving
Key Components: ▪​ Offers large area coverage with fewer boreholes
Borehole Drilling - Extracts cylindrical sections of rock (cores) to study the ▪​ Reduces project costs and schedule delays (Philippine
stratigraphy, structure, and composition of subsurface​ Resources, 2025)
materials ●​ Enhances geotechnical site characterization
Bore Logging - Involves detailed documentation of rock type, grain size, ▪​ Measures soil and rock mechanical properties (shear
color, and any structural features modulus, density, porosity)
5.​ Geochemical Methods - These methods analyze the chemical composition ▪​ Maps fracture patterns, depth to bedrock, and fault locations
of geological materials to interpret geological processes. (Niederleithinger et al., 2015)
Key Components: ●​ Environmental and safety applications
Soil and Rock Chemistry - Determines the elemental makeup of samples to ▪​ Detects underground contamination and monitors
identify mineral deposits or contamination groundwater
Hydrogeochemical Surveys - Assess the chemical characteristics of ▪​ Locates subsurface utilities to prevent construction accidents
groundwater to study water-rock interactions and pollution (SCI Engineering, n.d.)
●​ Improves quality assurance and monitoring
Exploration Techniques - is a complete sequence of activities. It ranges​ ▪​ Detects small changes in concrete, moisture, and corrosion
between searching for a new prospect (Reconnaissance) and​ ▪​ Supports long-term structural health monitoring
evaluation of the property for economic mining (Feasibility​ (Niederleithinger et al., 2015)
study). It also includes augmentation of additional ore reserves​ GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
in the mine and whole of the mining district. ●​ The methods used to measure the physical properties of subsurface
SURFACE GUIDE materials.
●​ Most of the mineral deposits portray surface signature like favorable ●​ These include a vast array of techniques that apply various principles of
stratigraphy and host rocks, weathering effects of metallic and nonmetallic physics.
mineralization, presence of earlier mining and smelting remnants, shear
zone, lineaments, etc., that can be identified by experienced eyes.
●​ If the features are recorded properly during geological traverses in the
GEOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
field followed by exploration, a new deposit may be discovered.
A. Density - Density, σ, is the intrinsic unit mass of a material. It is widely defined as
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
the mass per unit volume (M/V) and indicates the compactness of a material. Water’s
●​ An accurate topographic map is essential​
density is commonly assumed as 1,000 kg/m^3.
for long-term and short-term purposes of​
B. Porosity - The percentage of void space within a material, affecting its ability to
any type of projects. This is more relevant​
store fluids and its seismic property
during all stages of mineral exploration,​
C. Magnetic Susceptibility - The ease with which a material can be magnetized,
mine development, mining and related​
influenced by the presence of magnetic minerals. Magnetic susceptibility, k, is a
activities.
measure of the ability of a material to be magnetized.
●​ The simplest way of topographic surveying is carried out by a tape and a
D. Permeability (μ) - The quantification of a porous materials’ ability to allow fluids
compass with low level of accuracy. The accurate topographic surveys are
to pass through it. It's essentially the interconnectedness of the pores that determines
carried out using Electronic Total Stations (ETS) to capture
how easily fluid can move
three-dimensional (3D) observation data (x, y, z) on site
E. Electrical conductivity (σ) & Electrical Resistivity (ρ) - Electrical conductivity
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
(σ) is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct an electrical current. The
●​ The first work in mineral exploration is the preparation of a high-quality
units of conductivity are Siemens per meter (S/m). The Siemen, which is the unit of
geological map. The precision and scale of map depends on the stages of
conductance, is the reciprocal of the Ohm, the unit of resistance. Electrical Resistivity
exploration, technical infrastructure and finance available for the program.
(ρ) is the inverse of conductivity (ρ = 1 / σ). The units of resistivity are Ohm meters
EXPLORATION ACTIVITY
(Ωm).
●​ The geological exploration can be divided in to three broad groups,
F. Relative Dielectric Permittivity (ε) - It is also called the dielectric constant.
namely regional scale, district scale and deposit scale. The overall
Dielectric permittivity relates charge separation to an applied electric field. Materials
activities can be identified as:
with no ions or electrons (i.e., free charges) may transmit electrical current when a
Regional Scale - Survey of existing literature, examination of aerial​
voltage is applied. Simply, Dielectric permittivity describes the charge displacement in
photographs, satellite imageries, acquisition of geophysical​
materials when a voltage potential is applied.
data, if any, and geological maps of prospective region,​
G. Electromagnetic Signal Attenuation (skin depth) - The depth at which the EM signal
understanding the stratigraphic setting and structural​
attenuates to 1/e or approximately a third. Typically measured in meters and is
architecture, synthesis of all available data and concepts​
inversely proportional to conductivity (σ) and frequency (f). Higher conductivity
and submission of RP. The resource at this stage is of​
materials and higher frequency EM waves result in shallower EM wave penetration
preliminary nature.
(smaller skin depth)
District Scale Submission of Prospecting Lease, designing the exploration​
H. Seismic Velocities (VP, VS) - Seismic energy sources are typically a small explosion
scheme with respect to work component, technology, type of​
or a hammer blow, which generate three fundamental types of elastic waves: P
exploration method, time and fund requirement.
(primary, compressional) waves, S (secondary, shear) waves, and surface waves.
Geological mapping of the target areas, recognition of surface​
Seismic velocities are usually expressed in meters per second (m/s). Occasionally, they
signatures like presence of weathering and alterations,​
are expressed as kilometers per second (km/s) or meters per millisecond (m/ms). Both
identification of host rock, structural settings and control.
Vp & Vs are governed by Elastic moduli (Young's modulus (E), Poisson's ratio (ν), and
Local Scale - Detail geological mapping of host rock and structure controlling​
Bulk modulus (κ))
the mineralization, close-spaced surface directional drilling to​
P-WAVES Motion: In the direction of propagation. P-wave velocities are
compute reserve with high confidence, pitting, trenching and​
typically 50% higher than S-waves.
entry to subsurface for level development, underground​
S-WAVES Motion: move transversely to the direction of propagation.
drilling for precise ore boundary, reserve of higher category,​
SURFACE WAVES Motion: Cannot propagate through liquids because
metallurgical test work and environmental baseline reports.
liquids lack shear rigidity.
Exploration Components - The various exploration components that can be​
Velocity Formulas
summarized as: Sampling: soil, pitting, trenching, grab,​
P-wave velocity (VP​): Vp = √ [(κ + 4/3μ)/ρ]
chip, channel, directional drilling, sample reduction, check​
S-wave velocity (VS​): Vs = √ (μ/ρ)
studies. Optimization of drilling.
Where: ρ = density; κ = bulk modulus; μ = shear modulus
Preparation of cross-section, longitudinal vertical section,​
In seismic reflection, the layers or bands observed in a seismic section are termed
level plan, 3D ore body modelling, estimation and​
reflections. These reflections in the seismic data result from contrasts in the seismic
categorization of reserves and resources.
impedance (density * seismic velocity) across a geologic boundary. For a seismic wave
intersecting a layer or boundary at normal incidence, the ratio of the
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
reflected-to-incident amplitude is the acoustic impedance (R), which defines the
●​ Originated in German as "Geophysik" and was first used by Julius
strength or amplitude of the seismic reflection.
Fröbel in 1834
R = (ρ2V2 - ρ1V1) / (ρ2V2 + ρ1V1)
●​ From the two Greek words:
where, ρ is the density of the rock, V1 and V2 are seismic velocities on
“GEO,” meaning "EARTH" and "PHYSICS," meaning "NATURE"
either side of the boundary.
or "NATURAL SCIENCE"
I. Seismic Reflectivity
●​ Geophysics is the study of Earth through the collection and analysis of
CATEGORIES OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
physical property measurements that are recorded at or near its
Surface Geophysical Methods
ground/surface.
 ●​ Investigate specific land areas (sites) using appropriate geophysical ▪​ record the movement of vibrations through the ground with
equipment. their speed and path telling us something about the structure,
●​ Primarily for locating geophysical targets like utility lines or strength, and/or stability of the subsurface.
contamination. ▪​ utilize artificially or naturally generated seismic waves to
●​ Widely used for site-specific surveys. study the subsurface.
Common Subtypes of Surface Geophysical Methods ▪​ SEISMIC WAVES - Acoustic energy waves that induce
●​ Potential Field Methods oscillations within the Earth's subsurface materials.
●​ Electromagnetic Methods o​ P-waves (Primary waves): These compressional
●​ Electrical Methods waves displace material in the direction of
●​ Seismic Methods propagation and can travel through both solids
●​ Nuclear Methods and liquids. They are faster and more easily
Borehole Geophysical Methods identifiable than S-waves.
●​ Analysis of geophysical data collected within boreholes, wells, or test o​ S-waves (Secondary waves): These shear waves
holes. displace material perpendicular to the direction
●​ Boreholes provide direct access to the subsurface. of propagation. They only travel through solids
●​ Borehole methods produce continuous, in situ records of formation and are slower than P-waves.
properties, fluids, and well construction. ▪​ A geophone is a device used in seismic surveys to detect and
●​ Data collected using these methods are diverse and may provide measure ground vibrations caused by seismic waves. It
more physical and chemical subsurface information than drilling or converts these vibrations into electrical impulses, which can
sampling alone then be recorded and analyzed to understand the Earth's
Common Subtypes of Borehole Geophysical Methods subsurface structure.
●​ Electrical Borehole Geophysics SEISMIC REFLECTION SURVEY
●​ Electromagnetic Borehole Geophysics ▪​ Occur when seismic waves encounter a boundary between
●​ Nuclear Borehole Geophysics two layers with different acoustic properties.
●​ Seismic Borehole Geophysics ▪​ Especially effective in environments with approximately
●​ Physical and Imaging Borehole Methods horizontal layering, making it suitable for imaging stratified
●​ Fluid Column and Flow Borehole Methods subsurface conditions commonly found in environmental and
Waterborne Geophysical Methods hydrogeological contexts.
●​ Formerly exclusive to petroleum and resource extraction (marine seismic). ▪​ The rule of thumb for depth is that the cable should be 1-2
●​ Numerous methods (e.g., magnetic susceptibility, resistivity, temperature) times longer than the depth required.
adapted for waterborne surveys. COMPONENTS OF SEISMIC REFLECTION SURVEY
●​ Produce high-resolution images in near-surface and environmental A typical seismic reflection survey involves:
investigations. o​ Energy Source: Generating seismic waves using sources
●​ Used in debris or object location, mapping sub-bottom geology, and such as sledgehammers, weight drops, vibrators, or
characterizing groundwater–surface water interactions. explosives.
Common Subtypes of Waterborne Geophysical Methods o​ Receiver Array: Deploying a series of geophones along the
●​ Continuous Seismic Profiling (CSP) survey line to detect reflected seismic waves.
●​ Continuous Resistivity Profiling (CRP) o​ Data Recording: Capturing the seismic signals as "wiggle"
●​ Waterborne Ground Penetrating Radar (wGPR) traces on a seismogram, which represent variations in seismic
●​ Fiber Optic Distributed Temperature Sensing energy amplitude over time.
●​ Waterborne Magnetic Surveying o​ Data Processing: Applying techniques to enhance signal
●​ Waterborne Transient Electromagnetics (wTEM) quality and construct detailed images of subsurface
SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS structures.
●​ Surface geophysical method(s) can detect a target depending on its SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY
hypothesized physical properties. ▪​ Occurs when waves change direction due to variations in
●​ They require little to no penetration into the ground. At most, an electrode, subsurface velocity.
geophone, or similar sensor may be driven or placed within 12-24 inches ▪​ Seismic refraction involves measuring the travel time of
(~ 30-60 cm) below the surface. Hence, surface geophysical methods are seismic energy pulses as they move from a source point to
considered non (or minimally) invasive, which is often reflected in the multiple receivers.
associated time and financial costs. ▪​ A rule of thumb for designing a refraction survey is that
SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS the cable spread should be 3-5 times longer than the depth
●​ Potential Field Methods required.
▪​ techniques that use the natural magnetic and gravitational Passive Seismic SURVEY (HVSR)
fields of the Earth to explore the subsurface ▪​ AKA horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR); capitalizes on ambient
▪​ These methods provide an indirect way to "see" beneath the seismic noise—vibrations generated by natural phenomena (like ocean waves
Earth's surface by sensing different physical properties of and atmospheric disturbances) and human activities—as a signal source.
rocks (magnetization and density). ▪​ Unlike active seismic methods that require controlled energy sources, HVSR is
▪​ They are used to locate faults, mineral and petroleum passive, making it cost-effective and less disruptive.
resources, and groundwater reservoirs. ▪​ By deploying a single, broadband, three-component
●​ Electromagnetic Methods seismometer, the method records seismic noise in three
▪​ Electromagnetic (EM) methods detect the electrical orthogonal directions: two horizontal and one vertical.
properties of the subsurface by inducing EM energy within ▪​ The fundamental resonance frequency (f₀) of the subsurface is
the subsurface and measuring the response of earth materials. influenced by the thickness (h) and average shear-wave
▪​ EM geophysical instruments output a time-varying electric velocity (Vs) of the unconsolidated sediments above bedrock.
current into its transmitter coil, or loop [f0 = Vs/4h]. This equation enables practitioners to estimate
▪​ As the current travels in the transmitter loop, it generates a either the sediment thickness or shear-wave velocity when the
magnetic field that has the same frequency and phase as the other parameter is known or can be reasonably assumed.
current. APPLICATION OF SEISMIC METHODS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
▪​ This induced field propagates lines of force that penetrate the ●​ Bedrock Detection and Topography: Seismic surveys can map the depth
earth and shape of bedrock surfaces, which is crucial for foundation design and
●​ Electrical Methods construction.
▪​ Electrical methods detect subsurface electrical properties by ●​ Soil Stratigraphy: Seismic refraction and reflection techniques can reveal
measuring naturally occurring (passive) or artificially subsurface layering and the properties of different soil and rock types,
introduced (active) voltage potentials, electrical currents, and helping to understand the soil's bearing capacity and potential for
electromagnetic fields. settlement.
▪​ Measurements can be made galvanically via direct electrode ●​ Faults and Fractures Identification: Seismic methods can detect the
connection to the ground or inductively via electromagnetic presence of fault zones and fractures, which can impact the stability of
field induction through the subsurface. structures and require special considerations during construction.
​ Electrical Resistivity ●​ Locating Cavities and Voids: Seismic surveys can identify underground
o​ involves injecting electrical current into the subsurface cavities, sinkholes, or other voids that could compromise the integrity of
through electrodes and measuring the resulting potential structures.
differences ●​ Material Identification: Seismic velocities can be used to identify
o​ helps in detecting lateral and vertical variations in different soil and rock types.
subsurface resistivity, which can indicate changes in ●​ Slope Stability Assessment: Seismic surveys can be used to assess the
composition, structure, or fluid content stability of slopes and embankments.
​ Induced Polarization (IP) and Complex Resistivity ●​ Nuclear Methods
o​ measure the delayed voltage response (chargeability) of ●​ Nuclear geophysical methods encompass a range of techniques that
subsurface materials after the removal of an induced current exploit the nuclear properties of materials to gather information about the
o​ particularly useful for identifying materials like clays and subsurface. These methods are broadly categorized into:
metallic minerals that exhibit polarization effects ●​ Radiometric Techniques: Utilize instruments like Geiger counters and
​ Self-Potential (SP) scintillation meters to detect and map naturally occurring radioactive
o​ measure natural voltage differences in the ground, often elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium.
resulting from electrochemical, electrokinetic, or redox ●​ These methods are valuable for identifying areas with elevated
processes radioactivity, which can be pertinent for both resource exploration and
o​ They can provide insights into subsurface fluid flow and environmental monitoring.
geochemical conditions. Data Processing & Interpretation
APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL METHODS ●​ Pre-processing: Filtering noise and transforming coordinates.
●​ Groundwater Studies: Mapping aquifers, determining water quality, and ●​ Inversion and Modeling: Converting raw data into subsurface property
monitoring contamination plumes. estimates.
●​ Soil and Rock Characterization: Assessing porosity, permeability, and ●​ Velocity Analysis and Migration: Crucial for converting seismic data to
identifying clay-rich zones. depth.
●​ Environmental Assessments: Detecting and delineating subsurface ●​ Attribute Extraction: Deriving meaningful parameters like amplitude
contamination, evaluating remediation efforts. and phase.
●​ Infrastructure Planning: Informing the design and placement of ●​ Integration: Combining datasets (e.g., seismic and resistivity) for robust
foundations, tunnels, and other structures by understanding subsurface models.
conditions. ●​ 3D Visualization: Constructing interpretable geological models.
●​ Seismic Methods ●​ Uncertainty Analysis: Quantifying the reliability of interpretations.
Direct Penetration
 ●​ It is a detailed description of underground conditions at specific locations ●​ It is a drilling technique in which a sharpened steel bit attached to rope or
that obtains information by physically sampling or testing soil, rock, and cable is repeatedly raised, lowered at the rate of 30-60 strokes/min and
groundwater (Villegas, 2021). crushing the rock and making the hole deeper
●​ TYPES OF DIRECT PENETRATION: ●​ Useful in exploration work for sampling soft formations up to a depth of
o​ Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 100-150 m.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test (Mishra): DIAMOND CORE
1. Standard Split Spoon Sampler Designed specifically for mineral exploration and is the most important type of drilling
2. Drop Hammer (weighing 63.5kg) Recovery of the core drilling enables details of the geology, ground conditions and
3. Guiding Rod mineralogy to be obtained that is not possible with any other method.
4. Drilling Rig TWO TYPES OF DIAMOND DRILLING
5. Driving Head (Anvil) 1. Conventional drilling - the rod has to be removed from the hole each
​ DRIVING SEQUENCE time. It is necessary to recover core from the core barrel.
1.​ Drill a borehole. 2. Wire line drilling - the core can be removed from the hole without
2.​ The drill tools are removed, and the sampler is lowered to the bottom withdrawing the rods.
of the hole. Rotary Drillings
3.​ Sample driven into soil by hammer blows is mostly used to drill big holes in large quarries, open pit mines,
o​ Standard weight of hammer is 63.5kg petroleum extraction, and other fields.
o​ Each blows is drop in a distance of 760mm (30 inches) Jet Drillings
4.​ Sampler is withdrawn, shoe & coupling are removed. It is a placer sampling method where a casing and chisel-pointed bit are
●​ Seating Drive: number of blows to penetrate the first 150mm advanced by percussion while water is forced ahead to loosen the material,
●​ Standard Penetration Resistance (N-value): number of blows to to flush out and bring the sample to the surface.
penetrate the remaining 300mm. It is replacing churn drilling in many placer mining district where minerals
●​ Refusal: The test will stop and discontinued if any of the conditions other than gold are involved
are met. Auger Drillings
▪​ If any of the N-value exceed 50 blows. They are important in soil sampling, beach placer sampling, and in
▪​ If the total of the 450mm is 100 or more evaluating clay deposits.
blows. In any events, auger drilling stops at the first boulder.
▪​ If there’s no progress after 10 blows. LOGGING OF CORES
5.​ The sample recovered is placed in a glass bottle to test in a laboratory. Core logging is the geological study and recording of drill cores. It is a
2 common corrections applied to Standardetration Test (SPT) values are: highly specialized skill requiring:
[Link] Correction: Applied to saturated fine sands and silts because their low Careful observation
permeability prevents pore pressure dissipation under dynamic (hammer) loading, Accurate recordings
affecting measured resistance. If the n value (after overburden correction) is (N>15) It involves analyzing cylindrical rock samples (cores) obtained during the
[Link] Pressure Correction: Accounts for the influence of effective confining drilling process, to gather crucial geological data.
pressure; deeper soils with higher overburden pressure naturally exhibit greater Logging - It refers to all data gathering related to a drill hole.
penetration resistance than shallower soils of the same type. Geologists use tools like:
o​ Cone penetration Test (CPT) ●​ Notebook or logging sheets
Importance of Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering ●​ Pen
1. Site Characterization ●​ Tape measure
2. Foundation Design ●​ Penknife
3. Risk Reduction: ●​ Clinometer or protractor
4. Cost Efficiency ●​ Ruler (for angle measurement)
5. Environmental Safety Logging Process & Analysis
1. Core Recovery & Placement
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ●​ Once recovered and removed from the barrel, the core is placed in core
ENGINEERING boxes.
Core boring - The method commonly used to drill through the hard rock formation. ●​ Cores are arranged left to right, with the shallowest depth at the bottom
CORE SAMPLES right corner of the box.
Small portions of a formation taken from an existing well and used for geological analy ●​ Small wooden blocks with clearly marked depths using a marker pen
sis. should be inserted to mark intervals.
​ CORE BARREL 2. Observation
●​ the equipment used to form the boring ●​ Examine the core in good (preferably natural) light.
●​ Regularly 5 to 10 cm in diameter and about 30 to 300 cm long ●​ Wetting the core enhances visibility of rock features for easier
HOW DOES A CORE BARREL WORK? identification.
●​ The core barrel consists of an inner and outer​ 3. Identification
barrel and a core catcher. ●​ Basic mineral and rock identification skills are essential.
●​ These barrels are attached to a swivel that enables​ ●​ Important features like rock type, structures, and depth are recorded.
the inner barrel to remain stationary while the​ Why Core Logging is Important?
outer barrel rotates with the coring bit ✔​ A critical step in evaluating exploration targets.
●​ Drilling fluid can circulate between the inner and​ ✔​ Supports foundation and engineering design.
outer barrels. ✔​ Poor or inaccurate logs can make an engineering design worthless.
TYPES OF CORE BARREL ✔​ The responsibility lies with the engineering geologist to deliver
●​ SINGLE TUBE CORE BARREL high-quality logs.
✔​ Is a tabular piece manufactured from single tube alloy steel. Challenges in Core Logging
Water is constantly in touch with the core thus eroding the ✔​ In multi-hole exploration projects, multiple geologists may be involved.
core. ✔​ Inconsistencies can arise due to difficulty in visually identifying rock
✔​ Core recovery is lowest types.
✔​ Is primary used for core drilling in continuous hard rock ✔​ Using natural gamma ray logging can significantly improve lithologic
formations or for non-core recovery is not important. identification.
✔​ Most rugged, least expensive Geotechnical Logging Parameters
●​ DOUBLE TUBE CORE BARREL These parameters are essential for rock mass classification and must comply with
✔​ This core barrel is specially designed for taking undisturbed industry standards:
sample of soft and easily eroded materials, without washing 1. Hole Identification
out the core. 2. Interval Logged
✔​ Double tube core barrel is the standard. 3. Rock Type
✔​ This core barrel is specially designed for taking undisturbed 4. Weathering Grade
sample of soft and easily eroded materials, without washing 5. Estimated Rock Strength
out the core. 6. Core >10 cm (“Core 10”) – Total length of all core pieces > 10 cm
●​ TRIPLE TUBE CORE BARREL 7. Matrix and Structural Type
✔​ Is used for exploration of dams, bridges, geotechnical Includes faults, intense fracturing, and sheared rock
investigation, diamond core drilling, soil investigation, testing Geological Conditions Necessary for Construction of Dams, Tunnels, and
of foundation of high-rise buildings as well as mineral Buildings
exploration for obtaining nearly 100 core recovery. Dams
✔​ Good for obtaining core samples in fractured rock and highly Dams are massive structures that impound water; hence, their foundation
weathered rocks. must be stable and impervious.
✔​ Outer core barrel for initial cut and second barrel to cut finer Strong Rock Foundation
size. Third barrel to retain cored samples. Igneous and metamorphic rocks like granite, gneiss, and basalt are
CORE DRILL preferred for their strength and stability.
●​ A hollow, cylindrical drill that is used to makes holes through a surface. Low Permeability
●​ Made of metal, and the drill tips are usually coated with either diamond or The foundation must have minimal water seepage. Presence of clay layers
carbide. or compacted rock is ideal
●​ The best method for testing concrete, but it is very expensive. Absence of Faults and Fissures
●​ Scaling, leaching, or pattern cracking can be signs of the need for core Active faults or fractured zones may lead to instability or failure due to
drilling seismic activity or water seepage
DRILLING Slope Stability
●​ Is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or​ The abutments and surrounding slopes should be geologically stable to
enlarge a hole of circular cross-section in solid​ avoid landslides or slumping.
material. Seismic Consideration
HOW DEEP DOES CORE DRILLING GO? The site should be evaluated for seismic activity to ensure the dam can
It depends on the structure. withstand earthquakes.
Methods of Drilling Tunnel
​ Percussion Drilling Tunnels pass through different geological formations, and their stability
●​ It consists of basically of a hammer unit which is driven by compressed air depends heavily on the nature of surrounding rocks and soil.
. Uniform Rock Mass
●​ mainly used for water well drilling and not commonly used in mineral exp Homogeneous, strong rocks like granite or schist are ideal. Highly
loration fractured or weathered rocks may collapse.
​ Churn Drillings Groundwater Conditions
Excessive groundwater can cause flooding or weakening of tunnel walls.
Impermeable rocks or effective drainage systems are necessary.
 Fault Zones
Tunnels should avoid fault lines as these are zones of weakness and
seismic risk.
Overburden Thickness
Adequate cover (rock/soil above the tunnel) is necessary to prevent
surface collapse.
Stress Regimes
In high-stress zones, the rock may spall or burst; such conditions require
specialized tunneling methods.
Building
For buildings, especially high-rise and heavy structures, geological
conditions influence foundation design and overall safety.
Bearing Capacity
The soil or rock must have sufficient strength to bear the load without
excessive settlement. Bedrock is ideal.
Soil Type
Clayey soils can swell/shrink with moisture changes, while loose sands
may liquefy during earthquakes—both are undesirable
Water Table Level
A high water table can affect foundation stability and lead to moisture
problems in basements.
Seismic Stability
The site should be evaluated for earthquake risk; liquefaction-prone soils
should be avoided or treated.
Landslide Susceptibility
Hillsides or slopes must be examined for landslide risks before
construction.
ROAD CUTTING
Road cutting is the process of excavating or cutting through elevated
terrain (such as hills, ridges, or rocky outcrops) to construct a roadway
with a desired gradient and alignment.
Objectives of the Investigation
✔​ Assess geological conditions (rock types, weathering, discontinuities.
✔​ Identify geohazards (faults, landslides, water ingress)
✔​ Determine geotechnical parameters
Geophysical Investigation:
✔​ Seismic Refraction
o​ Determine layer velocities, depth to bedrock
✔​ Electrical Resistivity (ERT)
o​ Identify weak zones, water-saturated areas
✔​ Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) (if applicable)
o​ Detect shallow subsurface features
Geological Investigation:
✔​ Surface mapping
o​ Lithology, stratigraphy, faults, joints, folds
✔​ Rock Mass Characterization
o​ RMR, Q-system, GSI
✔​ Core Drilling & Logging
o​ Borehole data for subsurface profile
Importance of Investigation:
1. Ensure Slope Stability
2. Prevent Landslides and Rockfalls
3. Optimize Design and Construction
4. Reduce Costs and Delays
5. Improve Safety
6. Identify Subsurface Conditions
7. Environmental Considerations.