- Theory of Flight

Aeronautical Fundamentals
Forces Acting on an Aeroplane in Flight
There are four forces acting on an aeroplane in flight. These are thrust, drag, lift and
weight.
1. Thrust. The force exerted by the engine and its propeller(s) which pushes air
backward causing a reaction, or thrust, in the forward direction.
2. Drag. The resistance to forward motion directly opposed to thrust.
3. Lift. The force upward which sustains the aeroplane in flight.
4. Weight. The downward force due to gravity, directly opposed to lift.
When thrust and drag are equal and opposite, the aeroplane is said to be in a state
of equilibrium. That is to say, it will continue to move forward at the same uniform
rate of speed. (Equilibrium refers to steady motion and not to a state of rest.)
If either of these forces becomes greater than the force opposing it, the state of
equilibrium will be lost. If thrust is greater than drag, the aeroplane will accelerate
or gain speed. If drag is greater than thrust the aeroplane will decelerate or lose
speed.
Similarly, when lift and weight are equal and opposite, the aeroplane will be in
equilibrium. If lift, however, is greater than weight, the aeroplane will climb. If
weight is greater than lift, the aeroplane will sink.

How do Airplanes fly?

LIFT
An airfoil is a surface that is designed to obtain lift. It has been found that the most
suitable shape for producing lift is a curved or cambered shape. The camber of an
airfoil is the curvature of the upper and lower surfaces. The mean camber line is the
line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. Total airfoil camber
is defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line from the chord line,
expressed as a percent of the chord.
HOW LIFT IS CREATED
NEWTON’S LAW
Air flowing around an airfoil is subject to the Laws of Motion discovered by Isaac
Newton. Air, being a gaseous fluid, possesses inertia (a property of matter by which
it continues in its existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless
that state is changed by an external force) and, according to Newton's First Law,
when in motion tends to remain in motion.

Inertia: Newton’s First Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQyFshgm-hU

Force, Mass, and Acceleration: Newton's Second Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7JoUUcvaSI
 Action and Reaction: Newton’s Third Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mO1qtmFee-k

The introduction of an airfoil into the streamlined airflow alters the uniform flow of
air. Newton's Second Law states that a force must be applied to alter the state of
uniform motion of a body. The airfoil is the force that acts on the body (in this case,
the air) to produce a change of direction. The application of such a force causes an
equal and opposite reaction (Newton's Third Law) called, in this case, lift.

As the air passes over the wing towards the trailing edge, the air flows is not only
rearward but downward as well. This flow is called downwash. At the same time, the
airflow passing under the wing is deflected downward by the bottom surface of the
wing. In exerting a downward force upon the air, the wing receives an upward
counterforce.

Newton's Third Law and Aerofoil: Unraveling the Science of Lift

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=68hgi7pwHDI

Remember Newton's Third Law - for every action there is an opposite and equal
reaction. Therefore, the more air deflected downward, the more lift is created. Air is
heavy; its weight exerts a pressure of 14.7 lbs per square inch at sea level. The
reaction produced by the downwash is therefore significant.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
As an airplane moves forward, air flows over its wings, which are curved on the top
and flat on the bottom. This creates a difference in the speed of the air flowing over
the top and bottom of the wing, with the air on top moving faster than the air on the
bottom. According to Bernoulli’s principle, this difference in airspeed creates a
difference in pressure, with lower pressure on top and higher pressure on the
bottom i.e. as the velocity of air increases, its pressure decreases. This difference in
pressure creates a force called lift, which is what keeps the airplane up in the air.
Some scientist and research agencies state the Bernoulli’s principle has flaws and
does not support the principle.

Lift: Bernoulli’s Principle (How Things Fly Demonstration)

RELATIVE AIRFLOW
Relative airflow is a term used to describe the direction of the airflow with respect to
the wing. (In other texts, it is sometimes called relative wind.)

What is relative airflow? https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=jo24pruCz4U
ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle at which the airfoil meets the relative airflow is called the angle of
attack, which varies according to the angle between the wing chord and the
relative airflow. This angle can vary according to the direction of motion of the
aircraft (Fig. 1-7).
 What is angle of attack?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0tCRq2JedY

As the angle of attack is increased, the changes in pressure over the upper and
lower surfaces and the amount of downwash (i.e. air deflected downward) increase
up to a point (the stalling angle). Beyond this angle, they decrease (Fig.2.4).
CENTER OF GRAVITY - it’s the point where the weight of an aircraft is perfectly
balanced. Picture an invisible dot somewhere in your aircraft—around this dot, your
aircraft balances.

The center of gravity serves a few purposes in determining the airplane’s stability. It
is: –
 The meeting point of all three axes (longitudinal, lateral, vertical) is normally
located somewhere in the middle of the airplane.

 The point around which the airplane will turn and maneuver.
 The area through which all the combined weight of the airplane acts.
Add cargo to the back, and the CG moves aft (backward). Load up the front, and it
shifts forward. It’s a fluid point, changing with every tweak in the weight (and
distribution of weight) of your aircraft. CG is critical as it supports stability (safety),
maneuverability, fuel efficiency, etc.
So, let’s start with a forward center of gravity, or forward CG, as it’s commonly
known. This occurs when the weight of your aircraft is tilted more toward the front.
It might be due to heavy items stored in the front, or maybe you have little or no
payload in the back.
The lift vector (the blue line) acts through the center of the lift, while the weight
vector (the red line) acts through the center of gravity. It produces a downward
pitching moment.

A forward CG is not that great if we want to fly straight and level. Because we need
a continuous force from the horizontal stabilizer to counter-act the nose-down
pitching tendency. In other words, you need to pull back on the yoke to overcome
the nose-down tendency of the lift/weight couple. The further forward the CG, the
more you need to pull back.
Naturally, this creates drag and drag isn’t our friend. More drag leads to higher fuel
consumption and lower efficiency. One will, of course, use the trim to keep the
elevator in the correct position and relieve any pressure on the control column.

So, how does this affect stability?

For starters, an aircraft with a forward CG is more stable. There are many types of
stability, but, generally speaking, stability is your aircraft’s ability to resist motion.
In other words, how easily your aircraft pitches, yaws, or rolls.
You will require a larger elevator input to change the pitch of an aircraft with a
forward CG – making it more stable and less maneuverable. In other words, the
longitudinal (pitch) stability is increased.
But, there’s the issue of efficiency.
With a forward CG, the increase in the force from the horizontal stabilizer creates
more drag, leading to higher fuel consumption.
Furthermore, we also need a higher Angle of Attack (AoA) to maintain level flight
(which also creates more drag).
This is because, in order for the aircraft to maintain level flight, lift must equal
weight.
The issue is that we’re creating a downward force with the horizontal stabilizer that
effectively adds to the weight. So now weight is effectively more than lift (actual
weight plus downward force).

What do we need to do so that lift is equal to effective weight? We need to increase

lift. This means we need a higher angle of attack.
A higher angle of attack creates more drag and reduces our efficiency.
A high angle of attack isn’t necessarily a bad thing – it’s often needed for certain
maneuvers and during takeoff and landing. However, consistently needing a high
angle of attack during cruise flight (when the aircraft needs to be at its most
efficient) leads to higher drag and lower fuel efficiency.
This also leads to an increase in the stall speed because operating at a higher angle
of attack brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle of attack (where the aircraft
will stall).
So while a forward CG can provide increased stability and better stall recovery
characteristics, it has a negative impact on aircraft performance.
Now, let’s turn our attention aft.

Aft CG Summary:
 Less stable (longitudinal stability)
 More fuel efficient (less drag)
 Lower stall speed
 Bad stall recovery characteristics
Now let’s shift our focus to the other end of the spectrum – the aft center of gravity,
or aft CG. This happens when the weight in your aircraft is skewed towards the
back. Perhaps you’ve loaded heavy cargo in the rear, or maybe you’re the only one
in the front with passengers in the back.
So, what’s the impact of an aft CG on your flight?
On the bright side, an aft CG can make your aircraft more efficient. With the weight
towards the rear, your aircraft doesn’t need as large of a force from the horizontal
stabilizer, and it doesn’t need a much higher AoA to balance out lift with weight.
This leads to less drag and better fuel efficiency – a win for the aircraft’s
performance and your wallet.
But it’s not all roses and rainbows. An aircraft with an aft CG is less stable.
While the aircraft is more responsive to control inputs (more maneuverable), this
comes with a trade-off. Recovering from a stall or spin is more challenging due to
reduced stability.
Generally speaking, the trade-off between stability and efficiency makes an aft CG
far more preferable to a forward one. The gain in fuel efficiency is significant, while
the negative stall characteristics and reduced stability are easily managed.
As with a forward CG, understanding the pros and cons of an aft CG is key to
managing your aircraft effectively.
Managing Your CG
Knowing the effects of forward and aft CG is one thing. But how do you manage it?
First and foremost, you need to understand your aircraft’s CG limits. These are
outlined in the aircraft’s Pilot Operating Handbook (POH). Staying within these limits
ensures your aircraft remains controllable and safe.
Next, pay attention to loading. Where you place cargo, how you distribute
passenger weight, and even how fuel is burned during flight can shift the CG.
Careful planning before each flight can help keep the CG within limits.
Remember, a forward CG can result in higher stall speeds and increased fuel
consumption. So if you’re planning a flight with no need for extra stability, it might
be worth managing your load to shift the CG slightly aft for better efficiency. But
always stay within the limits!
As the fuel burns off, your CG can shift. This isn’t a major concern for smaller
aircraft like the C172, but you should calculate your takeoff and landing CG to
ensure you stay within limits for the duration of the flight.
Remember, managing your CG isn’t just about performance – it’s about safety. So
whether you’re gearing up for your first solo or prepping for a cross-country
adventure, make CG management a part of your pre-flight routine. You’ll not only fly
better – you’ll fly safer.
Conclusion
Understanding CG isn’t just about passing your exams, it’s about ensuring each
flight you take is safe and efficient. Get to know your aircraft, be mindful of loading,
and always check your weight and balance before departure!
From - https://pilotinstitute.com/forward-vs-aft-cg-explained/