B.Sc.

Semester-III (MATHEMATICS)
Unit I – Sets:
Definition, equality of sets, finite and infinite sets, subsets, operations on sets, De
Morgan's Laws, power sets, First principle of mathematical induction, applications of
inductions.

1.2 Introduction:

In this section, we study the fundamental discrete structure on which all other discrete
structures are built, namely, the set. Sets are used to group objects together. Often, but
not always, the objects in a set have similar properties. For instance, all the students
who are currently enrolled in college make up a set. Likewise, all the students currently
taking a course in discrete mathematics at any school make up a set. In addition, those
students enrolled in your school who are taking a course in discrete mathematics form
a set that can be obtained by taking the elements common to the first two collections.

A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements or members of the set. A set
is said to contain its elements. We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an element of the set
A. The notation a ∉ A denotes that a is not an element of the set A.

It is common for sets to be denoted using uppercase letters. Lowercase letters are usually
used to denote elements of sets. There are several ways to describe a set. One way is to
list all the members of a set, when this is possible. We use a notation where all members
of the set are listed between braces(Framing).
For example, the notation {a,b,c,d} represents the set with the four elements a,b,c, and
d.

Remember:
N={1,2,3,...}, the set of natural numbers
W={0,1,2,3,...}, the set of whole numbers
Z ={...,−2,−1,0,1,2,...}, the set of integers
Z+ ={1,2,3,...}, the set of positive integers
Q={p/q | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, and q≠0},the set of rational numbers
R, the set of real numbers
R+, the set of positive real numbers
C, the set of complex numbers
Example 1 The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as
V ={a,e,i,o,u}.

Example 2 The set O of odd positive integers less than 10 can be expressed by
O ={1,3,5,7,9}.

Example 3 The set of positive integers less than 100 can be denoted by {1,2,3,...,99}.

Venn diagrams

Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams, named after the English
mathematician John Venn, who introduced their use in 1881. In Venn diagrams the
universal set U, which contains all the objects under consideration, is represented by a
rectangle. (Note that the universal set varies depending on which objects are of interest.)
Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to represent sets.
Sometimes points are used to represent the particular elements of the set. Venn diagrams
are often used to indicate the relationships between sets.

Example 3. Draw Venn diagram that represents V, the set of vowels in the English
alphabet.

A set is any well-defined collection of objects, called the elements or members of the
set. For example, the collection of all wooden chairs, the collection of all one- legged
black birds, or the collection of real numbers between zero and one is each a set. Well
defined just means it is possible to decide if a given object belongs to the collection or
not. Almost all mathematical objects are first of all sets, regard-less of any additional
properties that they may possess. Thus, set theory is, in a sense, the foundation on which
virtually all of mathematics is constructed. In spite of this, set theory (at least the
informal brand we need) is easy to learn and use. One way of describing a set that has
a finite number of elements is by listing the elements of the set between braces. Thus
the set of all positive integers that are less than 4 can be written as
 {1, 2, 3}…………..(1)
The order in which the elements of a set are listed is not important. Thus {1, 3, 2}, {3,
2, 1}, {3, 1, 2}, {2, 1, 3}, and {2, 3, 1} are all representations of the set given in (1).
Moreover, repeated elements in the listing of the elements of a set can be ignored. Thus
{1, 3, 2, 3, 1} is another representation of the set given in (1).
We use uppercase letters such as A, B, C to denote sets and lowercase letters such as a,
b, c, x, y, z, t to denote the members (or elements) of sets.
We indicate the fact that r is an element of the set A by writing x ∈ A. We also indicate
the fact that x is not an element of A by writing x ∉ A.

Example 4. Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} Then 1 ∈ A, 3 ∈ A but 2 ∉ A

Sometimes it is inconvenient or impossible to describe a set by listing all its elements.

Another useful way to define a set is by specifying a property that the elements of the
set have in common.

We use the notation P(x) to denote a sentence or statement P concerning the variable
object x. The set defined by P(x) written x | P(x) is just the collection of all objects x
for which P is sensible and true.

For example, x |x is a positive integer less than 4 is the set {1, 2, 3} described in (1) by
listing its elements.

Example 5. The set consisting of all the letters in the word "byte" can be denoted by
{b, y, t, e} or by {x |x is a letter in the word "byte"}.

Example 6. We introduce here several sets and their notations that will be used
throughout this book.

(a) Z+ = {x| x is a positive integer}.

Thus Z+ consists of the numbers used for counting: 1,2,3,....

(b) ℕ = {x| x is a positive integer or zero}.

Thus ℕ consists of the positive integers and zero: 0, 1, 2, ...

(c) ℤ = {x| x is an integer}.

Thus ℤ consists of all the integers:..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,

(d) ℝ = {x| x is a real number).

(e) The set that has no elements in it is denoted either by { } or the symbol and is called
Ø the empty set.

Example 7. Since the square of a real number is always non-negative, {x |x is a real

number and 𝑥 2 = −1} = Ø

1.2 Equality of sets:

In mathematics, precise language is important if we are all to understand the same
meaning for a statement. For example, what does it mean for two sets to be equal?

Definition 1: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore,
if A and B are sets, then A and B are equa
l if and only if ∀ x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B).We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
OR
Definition 2. Let A and B be sets. Then, A = B or A is equal to B if both A and B have
the same elements.

Example3. The sets {1,3,5} and {3,5,1} are equal, because they have the same
elements. Note that the order in which the elements of a set are listed does not matter.
Note also that it does not matter if an element of a set is listed more than once, so {3,5,1}
is the same as the set {1, 3,5} because they have the same elements.

The word if has a special meaning when used in definitions. Definition 1 states that
A=B if A and B have the same elements. Since the word if is inside a definition, it is
implied that A ≠ B whenever the condition is not satisfied. Thus, "A = B" is just a short
way to say "A and B have the same elements."

Examples.

(a) { 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ ∶ 𝑛2 -n- 2=0} = { 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ ∶ (n − 2)(n + 1)} = {2,1}.

(b) { 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ ∶ 𝑛2 -n- 2=0} = {2} because -1 ∉ N.

(c) { 𝑥 𝜖 N ∶ (𝑥 + 1)2 -1)- (𝑥 − 1)2 - 4𝑥 = 0} = 𝑁 because

 (𝑥 + 1)2 -1)- (𝑥 − 1)2 - 4𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) - 4𝑥

= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1- 4𝑥

=0

is an algebraic identity (true for all x). The empty set 0 can be described in several ways;
for example

{ 𝑥 𝜖 N: x < x} equal to the set of round squares? We know that if two sets are equal,
then they must have the same elements.

So, if {x E N : x < } ≠ the set of round squares

then there is an element in one of these sets that is not in the other set. This cannot be
true, however, since neither set has any elements at all.

1.3 Finite and Infinite Set:

Some sets, like {0, 1, 2, 3}, have the property that a person could list their elements and
finish listing them. We can describe this condition a little more formally: Either the set
has no elements, or its elements can be matched with the elements of some subset {1, 2
.... n} of the natural numbers. Such sets are called a finite set. So, {Liverpool, London,
Los Angeles) is a finite set-that is, elements could be matched as

1 (Liverpool), 2 (London), and 3 (Los Angeles)

The empty set Ø has zero elements, so it is also finite.

Some sets are infinite sets, or not finite sets, like Z, R, and N. There is no way to match
all the elements of Z with a set {1, 2, ..... n} for any fixed n.

Definition 1. A set A is called finite if it has n distinct elements, where n in N.

In this case, n is called the cardinality of A and is denoted by |A| Thus, the sets of
Example 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are finite.

Definition 2.A set that is not finite is called infinite.

Example The set of positive integers is infinite.

Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative

integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of
S is denoted by |S|.
Remark: The term cardinality mes from the common usage of the term cardinal number
as the size of a finite set.

Example 1. Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.

Example 2. Let S be the set of letters in the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26

1.4 Subsets:
If every element of A is also an element of B, that is, if whenever x ∈ A then x ∈ B,
we say that A is a subset of B or that A is contained in B, and we write A ⊆ B. If A is
not a subset of B, we write A⊈B. (See Figure 1.1.)

FIGURE 2

In above figure, which are used to show relationships between sets, are called Venn
diagrams after the British logician John Venn.

Example 1. We have Z+ ⊆ Z. Moreover, if Q denotes the set of all rational numbers,

then Z ⊆ Q.

Example 2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, and C= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then
B⊆A, B⊆C, and C⊆A. However, A⊈B, A⊈C. and C⊈B.

Example 3. If A is any set, then A⊆A. That is, every set is a subset of itself.

Example 4. Let A be a set and let B ={A{A}}. Then, since A and {A} are elements of
B, we have A ∈ B and {A} ∈ B. It follows that {A⊆B and {{A}} ⊆B. However, it is
not true that A⊆B.
For any set A, since there are no elements of Ø that are not in A, we have Ø⊆A.

It is easy to see that A = B if and only if A⊆B and B⊆A. The collection of everything,
it turns out, cannot be considered a set with-out destroying the logical structure of
mathematics. To avoid this and other problems, which need not concern us here, we
will assume that for each discussion there is a universal set U (which will vary with the
discussion) containing all objects for which the discussion is meaningful. Any other set
mentioned in the discussion will automatically be assumed to be a subset of U. Thus, if
we are dis-cussing real numbers and we mention sets A and B, then A and B must (we
assume) be sets of real numbers, not matrices, electronic circuits, or monkeys. In most
problems, a universal set will be apparent from the setting of the problem. In Venn
diagrams, the universal set U will be denoted by a rectangle, while sets within U will
be denoted by circles, as shown in Figure.

FIGURE 3

1.5 Power Set:

Definition If A is a set, then the set of all subsets of A is called the power set of A and
is denoted by P(A).

Example What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2} ?

Solution: The power set P({0, 1, 2 }) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}

Now we write subset Ø ={}

{0},{1},{2}

{0,1},{0,2},{1,2}

{1,2,3}

Hence, P({0, 1, 2 }) ={Ø, {0},{1},{2},{0,1},{0,2},{1,2},{1,2,3}}.

Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this set of subsets.
Example What is the power set of empty set? What is the power set of {Ø}?

Solution: The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself.

Consequently, P (Ø) = {Ø} .

The set {Ø} has exactly two subsets, namely, Ø and the set {Ø} itself.

Therefore, P ({Ø}) = {Ø,{Ø}}.

If a set has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements. We will demonstrate this fact
in several ways in subsequent sections of the text.

Example. Let A = {1, 2, 3} Then P(A) consists of the following subsets of A: { }, {1},
{2}, {3}, {1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3}, and {1, 2, 3} (or A).

Exercise 1.1

1. Let A= {1, 2, 4, a, b, c} Identify each of the following as true or false.

(a) 2∈ A (b) 3∈ A (c) c ∈ A

(d) Ø∈ A (e) { } ∈ A (f) A ∈ A

2. Let A = {x | x is a real number and x < 6 }. Identify each of the following as true or
false.

(a) 3 ∈ A (b) 6 ∈ A (c) 5 ∉ A

(d) 8 ∉ A (e) - 8 ∈ A (f) 3.4 ∉ A

3. In each part, give the set of letters in each word by listing the elements of the set.

(a) AARDVARK (c) MISSISSIPPI (b) BOOK

4. In each part, give the set by listing its elements.

(a) The set of all positive integers that are less than ten

(b) { x| x ∈ Z and x 2 < 12 }

5. In each part, write the set in the form { x| P(x) } , where P(x) is a property that
describes the elements of the set.

(a) {2,4,6,8,10} (b) {a, e, i, o, u}

(c) { 1, 8, 27 ,64,125} (d) {- 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2}

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Which of the following sets are equal to A?

(a) {4, 1, 2, 3, 5} (b) {2, 3, 4} (c) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

(d) {x | x is an integer and x 2 ≤ 25 }

(e) { x | x is a positive integer and x ≤ 5 }

(f) {x | x is a positive rational number and x ≤ 5}

7. Which of the following sets are the empty set?

(a) { x |x is a real number and x2 - 1 = 0 }

(b) { x |x is a real number and x2 + 1 =0}

(c) { x |x is a real number and x2 = -9}

(d) { x |x is a real number and x= 2x +1}

(e) { x |x is a real number and x = x + 1 }

8. List all the subsets of {a, b}.

9. List all the subsets of {BASIC, PASCAL, ADA}.

10. List all the subsets of {}.

11. Let A = {1}, B = {1, a, 2, b, c} , C = {b, c} , D = {a, b} , and E = {1, a, 2, b, c, d}

For each part, fill the blank with either ⊆ or ⊈to give a true statement. Where Ø is
empty set .

(a) A ….. B (b) Ø….. A (c) C ….. E

(e)D ….. C (e) B ….. C (f) B ….. E

12. Use the Venn diagram in Figure to identify each of the following as true or false.
(a) A ⊆ B (b) B ⊆ A (c) C⊆ B

(d) x ∈ B (e) x ∈ A (f) y ∈ B

13.(a) If A = {3, 7} , find P(A)

(b) What is |A| ?

(c) What is |P(A)| ?

14. (a) If A = {3, 7, 2} , find P(A)

(b) What is |A| ?

(c) What is |P(A)| ?

15. Draw a Venn diagram that represents these relationships.

(a) A ⊆ B A⊆ C B ⊈C and C ⊈ B

(b) x ∈ A x∈ B x∉ n C y ∈ B y ∈ C and y ∉ A

16. Prove that if A⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

1.6 Operation on Set:

Introduction

Two, or more, sets can be combined in many different ways. For instance, starting with
the set of mathematics majors at your college and the set of computer science majors at
your college, we can form the set of students who are mathematics majors or computer
science majors, the set of students who are joint majors in mathematics and computer
science, the set of all students not majoring in mathematics, and so on.

An element x belongs to the union of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to A or
x belongs to B. This tells us that A cup B=[x|x in A vee x \in B \ . The Venn diagram
shown in Figure 1 represents the union of two sets A and B. The area that represents A
cup B is the shaded area within either the circle representing A or the circle representing
B. We will give some examples of the union of sets.

In many areas of computer science and mathematics, from formal logic to object-
oriented programming, the operations to be performed must be considered in the context
of a specific set. For example, familiar operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, are performed within a specific set of numbers, such as the
integers, rationals, or reals. This section discusses operations on sets and introduces the
most common operations: union, intersection, difference, complement, product, and
power set of a set. We study the laws these operations satisfy as well as how they interact
with one another. We then extend our discussion to lattices and boolean algebras.
Lattices and boolean algebras have two operations defined on their elements such that
a set of special axioms for these operations holds. An example of a lattice is a family of
sets with the operations defined as set union and set intersection.

1.6.1 Union and Intersection

The two simplest operations on sets involve combining two sets into one (union) and
finding common elements in two sets (intersection). These operations obey many of the
general rules that addition and multiplication with real numbers also satisfy. The first
operation consists of combining two sets into a set containing the elements of both sets.

Definition 1. Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A U B, is
the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.

{x :x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
 FIGURE 4
Venn diagram for set union i.e A U B

When mathematicians say x ∈ A or x ∈ B, they generally mean x ∈ A or x ∈ B or

both. This interpretation is called the inclusive or because it includes the possibility that
both may be true.

Example 1.

(a) A = {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 4, 5}

A U B = {1, 2, 3} U {3, 4, 5}

= {1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5}

(b) A = {1, 2, {1, 2, 3}} B = {1, 2, 3, 11, 21}

{1, 2, {1, 2, 3}} U {1, 2, 3, {1, 2}} = {1, 2, 3, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}}.

(c) ℕ U ℤ = ℤ

(d) For any set A, A U Ø = A.

Why was the definition of the union of three or more sets not given? The more general
union operation, for any finite number of sets, is handled by the assumption that A U B
U C means (A U B) U C. Therefore, it is only necessary to find unions of two sets at a
time, and that has already been defined. The shaded region in Figure 1.5 shows the
union of three sets.

FIGURE 5
AUBUC
Some Fundamental Results about set union
Theorem 1. Let A, B, and C be sets. Then: (a) A U A = A. ( Idenmpotent Law)
(b) A⊆ A U B and B⊆A U B.
(c) A U B = B U A. (Commutative Law for Union)
(d) A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C. (Associative Law for Union)
Proof: (a) [ let A=B s.t A⊆B and B⊆A ]
Let x ∈ (A U A) => x ∈ A or x ∈ A
=> x ∈ (A U A)
(A U A) ⊆ A…………….(i)
Let x ∈ A then
x ∈ A => x ∈ A or x ∈ A
A ⊆ (A U A)……………………(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
AUA=A
(b) Let x ∈ A => x ∈ A or x ∈ B
=> x ∈ A U B
∀ x ∈ A => x ∈ A U B
=> A ⊆ A U B
Similarly B⊆A U B
(c) Consider x ∈ A U B <=> x ∈ A or x ∈ B
<=> x ∈ B or x ∈ A
x ∈ A U B <=> x ∈ B U A
A U B ⊆ B U A and B U A⊆ A U B
Therefore A⊆ A U B and B⊆A U B.
(d) Let x ∈ (A U B) U C …………(iii)
x ∈ A B or x ∈ C
x ∈ A, x ∈ B, x ∈ C
x ∈ A or x ∈ B U C
x ∈ A U (B U C)………………..(iv)
From (iii) and (iv)
A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C.
Definition 2. Let A and B be sets. The intersection ∩ of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is
the set containing those element in both A and B.

{x :x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

FIGURE 6
Venn diagram for set intersection A ∩ B

Example 2.(a) {1,2, 3} ∩ {3,4,51 = {3}.

(b) {1, 2, 3} ∩ {4, 5, 6} = 0.

(c) N ∩ Z = Z

(d) For any set A, A ∩ Ø = A.

(e) {1, 2, 3} ∩ {{1, 2, 3}1 = Ø. (The first set has three elements, 1, 2, and 3, whereas
the second set has only one element, {1, 2, 3}).

1.6.2. Some fundamental results about set intersection

Theorem 2. Let A, B, and C be sets. Then: (a) A ∩ A = A. (Idempotent Law)

(b) A⊆ A ∩ B and B⊆A ∩ B.
(c) A ∩ B = B ∩ A. (Commutative Law for Intersection)
(d) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. (Associative Law for Intersection)
Proof: Try yourself.
Theorem 3. (Set Distributivity) Let A, B, and C be sets. Then:
(a) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C). (Distributive Law for Union)
(b) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A∩ C). (Distributive Law for Intersection)
Definition 3. Let A and B be sets. Then, A and B are disjoint sets if A ∩ B = Ø
Example 3. (a) Verify that {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint.
(b) Verify that {1, 2, 31 and {{1, 2, 3}} are disjoint.

(c) For any set A, verify that A and 0 are disjoint

Theorem 4. Let A, B, and C be sets. Then:

(a) If A ⊆ B or A ⊆ C, then A ⊆ B U C.

(b) If B ⊆ A and C⊆A, then B U C ⊆ A.

(c) If A ⊆ B and A⊆C, then A ⊆ B∩C.

(d) If B ⊆ A or C⊆A, then B ∩ C ⊆ A.

Theorem 5. (An Absorption Law) Let A and B be sets. Then, A U (A ∩ B) = A

1.6.2. Generalized Unions and Intersections

The definitions of union and intersection make good sense for any finite number of sets,
because the operations are associative. There are occasions, however, when one would
like to express the idea of the union of an infinite collection of sets. This leads to the
generalization of the notion of set union and intersection given in the next definition.

Definition 4. Let X be a set of sets. Then,

UX = {x: x is contained in some set in A}

and ∩X = {x: x is contained in every set in A)

If A = {X0, X1 ….. Xn.....}

That is, the elements of A are indexed with the natural numbers, the union of sets UX
is usually written as

and the intersection of sets ∩X is usually written as

Definition 5. Let A and B be sets. The set difference of A and B, denoted A - B, is

{x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B }

FIGURE 7
A-B

Example.

(a) Let A = {1, 2. 10} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9}. Then, A - B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

(b) Let A = ℕ and B = {2i : i ∈ ℕ }. Then, A - B = {2i + 1: i ∈ ℕ}.

The difference A - B is also sometimes call the relative difference. The Venn dia gram
(shown in Figure 1.9) gives an intuitive understanding of this notion. Remember that
Venn diagrams suggest relations between or among sets but are not actually proofs of
relationships between or among sets. Theorem 6 proves some key relationships
involving the difference of two sets, A - B and B - A.

Theorem 6. Let A and B be sets. Then:

(a) A - B and B - A are disjoint, A - B and A n B are disjoint, and A ∩ B and B - A are
disjoint.

(b) A= (A-B) U (AUB).

(c) A U B= (A-B) U (A∩B) U (B - A).

(d) A⊆B if and only if A - B = Ø.

Proof. If you look at a Venn diagram for two sets and identify A - B, B - A, and A ∩
B, it looks like the sets are disjoint. This theorem says that your intuition from the
diagram is correct. The proofs of (a)-(d) are left as exercises for the reader.
 FIGURE 8

Complements of a set
Definition 6. Let U be a universal set and A be a subset of U. The complement of A,
denoted Ā, is

{x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}

Sometimes, to emphasize that U is a universal set, Ā is also called the absolute

difference.

With this definition, we can restate Definition 5 as A - B = Ā∩B. Some important

identities concern complements, especially how they interact with other set-theoretic
operations.

A Computer Representation for Sets

Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} be a set, and let X ⊆ U. A bit representation for X is a six-

digit binary number x1x2x3x4x5x6 with bit xi for 1≤ i ≤ 6 defined as

For example, if B = {2, 3, 6} then B = 11001 The operations of union, intersection, and
complement can be carried out using operators UNION, INTER, DIFF, and COMP that
operate on binary numbers bit-by-bit. Let B, C ⊆ U with B = b1b2b3b4b5b6 and C =
c1c2c3c4c5c6 .

Define the union as UNION(B, C) = x1x2x3x4x5x6 where for 1≤ i ≤ 6,

Define the intersection as INTER(B, C) = x1x2x3x4x5x6, where for 1≤ i ≤ 6

Define the complement as COMP(B)= x1x2x3x4x5x6, where for 1≤ i ≤ 6

Define the relative difference as DIFF(B, C) = x1x2x3x4x5x6, where for 1≤ i ≤ 6

Example Let B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) be subsets of the universal set

U = {1, 2, ..., 9). Find UNION(B, C), INTER(B, C), COMP(C), and DIFF(B, C).

Solution. BUC = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). B∩C = {3, 4, 5). C = {1, 2,9}. B - C = {1, 2}.
Therefore,

UNION(B, C) = 111111110

INTER(B, C) = 001110000

COMP(C) = 110000001

DIFF(B, C) = 110000000

Complement of a Set

Recall that a universal set is a set that contains as a subset every set currently being dis
cussed. In a context in which there is a universal set, another set theoretic operation can
be defined.

Definition Let U be a universal set and A be a subset of U. The complement of A,

denoted A, is

{x :x ∈ A and x ∉ A}

Sometimes, to emphasize that U is a universal set, 𝐴̅ is also called the absolute

difference.
 ̅ . Some important
With this definition, we can restate Definition 5 as A - B = A ∩ 𝐵
identities concern complements, especially how they interact with other set-theoretic
operations.

1.7 De Morgan's Laws

AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN (1806–1871) Augustus De Morgan was born in India,
where his father was a colonel in the Indian army. De Morgan’s family moved to
England when he was 7 months old. He attended private schools, where in his early
teens he developed a strong interest in mathematics. De Morgan studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, graduating in 1827. Although he considered medicine or law, he
decided on mathematics for his career. He won a position at University College,
London, in 1828, but resigned after the college dismissed a fellow professor without
giving reasons. However, he resumed this position in 1836 when his successor died,
remaining until 1866. De Morgan was a noted teacher who stressed principles over
techniques. His students included many famous mathematicians, including Augusta
Ada, Countess of Lovelace, who was Charles Babbage’s collaborator in his work on
computing machines (see page 31 for biographical notes on Augusta Ada). (De Morgan
cautioned the countess against studying too much mathematics, because it might
interfere with her childbearing abilities!) De Morgan was an extremely prolific writer,
publishing more than 1000 articles in more than 15 periodicals. De Morgan also wrote
textbooks on many subjects, including logic, probability, calculus, and algebra. In 1838
he presented what was perhaps the first clear explanation of an important proof
technique known as mathematical induction, a term he coined. In the 1840s De Morgan
made fundamental contributions to the development of symbolic logic. He invented
notations that helped him prove propositional equivalences, such as the laws that are
named after him. In 1842 De Morgan presented what is considered to be the first precise
definition of a limit and developed new tests for convergence of infinite series. De
Morgan was also interested in the history of mathematics and wrote biographies of
Newton and Halley. In 1837 De Morgan married Sophia Frend, who wrote his
biography in 1882. De Morgan’s research, writing, and teaching left little time for his
family or social life. Nevertheless, he was noted for his kindness, humor, and wide range
of knowledge

De Morgan's Laws are among the most important and useful results about sets. These
laws describe how union, intersection, and complement are related.
Theorem 8. (De Morgan's Laws) Let U be a universal set, and let A and B be subsets
of U. Then: (a) ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 U 𝐵 )= 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅. (De Morgan's Law for Union)

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(b) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴̅ U 𝐵
̅ . (De Morgan's Law for Intersection)

Proof. : (a) x∈ ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 U 𝐵 ) <=> x ∉ A U B

<=> x ∉ A and x ∉ B

<=> x∈ 𝐴̅ and x∈ 𝐵
̅

<=>x∈ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅

 x∈ ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 U 𝐵 ) <=> x∈ 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅

Thus ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 U 𝐵 )= 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅.

(b) x∈ ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) <=> x ∉ A ∩ B

<=> x ∉ A or x ∉ B

<=> x∈ 𝐴̅ or x∈ 𝐵
̅

<=>x∈ 𝐴̅ U 𝐵̅

 x∈ ( 𝐴
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∩ 𝐵 ) <=> x∈ 𝐴̅ U 𝐵
̅

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Thus (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴̅ U 𝐵
̅

Example. Verify De Morgan's Laws for the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 5, 6, 8}
when the universal set is U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.

𝐴 U 𝐵 = { ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Solution: ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 } = {7}.

𝐴̅ = {5,6,7,8}. 𝐵̅ = {1,2,4,7}.

𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅ = {7}

It now follows that ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝐴 U 𝐵 )= 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅………. (De Morgan's Law for Union)
1.7 First principle of mathematical induction
In general, mathematical induction ∗ can be used to prove statements that assert that
P(n) is true for all positive integers n, where P(n) is a propositional function. A proof
by mathematical induction has two parts, a basis step, where we show that P(1) is true,
and an inductive step, where we show that for all positive integers k, if P(k)is true, then
P(k+ 1) is true.

Theorem: Principle of Mathematical Induction

To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n, where P(n) is a propositional
function, we complete two steps:
1. verify that P(1) is true.
2. We show that the conditional statement P(k)→ P(k+1) is true for all positive integers
k.
OR

Let P(n) be a statement about a positive integer n such that the following holds:

(a) P(1) is true.

(b) If P(k) is true for true. For some k ∈N, then P(k+1) is true.
Then the statement P(n) is true for all n ∈ N.

To complete the inductive step of a proof using the principle of mathematical induction,
we assume that P(k) is true for an arbitrary positive integer k and show that under this
assumption, P(k+1) must also be true. The assumption that P(k) is true is called the
inductive hypothesis. Once we complete both steps in a proof by mathematical
induction, we have shown that P(n) is true for all positive integers, that is, we have
shown that ∀ n P(n) is true where the quantification is over the set of positive integers.
In the inductive step, we show that ∀k(P(k) → P(k+ 1)) is true, where again, the domain
is the set of positive integers.

Expressed as a rule of inference, this proof technique can be stated as

(P(1) ∧ ∀k (P(k)→ P(k+1))) →∀ n P(n),

when the domain is the set of positive integers. Because mathematical induction is such
an important technique, it is worth while to explain in detail the steps of a proof using
this technique. The first thing we do to prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n
is to show that P(1) is true. This amounts to showing that the particular statement
obtained when n is replaced by 1 in P(n) is true. Then we must show that P(k)→ P(k+1)
is true for every positive integer k. To prove that this conditional statement is true for
every positive integer k, we need to show that P(k+1) cannot be false when P(k)is true.
This can be accomplished by assuming that P(k) is true and showing that under this
hypothesis P(k+ 1) must also be true.

Remark: In a proof by mathematical induction it is not assumed that P(k)is true for all
positive integers! It is only shown that if it is assumed that P(k)is true, then P(k+ 1) is
also true. Thus, a proof by mathematical induction is not a case of begging the question,
or circular reasoning. When we use mathematical induction to prove a theorem, we first
show that P(1) is true. Then we know that P(2) is true, because P(1) implies P(2).
Further, we know that P(3) is true, because P(2) implies P(3). Continuing along these
lines, we see that P(n) is true for every positive integer n.

Historical Note
The first known use of mathematical induction is in the work of the sixteenth-century
mathematician Francesco Maurolico (1494–1575). Maurolico wrote extensively on the
works of classical mathematics and made many contributions to geometry and optics.
In his book Arithmeticorum Libri Duo, Maurolico presented a variety of properties of
the integers together with proofs of these properties. To prove some of these properties,
he devised the method of mathematical induction. His first use of mathematical
induction in this book was to prove that the sum of the first n odd positive integers
equals n2. Augustus De Morgan is credited with the first presentation in 1838 of formal
proofs using mathematical induction, as well as introducing the terminology
“mathematical induction.” Maurolico’s proofs were informal and he never used the
word “induction.” See [Gu11] to learn more about the history of the method of
mathematical induction.

1.8 Mathematical induction application induction

* It is a technique to prove mathematical statements involving positive integers.

STEPS:

Let the given statement be denoted by S(n).

2. Take n=1 and verify that S(1) is true.

3. Assume that S(k) is true.

4. Verify that S(K+1) is true by using step 3.

5. S(n) is true by principle of mathematical induction.

𝑛(𝑛+1)
Example1. Show that mathematical 1+2+3+………………..+ n =
2

𝑛(𝑛+1)
Solution: Let the given statement be denoted by S(n) =
2

At n = 1,
1(1+1)
S(1) = = 1 , which is true
2

At n = 𝑘

Assume that S(k) is true,

𝑘(𝑘+1)
1+2+3+………………..+ 𝑘 =
2

At n = k+1
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+1+1)
1+2+3+………………..+ 𝑘 + 𝑘 +1 =
2

(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
=
2

(𝑘+2)
= (𝑘 + 1)
2

𝐾
= (𝑘 + 1)[ + 1]
2

1
= (𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 2)
2

 S(𝑘 + 1) is true
 S(n) is true by principal of mathematical induction.
 𝑛
Example 2. Shown that 12 + 22 + 32 +………… n2 = (n + 1)(2n + 1), n ≥ 1 by
6
mathematical imduction.
𝑛
Sol. Let the given statement be denoted by S(n) = (n + 1)(2n + 1)
6

I. n = 1
1
S(1)= (1 + 1)(2(1) + 1)
6

1
S(1)= (1+ 1)(2 + 1)
6

1
S(1)= (2)(3)
6

S(1)= 1

S(1) is true

Ⅱ. Assume that S(k) is true

𝑘
12 + 22 + 32 +………… k2 = (k + 1)(2k + 1)
6

ⅡI. n = k+1
(k + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 +………… k2+ (k+1) 2 = (k + 1+1)+ (2(k+1)+1)
6

(k + 1)
= (k + 2) (2k+2+1)
6

(k + 1)
= (k + 2) (2k+3)
6

(k + 1)
= (2k 2+ 3k+4k+6)
6

(k + 1)
= (2k 2+ 4k+3k+6)
6

(k + 1)
= [2k (k+2)+3(k+6)]
6

(k + 1)
= [(k+2) (2k+3)]
6

(k + 1)
= (k+2) (2k+3)
6

 S(𝑘 + 1) is true
 S(n) is true by principal of mathematical induction
Example 3. Use mathematical induction to show that 1 +2+22+···+2n =2n+1−1 for all
nonnegative integers n.

Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that 1 +2+22+···+2n =2n+1−1 for the integer n.

i.e P(n) = 1 +2+22+···+2n = 2n+1−1

I. n = 1

P(1) = 20+1−1

= 21−1

= 2−1

=1

Ⅱ. Assume that P(k) is true

P(k) = 1 +2+22+···+2k = 2k+1−1

ⅡI. n = k+1

P(k+1) = 1 +2+22+···+2k +2k+1= 2(k+1)+1−1

= 2k+2−1

 P(𝑘 + 1) is true
 P(n) is true by principal of mathematical induction.

Example 4. Sums of Geometric Progressions Use mathematical induction to prove this

formula for the sum of a finite number of terms of a geometric progression with initial
term a and common ratio r:

𝑛 𝑎𝑟 𝑛+1 −𝑎
∑=0 𝑎𝑟 𝑗 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = when r≠1
𝑟−1

where n is a nonnegative integer.

𝑎𝑟 𝑛+1 −𝑎
Solution: Let the given statement be denoted by P(n) =
𝑟−1

At n = 0,
𝑎𝑟 0+1 −𝑎
P(0) =
𝑟−1
 𝑎𝑟−𝑎
P(0) =
𝑟−1

𝑎(𝑟−1)
= =𝑎,
𝑟−1

P(0) is true, because P(0) = 𝑎

At n = 𝑘

Assume that P(k) is true,

𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 −𝑎
P(k) = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑟2 + 𝑎𝑟3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟𝑘 =
𝑟−1

At n = k+1

𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1+1 −𝑎
P(k+1) = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟1 + 𝑎𝑟2 + 𝑎𝑟3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟𝑘 + 𝑎𝑟𝑘+1 =
𝑟−1

𝑎𝑟 𝑘+2 −𝑎
=
𝑟−1

𝑎𝑟 𝑘+2 −𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1

=
𝑟−1

(𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 −𝑎 )+(𝑎𝑟 𝑘+2 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1 )

=
𝑟−1

𝑘+1 𝑘+2
(𝑎𝑟 −𝑎) (𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝑟𝑘+1 )
= 𝑟−1
+
𝑟−1

𝑘+1
(𝑎𝑟 −𝑎) (𝑟 −1) 𝑎𝑟𝑘+1
= 𝑟−1
+
𝑟−1

𝑘+1
(𝑎𝑟 −𝑎)
= 𝑟−1
+ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1

 S(𝑘 + 1) is true
 S(n) is true by principal of mathematical induction.
Example 5. Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality

𝑛 < 2𝑛
for all positive integers 𝑛.

Solution: Let the given statement be denoted by P(n) = 𝑛 < 2𝑛

At n = 1,

P(1) = 1 < 21 , which is true

At 𝑛 = 𝑘

P(k) = 1 < 2𝑘

Assume that P(k) is true,

At 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

P(𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 + 1 < 2𝑘+1 ,

We know 𝑘 < 2𝑘

Multiply both sides of the inequality by 2

𝑘
2. 𝑘 < 2.2
𝑘+1
2𝑘 < 2.2

We need to show that 𝑘 + 1 < 2𝑘 this is true for 𝑘 ≥ 2.

If 𝑘 = 1, 𝑘 + 1 = 2 and 2𝑘 = 2, so 𝑘 + 1 = 2𝑘.

𝑘 ≥ 2, then 𝑘 + 1 < 2𝑘 because 1 < 𝑘.

Since 𝑘 + 1 ≤ 2𝑘 for 𝑘 ≥ 1, and we have 2𝑘 < 2𝑘+1 .

Therefore, the in equality holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

 S(𝑘 + 1) is true
 S(n) is true by principal of mathematical induction.