Student Name: Shahid Khan

Student ID: 0000948579

Programme: BS IR

Description: Basic of environmental science

Course code : 9389

Semester : Spring_2025

Assignment no: 1

Q1) How will you term environmental science as a multidisciplinary science?

Definition

Environmental science is inherently multidisciplinary, requiring the integration of various scientific fields
to understand and address complex environmental issues. It draws from natural sciences like biology,
chemistry, physics, and geology, as well as social sciences like economics and sociology. This
interdisciplinary approach is crucial because environmental problems often involve interactions
between physical, chemical, biological, and social systems.

Explantation

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology,

meteorology, mathematics and geography (including ecology, chemistry, plant science, zoology,
mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical geography, and atmospheric
science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental
science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment.Today it
provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental
systems

The main goal is to understand how the natural world works and how humans interact with and impact
it, ultimately aiming to find ways to mitigate negative environmental consequences.
Environmental science as interdisciplinary science

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological and
information sciences to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems.

Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary field that integrates knowledge from the natural sciences, the
humanities, and the social sciences. Environmental studies covers various aspects of physical, biological,
social, and economic processes that affect the environment and human well-being.

Environmental scientists seek to understand the earth's physical, chemical, biological, and geological
processes, and to use that knowledge to understand how issues such as alternative energy systems,
pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global warming and
climate change influence and affect the natural systems and processes of earth. Environmental issues
almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental
scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an
effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as
quantitative analysis.Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific
investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze
complex environmental problems, the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific
environmental protocols of investigation and the growing public awareness of a need for action in
addressing environmental problems.

Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field that combines various disciplines to study the
environment and address environmental issues. It incorporates knowledge from fields like biology,
chemistry, physics, geology, and social sciences to understand complex environmental problems. This
multidisciplinary approach is crucial because environmental issues are often interconnected and involve
interactions between different systems.

Components of Environmental Studies

The components of environmental studies are the biotic and abiotic factors that constitute the
environment. Biotic factors are the living organisms, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms, that
interact with each other and the environment. Abiotic factors are the non-living elements, such as air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, and climate, that influence the biotic factors.

The biotic and abiotic factors form the structure and function of the ecosystem, which is the basic unit
of environmental studies. The components of environmental studies are also the topics and themes that
cover the various aspects and dimensions of the environment and its issues.

Key Features : following are the key Features of environmental studies

*Interdisciplinary Nature:

Environmental science draws upon multiple scientific fields to address complex environmental issues.

*Human Impact:

A significant focus is on understanding how human activities affect the environment and how to reduce
those impacts.

*Ecosystem Studies:

It examines the interactions between organisms and their environment, as well as the relationships
between different environmental components.

*Problem Solving:

Environmental science aims to develop solutions for environmental challenges like pollution, climate
change, and resource depletion.

*Quantitative Approach:

It often involves collecting and analyzing data to assess environmental conditions and the effectiveness
of different solutions.

Importance of Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies is one of the key features and strengths of this
field. It means that environmental studies uses the knowledge and methods of different disciplines or
fields of study to understand and address the environment and its issues. The multidisciplinary nature of
environmental studies is important for various reasons, such as:

1.It provides a comprehensive and holistic understanding of a complex and dynamic problem or
question, by considering its various aspects and dimensions.

2.It offers a diversity and richness of perspectives and insights, by incorporating the views and
experiences of different disciplines or fields of study.

3.It enhances the creativity and innovation, by generating new and novel ideas and solutions, by
combining and synthesizing the knowledge and methods of different disciplines or fields of study.

4.It fosters the collaboration and cooperation, by facilitating the communication and exchange of
information and resources, among different disciplines or fields of study.
Fields of Environmental science
There are five major fields of environmental science each one made up of multiple smaller disciplines.
These five fields are atmospheric sciences, ecology, environmental chemistry, geosciences, and social
sciences.

Ecology _Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their
physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the
world around them.Ecologists research a plethora of things, including how a specific species or a group
of living creatures are influenced by their environment or some specific aspects of it.

Atmospheric science_ mostly deal with global warming and its effect. Scientists can create special
computer models that depict how the atmosphere circulates, how chemicals react within it, and how
animals contribute to carbon dioxide emissions

Environmental chemistry _goes into more detail, and it explores things like chemical effects on different
plants, the chemical degradation of the environment, and the way chemicals get transported through
the environment.

Geoscience_ are often considered a branch of planetary sciences, and they explore the chemical and
physical constitution of our planet, but also its atmosphere.Geosciences include environmental geology,
environmental soil science, volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification
systems this can also include hydrology, including oceanography.

Biology _Biology is the scientific study of living organisms and their vital processes. It encompasses a
wide range of fields, including botany, zoology, genetics, and ecology, all of which explore different
aspects of life.
Geology _is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the
rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time.

Archaeology_ is the study of past human life and activities through the recovery and analysis of material
culture, such as artifacts, architecture, and cultural landscapes. It is a field that combines elements of
social science and the humanities, aiming to understand human history and culture by examining
physical remains.

Social science_ is a broad field of study focused on human behavior and societies, encompassing various
disciplines like anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology. It aims to understand how
societies function, explore the roots of economic growth, and investigate the causes of societal
problems. Social scientists use both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze complex social
phenomena.

Conclusion
In conclusion, environmental studies is a multidisciplinary field that combines the knowledge and
methods of various disciplines to understand and address the complex and dynamic issues surrounding
the environment.The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies also reflects the reality and
complexity of the environment and its issues, which cannot be understood or solved by a single
discipline or field of study. The environment and its issues are influenced and affected by various factors,
such as physical, biological, social, economic, political, and cultural, which require a multidisciplinary
approach to address them.

Q2) Explain the following environment, hydrosphere, Biosphere, Climate and weather ?

Environment

Definition : Environment is everything that is around us, which includes both living and nonliving things
such as soil, water, animals and plants, which adapt themselves to their surroundings. It is nature's gift that
helps in nourishing life on Earth

Environment means what surrounds us. It may be living or non-living things. It includes physical,
chemical and other natural forces. Living things live in their environment. They constantly interact with
it and adapt themselves to conditions in their environment. In the environment there are different
interactions between animals, plants, soil, water, and other living and non-living things. The word
environment is used to talk about many things. For example, trees, rivers, and oceans are a part of the
environment. People in different fields of knowledge use the word environment differently.
Electromagnetic environment is radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation and magnetic fields.
The environment of a galaxy may mean the interstellar medium, or it may mean other nearby galaxies.
The conditions of living organisms in an environment are affected by the weather and climate changes in
the environment. They are also greatly affected by other living things.
Hydrosphere
Definition :

A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the
surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.

The hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet, encompassing all forms of water – liquid, ice,
and vapor – both on the surface, underground, and in the atmosphere. This includes oceans, lakes,
rivers, groundwater, glaciers, and atmospheric water vapor.The hydrosphere is a crucial component of
Earth's system, influencing climate, supporting life, and shaping the planet's surface. The hydrosphere is
the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or
natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to
change in shape.

Liquid Water: Oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and groundwater.

Solid Water: Ice caps, glaciers, snow, and frozen groundwater.

Water Vapor: Clouds, precipitation, and the overall moisture in the atmosphere.

Dissolved Substances: The salts, minerals, and other substances dissolved in water, influencing its
properties.

Biosphere
Definition:

The biosphere is the sum of all ecosystems on Earth, a zone of life where living organisms interact with their
physical and chemical environment.

The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists—all ecosystems. The biosphere extends
from the deepest root systems of trees, to the dark environments of ocean trenches, to lush rain forests,
high mountaintops, and transition zones like this one, where ocean and terrestrial ecosystems meet.
biosphere is the region of the Earth that encompasses all living organisms and the regions where they
interact with the non-living environment, forming a global ecosystem. It extends from the deepest
ocean trenches to the highest mountaintops, encompassing all life forms and the non-living factors that
sustain them. Essentially, the biosphere is the zone of life on Earth. It extends from a few kilometers into
the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean.The biosphere is made up of living organisms (biota)
and the non-living factors (abiotic) that provide them with energy and nutrients, such as water,
nutrients, and sunlight. Life on Earth is deeply intertwined with the other spheres of the Earth system:
atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. The biosphere distinguishes Earth as a planet with life,
capable of supporting a diverse range of organisms. The biosphere faces numerous threats, including
climate change and habitat destruction, which can lead to biodiversity loss.
Climate
Definition :

Climate is the average weather in a given area over a longer period of time. A description of a climate
includes information on, e.g. the average temperature in different seasons, rainfall, and sunshine.

The classical period used for describing a climate is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO).Climate is the general weather over a long period. This can include rainfall,
temperature, snow or any other weather condition. We usually define a region’s climate over a period
of 30 years.The Earth’s climate system has many components. It includes everything that can affect the
weather, such as the atmosphere, clouds, oceans, and the land surface and vegetation.Ice also affects
our climate, through glaciers, sea ice or ice sheets on land. Volcanic eruptions have an impact too, by
altering our atmosphere. Human activity on a large scale can also affect the climate, including local
weather patterns.Most of the energy in our climate system ultimately comes from the Sun.Components
of the climate system, including the Sun, clouds, volcanoes, glaciers, ice sheets, sea ice, oceans, rivers,
the land surface, vegetation and human activity.

Climate comprises many day-to-day values of the weather affecting a particular place. This could include
average and extreme values, as well as the frequencies of values within a specific range. For example,
how often does temperature exceed 30°C in a location? These values contribute to how climate affects
people and the natural world.Temperature is just one example. There are many other climatic elements,
including:precipitation,humidity,hours of sunshine, wind velocity.

The major difference between weather and climate is the timescale. Weather occurs over hours or days.
Climate, however, refers to the average of all weather that takes place over a much longer period,
usually years or decades.Some great writers have spoken about the relationship between climate and
weather.

Mark Twain said:“Climate lasts all the time and weather only a few days.”

Robert A. Heinlein said:“Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get.

Weather
Definition :

The state of the atmosphere in regard to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or The
day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere at a place with respect to elements like humidity, temperature,
wind speed, rainfall, etc. is called the weather of that place.

Weather can be cloudy, sunny, rainy, stormy or clear. It is a part of the natural phenomenon which maintains
the equilibrium in the atmosphere.
But conditions can be worse sometimes. When the atmospheric conditions are extreme or intense enough to
cause property loss or life loss, such weather is termed as severe weather.

These also vary according to the altitudes, latitudes, and region and pressure differences. Tornadoes,
cyclones, heavy rainfall, fog, winter storms come under this category. They are disastrous and hazardous.
Proper disaster management and strategies are required to handle these conditions.cloudiness including
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, and cloud cover. It differs from climate,
which is all weather conditions for a particular location averaged over about 30 years.All the changes that
happen in the weather are made by the sun. Because the sun has a very high temperature and it is a huge
sphere of hot gases. It is the main source of heat and light for the earth. It is even the primary source of
energy hence affects the weather.The energy reflected and absorbed by the earth’s surface, the oceans and
the atmosphere play an important role in determining the weather at any place.Gases like methane, water
vapour and carbon dioxide also play a role in determining the weather.

Every day the weather is recorded by the meteorologists and these records are preserved for decades. The
pattern of the weather is determined with the help of these records. The average weather pattern taken over
a long time is called the climate of the place.

Elements of Weather:

Wind speed

Humidity

Temperature

Rainfall

Thunder

Snow

Lightning

Q3)what is climate change? How can we study climate change using different data and tools?

Climate change

Definition :Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. Such shifts can
be natural, due to changes in the sun's activity or large volcanic eruptions.climate change includes both
global warming the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate
system in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate.

Explantation

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Deserts are expanding, while heat waves and
wildfires are becoming more common.Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost,
retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline.Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and
other weather extremes.Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many
species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimize future warming are successful, some effects will
continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. The current rise in
global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel burning since the Industrial Revolution.
Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases. These gases
absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the
pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.Climate change threatens people with increased flooding,
extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss.

The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come
from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building, for example. Clearing land and cutting down
forests can also release carbon dioxide. Agriculture, oil and gas operations are major sources of methane emissions.
Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main sectors causing greenhouse
gases.

Factors of climate change

Climate change is a complex issue influenced by both natural and human factors. Human activities, particularly the
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural practices, are major contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions, which trap heat in the atmosphere and cause global warming. Natural factors like volcanic eruptions,
solar radiation fluctuations, and tectonic shifts also play a role in climate change, but their influence is often less
significant compared to human activities.

Here are two main causes of climate change:

1)Natural

2) Human _driven

Natural

Some amount of climate change can be attributed to natural phenomena. Over the course of Earth’s existence,
volcanic eruptions, fluctuations in solar radiation, tectonic shifts, and even small changes in our orbit have all had
observable effects on planetary warming and cooling patterns.

Natural factors

Volcanic Activity: Volcanic eruptions release greenhouse gases and aerosols into the atmosphere, which can have
temporary cooling or warming effects.

Solar Radiation Variations: Changes in the sun's activity can influence Earth's climate, but these variations are
generally less significant than human-caused emissions.

Tectonic Shifts: Earthquakes and other tectonic events can release gases from the Earth's interior, which can have
a small impact on climate.
Orbital Changes: Earth's orbit around the sun varies over long periods, influencing the amount of solar radiation it
receives, which can have a minor impact on climate.

Ocean Currents: Changes in ocean currents can redistribute heat around the globe, affecting regional climates.

Human _Driven

Burning fossil fuels for energy, transport and industry releases greenhouse gases, which cause global warming.
Things like farming, cutting down forests and overfishing are making it worse. There is no doubt that human
activities are causing climate change, which means we are also able to stop it.Our ways of generating power for
electricity, heat, and transportation, our built environment and industries, our ways of interacting with
the land, and our consumption habits together serve as the primary drivers of climate change. While the
percentages of greenhouse gases stemming from each source may fluctuate, the sources themselves
remain relatively consistent.

Climate change is a complex issue influenced by both natural and human factors. Human activities,
particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural practices, are major contributors
to greenhouse gas emissions, which trap heat in the atmosphere and cause global warming. Natural
factors like volcanic eruptions, solar radiation fluctuations, and tectonic shifts also play a role in climate
change, but their influence is often less significant compared to human activities.

Human Factors:

Fossil Fuel Combustion: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy, transportation, and industry
releases large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas.

Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb CO2, further increasing its
concentration in the atmosphere.

Agriculture: Livestock farming, especially cattle, produce methane, another potent greenhouse gas, and
agricultural practices contribute to nitrous oxide emissions.

Industrial Processes: Manufacturing and industrial activities release various greenhouse gases, including
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

Transportation: Vehicles and ships contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO2
and methane.

Land Use Changes: Converting forests and wetlands to agricultural land or urban areas can disrupt
natural carbon cycles and release stored CO2.

Waste Disposal: Landfills produce methane as organic waste decomposes, contributing to greenhouse
gas emissions.

Effects of Climate Change

Effects that scientists had long predicted would result from global climate change are now
occurring, such as sea ice loss, accelerated sea level rise, and longer, more intense heat waves.

More severe storms

Destructive storms have become more intense and more frequent in many regions. As temperatures rise,
more moisture evaporates, which exacerbates extreme rainfall and flooding, causing more destructive
storms. The frequency and extent of tropical storms is also affected by the warming ocean. Cyclones,
hurricanes, and typhoons feed on warm waters at the ocean surface. Such storms often destroy homes
and communities, causing deaths and huge economic losses.

Increased drought

Climate change is changing water availability, making it scarcer in more regions. Global warming
exacerbates water shortages in already water-stressed regions and is leading to an increased risk of
agricultural droughts affecting crops, and ecological droughts increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems.
Droughts can also stir destructive sand and dust storms that can move billions of tons of sand across
continents. Deserts are expanding, reducing land for growing food. Many people now face the threat of
not having enough water on a regular basis.

A warming, rising ocean

The ocean soaks up most of the heat from global warming. The rate at which the ocean is warming
strongly increased over the past two decades, across all depths of the ocean. As the ocean warms, its
volume increases since water expands as it gets warmer. Melting ice sheets also cause sea levels to rise,
threatening coastal and island communities. In addition, the ocean absorbs carbon dioxide, keeping it
from the atmosphere. But more carbon dioxide makes the ocean more acidic, which endangers marine
life and coral reefs.

Loss of species

Climate change poses risks to the survival of species on land and in the ocean. These risks increase as
temperatures climb. Exacerbated by climate change, the world is losing species at a rate 1,000 times
greater than at any other time in recorded human history. One million species are at risk of becoming
extinct within the next few decades. Forest fires, extreme weather, and invasive pests and diseases are
among many threats related to climate change. Some species will be able to relocate and survive, but
others will not.

Not enough food

Changes in the climate and increases in extreme weather events are among the reasons behind a global
rise in hunger and poor nutrition. Fisheries, crops, and livestock may be destroyed or become less
productive. With the ocean becoming more acidic, marine resources that feed billions of people are at
risk. Changes in snow and ice cover in many Arctic regions have disrupted food supplies from herding,
hunting, and fishing. Heat stress can diminish water and grasslands for grazing, causing declining crop
yields and affecting livestock.

More health risks

Climate change is the single biggest health threat facing humanity. Climate impacts are already harming
health, through air pollution, disease, extreme weather events, forced displacement, pressures on
mental health, and increased hunger and poor nutrition in places where people cannot grow or find
sufficient food. Every year, environmental factors take the lives of around 13 million people. Changing
weather patterns are expanding diseases, and extreme weather events increase deaths and make it
difficult for health care systems to keep up.

Climatology
The scientific study of climate is called climatology. Climatology involves the study of long-term patterns
and variations of weather conditions in a given area, encompassing periods from months to millennia. It
is a crucial field for understanding the impacts of climate change on all life on Earth, including human
societies.

Scientific studies

Scientists must gather together all data that is available to them in order to make meaningful
conclusions and predictions regarding climate change. When they bring these data together, the
prediction they make is in the form of a scientific model. A model is a projection of what might happen
in the future based on knowledge of current and past events. The models that are published to predict
climate change must pass a rigorous scientific peer-review process, and often require the combination
of findings of hundreds of experiments. These large-scale models are typically beyond the capacity of a
standard desktop computer, and must be run by large super-computers housed at research universities
or government laboratories.

Scientists employ a diverse array of tools and techniques to study climate change, including direct
measurements from satellites, aircraft, and ground-based instruments, as well as indirect
measurements from proxy records like ice cores and tree rings. When scientists focus on climate from
before the past 100-150 years, they use records from physical, chemical, and biological materials
preserved within the geologic record. The Earth holds climate clues dating back over three billion years,
contained in rock layers, polar ice sheets, lake beds, and more Organisms (such as diatoms, forams, and
coral) can serve as useful climate proxies. Other proxies include ice cores, tree rings, and sediment cores.
Chemical proxy records include isotope ratios, elemental analyses, biomarkers, and biogenic silica.
Collectively, these proxies significantly extend our understanding of past climates, reaching far back into
Earth's history.

Tools and Data

Climate change studies investigate the Earth's climate system and how it is changing, focusing on both
natural and human-induced factors. These studies examine past climate patterns, current trends, and future
projections, often using observational data, climate models, and other scientific methods. The goal is to
understand the causes and effects of climate change, and to develop strategies for mitigation and
adaptations.

Direct Measurements:

Satellite and Space Station Instruments: Provide global coverage of atmospheric conditions, ocean
temperatures, and ice sheet dynamics.

Aircraft, Ships, and Buoys:Collect data on surface atmospheric conditions, ocean temperatures, and
other parameters in specific regions.

Ground-Based Instruments:Weather stations, sensors, and instruments measure atmospheric conditions,

soil moisture, and other surface variables.

Data from Weather Stations:Instruments such as thermometers, barometers, hygrometers,

anemometers, and rain gauges are used to measure temperature, air pressure, humidity, wind speed,
wind direction, and precipitation.

Indirect Measurements (Proxy Data):

Ice Cores: Contain trapped gases and ice layers, providing information about past atmospheric
composition and temperatures.

Tree Rings: Variations in ring width and density can indicate past climate conditions, particularly
temperature and rainfall.

Rock Layers, Lake Beds, and Sediment Cores: These materials contain evidence of past environments,
including information about past climate conditions.

Coral, Diatoms, Forams, and Other Organisms: The composition and characteristics of these organisms
can provide insights into past ocean temperatures and other environmental conditions.

Isotope Ratios: Measurements of isotope ratios in materials like ice cores, rock layers, and sediment
cores can reveal past temperature and other climate variables.

Additional Tools:

Climate Models:

Sophisticated computer simulations that evaluate the impacts of human activities on the climate and
project future climate changes.

Economic Models:
Tools like Ricardian analysis and input-output accounting are used to assess the economic impacts of
climate change.

Interactive Tools:

Simulations, digital resources, and web-based activities are used for climate change education and to
engage students in learning about climate change.

Software:

Tools like the Equitable Resilience Builder (ERB), Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM), and
Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool (CREAT) are used for community resilience planning,
wetland mapping, and water utility resilience assessment, respectively.

Climate Analytics Tools:

Platforms like the Climate Action Tracker and the Climate Impact Explorer are used to track government
action on climate change and assess the impacts of climate change on different regions.

Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN):

Provides tools for assessing climate change impacts, particularly in vulnerable sectors like agriculture
and hydroelectricity. The modern thermometer was invented in 1654, and global temperature records
began in 1880. Climate researchers utilize a variety of direct and indirect measurements to investigate
Earth's climate history comprehensively. Direct measurements include data from satellites in space,
instruments on the International Space Station, aircraft, ships, buoys, and ground-based instruments.

Q4) Discuss different interactions among the living Organisms?

Most interactions between species have produce harms and benefits for the organisms involved, but
sometimes the results are closer to neutral. There are typically 6 types of interactions when considering
the harms and benefits to each species.

These interactions commonly produce feedbacks in the respective populations of various species.
Competition for resources and predation can limit populations of organisms. Mutually beneficial
relationships can increase the populations of both species interacting. And the organisms influence their
environment, shaping Earth's surface and the resources available to ecosystems. Thus, interactions
among species are a major component of how like on Earth persists and evolves through time.

Organisms interactions
Organisms interacts in various ways, creating diverse ecological relationship. Entities live in an
assemblage of populations having at least two different species who are in constant interaction with
each other either directly or indirectly within a specific geographical region in an ecological community.
The interaction between species forms the basis for many biological processes in ecosystems such as the
food chain and the nutrient cycle.The nature of these interactions depends upon the environmental
conditions and evolutionary aspects in which they exist. There are several classifications of these
interactions which are found in different ecosystems. These interactions can be used as a framework in
analyzing the ecological community to describe processes that naturally occur which in turn can be used
to predict human modifications that may affect the properties and processes of ecosystems. These
interactions can be inter-specific(interactions with different species) or intra-specific(interactions
between same species).

These interactions can be broadly categorized as symbiotic, competitive, or antagonistic, each with sub-
types like mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and predation.

Mutualism

Many interactions result in benefits to both organisms, and for a relationship to be mutually beneficial,
both species need to do better when interacting with the other. These relationships include organisms
providing resources and protection for each other. Ecosystems are commonly built around these
relationships, and mutualistic relationships allow large amounts of biomass to accumulate, say in a
rainforest. Organisms helping each other increases the amount and diversity of life that can be
supported.
Examples: Insects pollinate flowers, which provide the insects with nectar and pollen as food. Fungi
obtain their energy from breaking down dead wood to release nutrients for the living trees. Bacteria in
our guts help us digest our food, and we provide them with a stable environment with plenty of food for
themselves. The examples are limitless.

Neutralism

Some species exist in the same environment without directly affecting each other. If they use different
resources in the environment and do not prey on each other, their direct interactions are neutral -
neither good nor bad for either species. Even if their interactions are neutral, they are part of the same
ecosystem, so changes in the ecosystem can affect both species similarly or differently.

Example: California ground squirrels and mule deer both live in many California ecosystems. The
squirrels generally eat seeds, barley, oats, and acorns with some insects and bird eggs. In contrast, mule
deer largely browse on bushes and trees, with acorns being an important part of their diet in summer
and fall (Sommer et al., 2007). These two species might compete for acorns when other resources are
sparse, but they mostly exist in neutral proximity to each other. However, both are hunted by coyotes,
bobcats, and pumas, so their populations are linked through other species. For example, if the
population of squirrels declines, say from predation by red tailed hawks, there might be more predator
pressure on deer from their common predators, e.g. coyotes, bobcats, and pumas. Thus, a large
population of squirrels might reduce predation on deer, indirectly benefiting them, while also increasing
competition for acorns if other food resources are low.

Competition

Competition for resources and space is very common among species that occupy similar roles in an
ecosystem. When species compete with each other, both pay a price for that competition because they
are sharing resources. When interactions are predominantly competitive, either species would do better
if the other was not present. Competition tends to drive selection of the organisms that are best suited
for a particular ecosystem role, with the population of the better adapted species increasing relative to
that of the less well adapted species. As the population of the more successful species increases, it is
less affected by the competition because each organism experiences fewer interactions with its
competitors. In contrast, each individual of the less successful species experiences relatively more
competitive interactions, making the harm experiences greater.

Example: California grasslands have been invaded by new species of grass introduced by humans. These
new species out competed the native species due to their greater ability to reproduce in many of the
environments (see for example, Corbin and D'Antonio, 2010). The new species are taking up the space
and nutrients previously used by the native grasses. In this case, the native species experienced a
significantly greater harm during the competition than the invasive species.

Commensalism
Sometimes interactions benefit one organism while being of neither benefit nor harm to the other
organism. These types of relationships are also very common and help promote diverse ecosystems.

Examples: A tree frog in a rainforest benefits from the habitat created by the tree it lives in without
harming or benefiting the tree. A cattle egret can catch half again as much food while expending two
thirds of the energy if it searches for insects near grazing animals who disturb the insects. This activity
does not directly benefit the grazing animals, nor does it harm them.

Amensalism

Interactions can have no effect on one species while harming another. These interactions are usually
incidental to a behavior of the species that does not experience harm or benefit. They can include
interactions such as a change in the environment, incidental killing of organisms, and other influences.

Examples: Hippos consume a significant amount of undigestible organic matter, and they create a very
large volume of poop. They often poop in ponds, and these ponds can become anoxic, killing the aquatic
organisms that require oxygen to live (Pennisi, 2018). Most animals have stepped on insects, killing them.

Parasitism and Predation

Parasitism and predation both have a strong benefit for one species and a significant harm to the other.
In both cases, one organism takes resources from another. Parasitism involves one organism living off
the resources of another for an extended period of time without causing their death. Parasites benefit
from the survival of their host organism. In contrast, predation usually involves killing the prey organism
and consuming it. Often, parasites are small relative to their hosts, whereas predators are frequently
about the same size as or larger than their prey. This difference in size is related to the energy needs of
an organism relative to its size: in general, larger organisms need more energy to accumulate their
biomass and to maintain their activity. A small parasite can take energy from a larger host for an
extended period of time without killing it. In contrast, a larger organism generally needs more energy, so
it is difficult to maintain itself without killing the organism it is preying on. Similarly, it is easier to kill an
organism that is of similar size or smaller, so predators tend to prey on smaller organisms. In contrast,
parasites typically kill by causing systemic problems for their hosts, such as diseases, extracting too
many resources, or taking over cellular processes in the case of viruses.

Parasitism Examples: Parasites include organisms like ticks that live by sucking the blood of mammals.
Other parasites include mistletoe living in trees; mistletoe has evolved to plant its "roots" into the
circulation system of the trees, extracting nutrients and water from the host. This can cause significant
damage to the tree.

Q5) what are macro and micro nutrients? what is the importance of macro and micro nutrients for
human body?
Ans: Nutrients are substances found in food that are essential for the body's proper functioning and
maintenance of health. They provide energy, building materials, and help regulate body processes. The
six major classes of nutrients are: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals.
Essential nutrients are those that an organism cannot synthesize itself and must obtain from its diet.

Macronutrients

Micronutrient hydrates, proteins, and fats. Micronutrients, like vitamins and minerals, are needed in
smaller amounts but are equally vital for health.Macronutrients are the nutrients we need in larger
quantities that provide us with energy in other words, fat, protein and carbohydrate.

Macronutrients: Carbohydrates: Provide energy for the body.

Proteins: Essential for building and repairing tissues.

Fats: Provide energy and support various bodily functions.

Micronutrients

Vitamins:Organic compounds that are essential for various bodily processes, including growth,
metabolism, and immune function. Micronutrients are mostly vitamins and minerals, and are equally
important but consumed in very small amounts. We generally get our micronutrients along with
macronutrients.

Minerals:Inorganic substances that are crucial for bone health, nerve function, and other bodily
processes. .

Examples of Micronutrients: Vitamins: A, B, C, D, E, K. Minerals: Calcium, iron, magnesium,potassium,

sodium.
Both macronutrients and micronutrients play crucial roles in overall health and well-being.
Macronutrients provide the bulk of energy, while micronutrients are essential for various physiological
processes.

Macro-nutrients

The plant-based nutrients which are essential in large quantities as our body cannot produce by its self.
These macro-nutrients providing energy and supports the different metabolic system, growth, and
development of the body. Macro-nutrients include fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.

Importance of macronutrients

Each type of macronutrient performs an important role in keeping the body healthy. For optimum
health, people typically require a balance of macronutrients.Most of the body’s energy and calories
come from macronutrients. Each type of macronutrient has its own benefits and purpose in maintaining
a healthy body. The exact amount of each macronutrient a person requires may vary based on individual
factors such as weight, age, and preexisting health conditions.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are a preferred Source of energy for several body tissues, and the primary energy source
for the brain. The body can break carbohydrates down into glucose, which moves from the bloodstream
into the body’s cells and allows them to function.Carbohydrates are important for muscle contraction
during intense exercise. Even at rest, carbohydrates enable the body to perform vital functions such as
maintaining body temperature, keeping the heart beating, and digesting food. These are common in
whole grains such as rice,pasta, flour and barley . Sugar are also carbohydrates. They are also present in
starches such as potatoes and corn.

Main energy source: They are the body's primary fuel, especially for muscles and the central nervous
system.

Metabolism: They help other macronutrients be used for tissue growth and repair.Variety of complex
carbohydrates, like starches and fiber, provide a more sustained energy release than simple sugars.

Protein

Protein consists of long chains of compounds called amino acids. These play an essential role in the
growth, development, repair, and maintenance of body tissues.Protein is present in every body cell, and
adequate protein intake is important for keeping the muscles, bones, and tissues healthy. Protein also
plays a vital role in many bodily processes, such as aiding the immune system, biochemical reactions,
and providing structure and support for cells.Proteins are often present in meat, eggs, nuts, dairy,
seeds,fish and whole grains.
Building and repair: Proteins are crucial for building, repairing, and maintaining tissues, including
muscles.

Enzymes and hormones: They form essential enzymes that aid digestion, immune functions, and other
bodily processes.As energy source When carbohydrates are limited, protein can be used for energy.

Fats

Fats are an important part of the diet that can also provide the body with energy. While some types of
dietary fats may be healthier than others, they are an essential part of the diet and play a roleTrusted
Source in hormone production, cell growth, energy storage, and the absorption of important
vitamins.Healtheir unsaturated fats are common in avocado,oily fish,seeds,nuts and olive oil . Sources of
saturated fats can include meat and processed or oily food such as butter and cheese.

Energy storage: Fats provide a concentrated energy source for the body.

Cell structure: They are a key component of cell membranes.

Hormone and nutrient absorption: Fats help in the absorption of vitamins and play a role in hormone
production.

Health benefits of macronutrients

Macronutrients are different to micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, as the body requires
them in larger quantities.Each macronutrient has specific functions in your body.During digestion,
they’re broken down into smaller parts. These parts are then used for bodily functions like energy
production, muscle building, and giving structure to cells.Athletes and highly active people often need
more carbs and protein than those who are less active. They should aim for the higher end of the
recommended ranges. Extra protein supports muscle building after exercise, while carbs provide calories
to replenish energy stores.

Micro-nutrients

The plant-based nutrients which are required in very small quantities and are mainly responsible for
repairing damaged cell and tissues, prevention of infectious diseases by fighting against the disease-
causing pathogens including bacteria, virus, fungi, etc. Micro-nutrients include calcium, iron, vitamins,
iron, minerals and vitamin C.

Importance

The term micronutrients refers to vitamins and minerals, which can be divided into macrominerals, trace
minerals and water- and fat-soluble vitamins. An adequate amount of micronutrients often means
aiming for a balanced diet.Micronutrients are essential for overall health, playing crucial roles in various
bodily functions like energy production, immune function, and bone health. They include vitamins and
minerals, which are needed in smaller amounts compared to macronutrients but are vital for optimal
functioning. Micronutrients are essential for overall health, playing crucial roles in various bodily
functions like energy production, immune function, and bone health. They include vitamins and minerals,
which are needed in smaller amounts compared to macronutrients but are vital for optimal functioning.

Metabolic Processes: Micronutrients are involved in virtually all metabolic and cellular functions,
including energy metabolism, cell protection, and hormone perception.

Immune Function: Vitamins like Vitamin D and minerals like Zinc are crucial for a healthy immune
system.

Growth and Development: Micronutrients are essential for proper growth, bone development, and
brain function, especially in children.

Disease Prevention: Micronutrient deficiencies can increase the risk of various diseases and health
conditions.

Energy Production: Vitamins like B vitamins play a key role in converting food into energy.

Tissue Function: Micronutrients are necessary for maintaining healthy tissues and organs.

Vitamin A: Important for vision, immune function, and cell growth.

Vitamin D: Essential for bone health and immune function.

Vitamin E: An antioxidant that protects cells from damage.

Iron: Necessary for carrying oxygen in the blood.

Calcium: Important for bone health and muscle function.

Zinc: Involved in immune function and wound healing.

Humans must obtain micronutrients from food since your body cannot produce vitamins and minerals
for the most part. That’s why they’re also referred to as essential nutrients.Vitamins are organic
compounds made by plants and animals which can be broken down by heat, acid or air. On the other
hand, minerals are inorganic, exist in soil or water and cannot be broken down.When you eat, you
consume the vitamins that plants and animals created or the minerals they absorbed.The micronutrient
content of each food is different, so it’s best to eat a variety of foods to get enough vitamins and
minerals.An adequate intake of all micronutrients is necessary for optimal health, as each vitamin and
mineral has a specific role in your body.

Vitamins and minerals are vital for growth, immune function, brain development and many other
important functions Depending on their function, certain micronutrients also play a role in preventing
and fighting disease

water-soluble vitamins

Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Helps convert nutrients into energy .

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): Necessary for energy production, cell function and fat metabolism .

Vitamin B3 (niacin): Drives the production of energy from food .

Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): Necessary for fatty acid synthesis .

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine): Helps your body release sugar from stored carbohydrates for energy and create
red blood cells .

Vitamin B7 (biotin): Plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids and glucose .

Vitamin B9 (folate): Important for proper cell division.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): Necessary for red blood cell formation and proper nervous system and brain
function .

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Required for the creation of neurotransmitters and collagen, the main protein
in your skin.

Fat soluble vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins do not dissolve in water.They’re best absorbed when consumed alongside a source
of fat. After consumption, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your liver and fatty tissues for future use.

Vitamin A: Necessary for proper vision and organ function.

Vitamin D: Promotes proper immune function and assists in calcium absorption and bone.

Vitamin E: Assists immune function and acts as an antioxidant that protects cells from damage.

Vitamin K: Required for blood clotting and proper bone development .

Macrominerals

Macrominerals are needed in larger amounts than trace minerals in order to perform their specific roles
in your body.The macrominerals and some of their functions are:

Calcium: Necessary for proper structure and function of bones and teeth. Assists in muscle function and
blood vessel contraction .

Phosphorus: Part of bone and cell membrane structure .

Magnesium: Assists with over 300 enzyme reactions, including regulation of blood pressur.

Sodium: Electrolyte that aids fluid balance and maintenance of blood pressure.

Chloride: Often found in combination with sodium. Helps maintain fluid balance and is used to make
digestive juices .
Potassium: Electrolyte that maintains fluid status in cells and helps with nerve transmission and muscle
function .

Sulfur: Part of every living tissue and contained in the amino acids methionine and cysteine.

Health benefits of micronutrients

All micronutrients are extremely important for the proper functioning of your body.Consuming an
adequate amount of the different vitamins and minerals is key to optimal health and may even help
fight disease.This is because micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Moreover,
certain vitamins and minerals can act as antioxidants.Antioxidants may protect against cell damage that
has been associated with certain diseases, including cancer, obesity, and heart disease .For example,
research has linked an adequate dietary intake of vitamins A and C with a lower risk of some types of
cancer Getting enough iron and copper in your diet may help delay the progression of Alzheimer’s
disease.