ROYAL COLLEGE ASABA (SS2 PHYSICS 3RD TERM)

WEEK TOPIC CONTENT

(1) Production of mechanical waves.

(2) Pulsating system; energy transmitted with definite speed frequency and wavelength.

1 Production and (3) Wave form; description and graphical representation.

propagation of waves
(4) Mathematical relationships among F, ⋋, T, and V.

(5) Sound and light as wave phenomena.

(1) Longitudinal waves

(2) Transverse waves

2 Types of waves (3) Wave equation

2 πx
Y=A sin (wt - )
⋋

(1) Reflection of wave: laws of reflection

(2) Super position of waves; two waves in the same direction (Progressive wave), two waves in
opposite direction (Standing or stationary waves)
3 Properties of waves
(3) Refraction of waves; laws of refraction

(1) Sources of light

(2) Light and matter

(3) Transmission of light.

4 Light waves I (4) Reflection of light at: Plane mirror surface, Curved mirrors

(5) Formation of images b; Plane mirrors, Curved mirrors

(6) Laws reflection

(7) Parabolic mirrors as application of reflection of light on curved surfaces

(1) Refraction of light through; Rectangular glass block, Triangular prism

(2) Laws of refracting

(3) Critical angle and total internal reflection.

5 Light Waves II (4) Angle of deviation.

(5) Dispersion of white light.

(6) 5m energy and radiation to the earth

(7) Refection of light through; Converging lenses, Diverging lenses

(1) Sources of sound.

 (2) Transmission of sound.

6 Sound Waves I (3) Noise and music

(4) Pitch, loudness and quality.

(5) Forced vibrations; Resonance, Harmonics and over lories.

(6) Speed of sound in; Solid, Liquid, Air

7 Sound Waves II (7) Velocity of sound it’s measurement.

(8) Stationary waves.

(1) The human eye.

(2) Companion of eye and camera.

8 Human Eye (3) Defects of vision

(4) Correction of defects.

(1) Wind instruments: clarinet, flute, saxophone, trumpet

Application of sound (2) Stringed instruments:guitar, sonometer, piano

waves
9 (3) Percussion instruments:drum, bell, the talking drum.

(4) Echoes and their applications

(5) Hearing aids.

(1) Simple periscope

Application of lenses (2) Simple camera and film projector

and planes mirrors
10 and musical (3) Simple and compound microscope
instruments
(4) Telescope

(5) Local musical instruments

11/12 REVISION AND EXAMINATION REVISION AND EXAMINATION

WAVES

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and transfers energy from one point to another without causing any
permanent displacement of the medium itself.

The types of waves based on medium of propagation include:

1. Mechanical waves: These are waves that require a material medium for their propagation.
Examples are sound wave, waves in slinky, water waves, waves on a rope or string.
2. Electromagnetic waves: These are waves that do not require any medium for their propagation.
Examples include light waves, microwaves, infrared, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radio waves.
The types of waves based on direction of propagation include:

1. Longitudinal Waves: Longitudinal waves are defined as waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction
of energy transfer.
The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion. They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium. They
can move in solids, liquids and gases. They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles). The parts of longitudinal waves
are compression where the particles are close together and rarefaction where the particles are spread apart.

Examples of this wave are sound waves, Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas, compression wave,
vibration in a spring, P-waves(a type of seismic wave, a primary wave of an earthquake), tsunami waves.

2. Transverse waves: Transverse waves are defined as waves where the points along its length vibrate at right angles to the
direction of energy transfer.

Examples of transverse wave include; Ripples on the surface of water, vibrations on a guitar string, S-waves (a type of seismic wave),
electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

COMPARING TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES

The types of waves based on energy transfer include:

1. Stationary or standing wave: A standing or stationary wave is a wave that is produced when two waves of the same frequency
and amplitude superimposed or overlap. . It is formed by the combination of two waves moving in opposite directions but having
equal frequency and amplitude. Thus, the crest of the incident wave coincides with the trough of the reflected wave and vice-versa
a Node is produced. We therefore define node as a point on a stationary wave where there is no movement of the medium. The
displacement at this point is always zero. Points ‘AN’ are the antinodes. These are points of maximum displacement.. Antinode is a
λ
point on the stationary wave where there is maximum displacement of the medium. The nodes and antinodes are apart. These
2
waves are noticeable in musical instruments like guitars or flutes. They are also observed in optical media such as optical cavities
and waveguides.
2. Progressive wave: A progressive wave is a wave that travels and continues to spread out from the source of disturbance.
Transverse waves, longitudinal waves and polarised waves are examples of progressive waves.
THE RIPPLE TANK
The ripple tank is a container that when filled with water permits the study of water waves. A concentrated light source positioned
above the tank forms images of the waves on a screen beneath the tank. Wave crests and troughs project light and dark lines in the
screen. The crests act as converging lenses that focus light, producing the bright lines. The troughs act as diverging lenses that
scatter light, producing the dark lines. The depth at which the dipper is placed affects the amplitude of the waves, while the
frequency of waves is determined by the frequency of vibration of the dipper.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES

A wave can be represented as shown in the diagram below.

1) Wavefront : This is a region in front of an advancing wave. The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is
sometimes called a ray. The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength. When the wavefronts are close
together, this represents a wave with a short wavelength. When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with
a long wavelength
 A plane wavefront
2) Crest: This is a point of maximum upward displacement of the particles of the medium.
3) Trough: This is a point of maximum downward displacement of the particles of the medium.
4) Phase: The particles of a wave are said to be in phase when they are at the same vertical distance from their mean position
and are moving in the same direction.
5) Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of the particles as measured from the mean position.
6) Period (T): This is the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation. Its unit is seconds. It can also be defined as the
time taken for the wave to cover one wavelength.

From a to B is a cycle. The time for the wave to move from A to B is called PERIOD
timetaken
Period =
number of oscillation
t
T=
n
7) Frequency (f): . It is defined as the number of oscillations per second. It is also defined as the number of waves passing a
point in a second The SI unit for wave frequency is the Hertz (Hz) or S-1.
Number of oscillation
Frequency =
time taken
n
f=
t
1 1
Period and frequency are related by the formula T = and F=
F T
8) Wavelength (λ): Wavelength is defined as the distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave. It is
also the distance between two successive crests or troughs in phase. It can also be defined as the distance covered by the wave
after completing a circle. It is measured in metres. In longitudinal waves the wavelength can be measured from the centre of one
compression to the centre of the next compression.
9) Wave velocity (v): This is the distance (x) the wave travels with time (t). its unit is m/s.
distance
V=
time
During one cycle, the distance travelled = wavelength
Time to complete one cycle = period.
Therefore;
Wavelength λ
V= V= and V = λf
period T
Example 1
A wave travels a distance of 100m in 5 seconds. The distance between successive crests of the wave is 25cm. Calculate the
frequency of the wave.
Solution:
25
Distance = 100m, time = 5 seconds wavelength, λ = 25cm = = 0.25m
100
distance 100
Velocity = = = 20ms-1
time 4
 v 20
But v = λf Hence, f = = = 80Hz
λ 0.25
Example 2
A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200kHz. If the speed of the wave is 3.0 x 108 m/s, calculate the period and the
wavelength of the wave.
Solution
Frequency, f = 200kHz = 200000Hz, velocity, v = 3.0 × 108 ms-1
1 1
Period, T = Hence, T = = 0.00005Hz
f 20000
Using Wavelength λ = vT λ = 3 × 108 x 2 × 105 = 1.5 × 103m
Example 3
A vibrating source which has a frequency of 500Hz produces a sound whose velocity in air is 330m/s. Determine the distance which
the sound travels when the source completes 100 vibrations.
Solution
Number of oscillations, n = 100 frequency, f = 500Hz Wave velocity, v = 330ms-1
n n 100
Using f = hence, t = = = 0.2s
t f 500
d
But v = , hence, d = vt
t
d = 330 x 0.2 = 66m
Example 4
A wave travels a distance of 20m in 3s. The distance between successive crests of the wave is 4m. What is the frequency of the
wave?
Solution
Wavelength = 4m Wave distance, S = 20m time taken, t = 3s frequency, f = ?
Wave distance 20 m
Using Wave Speed = = = 6.67ms–1
timetaken 3s
v 6.67
But V= λf = hence frequency, f = = = 1.67Hz
λ 4

Example 5

From the diagram below determine the frequency of the wave.

Solution

1
Number of oscillation, n = 2 = 2.5 Time taken for oscillation, t = 0.25s frequency, f = ?
2

Number of oscillation n 2.5

Using Frequency, f = i.e f = = = 10Hz
time taken t 0.25

Example
The figure below represents a displacement-time graph of a traveling wave moving with a speed of 2ms−1.
Determine from the graph, the;
1. Amplitude

2. Period

3. Wavelength of the wave

Solution

Velocity of wave, v= 2ms−1

I) From the graph the Amplitude, A = 0.2cm ii) Time to complete one oscillation is the period, from the graph, the

period,T = 0.1 iii) Using λ = VT

λ = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2m

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF A PROGRESSIVE WAVE MOTION

A progressive wave is any wave, transverse or longitudinal that spreads out from a vibrating source and transfers energy as it
travels. A displacement-time graph of its motion can be represented by the graph below.

2 πx
Y = A Sin
λ
Where, Y = vertical displacement of the oscillating particle. λ = Wavelength

A = Amplitude x = horizontal distance travelled by the particle from the origin.

2 πx
= phase difference of a wave particle at a distance x from the origin.
λ
Recall that Y = A Sin θ

Y = A Sin wt (θ = wt)

Y = A Sin 2πft (w = 2πft)

2 πx
Y = A Sin (2πft ± )…………………(i)
λ

v
But λ =
f
2 πfx
Y = (2πft ± ¿…………………(ii)
V
 But w = 2πf
wx
Y = (2πft ± )……………………(iii)
V

1
But f =
T

2 πt 2 πx
Y = A Sin ( ± )………………(iv)
T λ

Example 1
A progressive wave has a wavelength of 50cm. Calculate the phase difference between two points at a distance of 20cm.

Solution
Wavelength, λ = 50cm distance from origin, x = 20cm

Using phase difference between two points

Example 2
A wave is represented by the equation Y = 2 Sin(0.5x - 200t), where all distances are measured in centimeters and time in seconds.
For this wave, determine it's;

(i) Maximum displacement

(ii) frequency

(iii) Wavelength

(iv) Speed

Solution
i) Maximum displacement, A = 2cm
2 πx
ii) Comparing Y = A Sin (2πft ± )
λ

with Y = 2 Sin(0.5x − 200t)

200 100
2πft = 200t Then f = = Hz OR 31.82Hz
2π π

2 πx
iii) Comparing Y = A Sin (2πft ± )
λ

with Y = 2 Sin(0.5x − 200t)

2 πx
λ = 0.5x Then = 0.5 λ= = (4π)cm OR 12.57cm

2 πfx
iv) Comparing Y = (2πft ± ¿
V
Y = 2 Sin(0.5x − 200t)
 Cambridge Professiona
2 πfx
= 0.5x
V

v= = (4π)ms−1 or 12.57ms−1
REFLECTION OF WAVES
Reflection occurs in waves when they encounter an obstacle and are made to propagate in the opposite direction as shown in the
diagram below

Reflection also occurs in sound and light waves. Sound heard after reflection of sound waves is called an echo.
LESSON PLAN: PHYSICS

Date: 5th of May ,2025

Class: Year 11

Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson ,students should be able to

Ø Explain Production of mechanical waves.
Ø Understand Pulsating system;energy transmitted with definite
speed frequency and wavelength.
Ø Understand Wave form;description and graphical representation.
Ø Understand Mathematical relationships among F, ⋋, T, and V.
Ø Sound and light as wave phenomena.

Vocabulary: Wavemotion, mechanical wave, electromagnetic wave, transverse wave,

longitudinal wave, frequency, wavelenghth, period

Previous learning: Revision of previous term work

Starter The teacher gives the students puzzle diagram on waves
(3mins)

Introduction Teacher requires the students to define the word wave motion
(Activate & Demonstrate)
(5mins) The students participate in the class discussion by explaining wave motion

Main A teacher guides the students to;

(Discus,Consolidate,AFL) Explain Production of mechanical waves.
(25mins)
Explain Pulsating system;energy transmitted with definite speed frequency
and wavelength.

Explain Wave form; description and graphical representation.

 Explain Mathematical relationships among F, ⋋, T, and V.

Sound and light as wave phenomena.

Plenary
(summarise)
Teacher concludes by summarizing the salient points.
(4mins)
End
(bring class to a close) Teacher evaluates the students by asking the following questions:
(3mins)
Ø define wave motion
Ø Define mechanical waves
Ø Define electromagnetic wave
Ø Define transverse wave
Ø Define longitudinal wave
Students enthusiastically supply answers to the questions while the teacher
examines and corrects where necessary.

REFRACTION OF WAVES
Refraction is a change in the direction and speed of waves as they pass from one medium to another of different densities.
It is accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. Refraction occurs when the wave is made to travel through
two media of different densities.

When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas they slow down
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
Interference is a phenomenon whereby two or more waves of the same frequency, amplitude and wavelength traveling in the same
direction are superimposed or overlap. We have two types of interference namely, constructive and destructive interference.

Constructive Interference: For constructive interference, the two waves are superimposed in the same phase. i.e crests on crests or
troughs on troughs. This will lead to increased or maximum disturbance. The lines joining the points where there is constructive
interference are called antinodal lines.
Destructive Interference: For destructive interference the lines joining the points where the waves are out of phase i.e where the
crests of one wave overlap with the troughs of another wave are called nodal lines. Here the resultant disturbance is zero. Here the
waves appear stationary.

DIFFRACTION OF WAVES
Diffraction is the spreading of waves around corners when the traveling waves encounter obstacles with a hole (aperture). The
bending of the waves depend on the size of the aperture. If the width of the aperture is smaller than the wavelength, the waves will
bend and spread out more as shown in the diagram below.

POLARIZATION OF WAVES
Polarization is a phenomenon that differentiates transverse waves from longitudinal waves. Polarization takes place in transverse
waves only. A wave is said to be plane polarized if it is constraint to vibrate in one plane. Polarization occurs with light waves and
other electromagnetic waves such radio waves, x-rays, infra-red radiation, e.t.c.
Polarized light can be produced using a polarizer such as Tourmaline crystal, Quartz or Polaroid. A polarizer will only allow light
vibrations of only one direction to pass through it. Any other vibrations will be absorbed. Since the plane of polarization is vertical,
only vibrations in the vertical directions will pass through the polarizer.

Another means of polarizing light waves is by reflection. If light is incident at angle of 570 on the polished surface of a glass plate,
the light will be reflected in one plane. This is plane polarization of light. This angle is called the Brewster angle.
Practical Application of Polaroid
Polaroid are used in sun glasses to control or reduce the intensity of incident light and to eliminate reflected light. Polaroid can also
be used to eliminate light glare from window panes, glass doors, polished table top, also how chemical substance polarize light has
also been used in salt analysis e.t.c.
LIGHT WAVES
Light wave is a visible source of energy. It is also a wave motion. It has a very short wavelength of 5 × 10-4mm. Light travels at a
speed of 3.0 × 108ms-1.
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
 Natural sources of light: This includes the sun, stars, fire and electricity in storms. There are some animals and plants that
can create their own light such as fireflies, jellyfish and mushrooms. This is called bioluminescence. Artificial light is created
by humans.
 Artificial sources of light: There are different types of artificial light sources. Some of these sources are incandescent bulbs,
candle, electric touch, electric lamp, halogen lamps, metal halide, fluorescent tube, compact fluorescent light and LEDs. All
lights emit energy in the form of photons.
 Luminous objects: They are objects that generate and emit light of their own. The sun, stars, fireflies and deep-sea fishes
are luminous objects.
 Non-luminous objects: They are objects that cannot emit light. They are seen when they reflect or throw back light from a
luminous object. When light falls on such surface, it may be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. Sometimes, a combination
of all of these may occur. Examples of these objects include the moon, paper, mirror, wall, etc.
 Opaque Materials: These are objects that do not transmit light at the surface. Examples are wood, brick wall or a sheet of
cardboard.
 Transparent Objects: These are objects that allow light to pass(transmit) through it. Examples are glass and clear water.
 Transluscent objects : These are objects that allow some of the light falling on it to be reflected and some to get
transmitted or refracted. Examples include glass sheet used for certain windows and waxed sheet.
JOURNEY OF LIGHT
 A ray is the direction of the path in which light is travelling. It is represented by a straight line with an arrowhead.
 A beam is a collection of two or more rays of light. Beams can be parallel, convergent or divergent.
 A parallel beam is two or more rays travelling in the same direction but can never intersect each other.
 A beam of light is said to be convergent when they meet at a point.
 A divergent beam occurs when a collection of light rays has the same source is spread out apart.

SPEED AND ENERGY OF LIGHT

Light travels in the form of a straight line at constant speed in the vacuum. This constant speed c = 3 x 108 m/s.
Frequency (f) - It determines the number of times a wave oscillates. The frequency of visible light is referred to as colour and ranges
from 430 trillion hertz (seen as red) to 750 trillion hertz (seen as violet).
Wavelength (λ) - This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs of the light wave. As light has the properties of a
wave and a particle, it can be expressed in two equations.
c = fλ and E = hf
Where, c = speed of light,λ = wavelength of light, f = frequency of light, E = energy of the light wave,
h = Planck's Constant = 6.64 x 10-32Js.
The first equation denotes the wave nature of light while the second denotes the particle nature of light.
Visible light is known to have wavelengths in the range of 400 to 700 nanometres.
RECTILLINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of light travelling in a straight line is known as the rectilinear propagation of light.
Two natural effects that result from the rectilinear propagation of light are the formation of eclipse and shadow. The principle of
operation of the pinhole camera also depends on it.
SHADOW
A shadow is an area in which light rays from a source cannot reach. It is produced by the obstruction of light by an opaque object.
There are two types of shadow: partial (penumbra) shadow and total (umbra) shadow. If the light source is large, the shadow
formed consist of two parts, a completely dark area known as umbra and an outer grey area known as penumbra or partial shadow.
In the umbra region, the light from the source is completely blocked by the opaque body. In the penumbra region, the light is
partially blocked by the opaque object. The inner region of the shadow receives less than the outer parts. Thus the penumbra
becomes brighter from the umbra and outwards.

ECLIPSE
An eclipse is a result of a shadow cast by one heavenly body on another. The sun, being a luminous body and it is in the middle
while the earth and the moon revolves round the sun. If the moon is between the sun and the earth, the shadow of the moon will
be cast on the earth’s surface.
TYPES OF ECLIPSE
 Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse): In this case, the moon comes between the sun and the earth in a straight line.

 Eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse): in this case, the earth comes in between the sun and the moon.
 THE PIN-HOLE CAMERA
Pinhole camera works on the principle that “light travels in straight lines". Light from the object enters the camera through the
pinhole. It goes to the screen where it forms an inverted and small image.
It consists of a light-proof box, one end of which has a small hole made with a pin or needle point. The opposite end has a screen
made with tracing paper or ground glass. Light from an object in front of the pinhole passes through it and form an image on the
screen. If the screen is replaced with a photographic paper or film, a picture of the object can be taken with the pinhole camera.

When using the pinhole camera to take pictures of an object, long exposure is necessary to allow sufficient light to enter the box
through the pinhole. The image formed on the screen of the pinhole camera will be seen more clearly if external light is excluded by
covering head and camera with a dark cloth. If the pinhole is large, many images will be formed on the screen instead of a sharp
image and the final image will be blurred. The smaller the size of the pinhole, the sharper the image. If the size of the pinhole is too
big, the image will be blur. To increase the magnification of the image of a pinhole camera, move the object close to the pinhole.
The image formed by a pin-hole camera has the following properties:
 Image is real
 Image is inverted
 Image is diminished if the distance of the object from the pinhole is greater than the length of the camera. Otherwise, the
image will be magnified.
MAGNIFICATION
Magnification is the ratio of the size of an image to the size of the object.
¿ image (v ) Height of image (v)
Magnification(M) = OR Magnification(M) =
¿ object (u) Height of object (u)
¿
Magnification(M) = Image distance ¿ pin−hole(v ) pin−hole(u) ¿
Object distance ¿
Magnification has no units.
Where;
hi – is the height (or size) of image.
h0 – is the height (or size) of the object
v – image distance from pin-hole OR image size OR image height
u – object distance from pin-hole OR object size OR object height
Examples 1
The length of a pin-hole camera is 12cm, it is used to photograph an object 60cm away from the hole, and 80cm high. Calculate the
height of the image and magnification produced.
Solution
Height of object h0 = 80 cm Object distance u = 60 cm Image distance v = 12 cm

Height of image hi = ?
¿ pin−hole(u) ¿ = 12 cm = 0.2
Magnification(M) = Image distance ¿ pin−hole(v )
Object distance ¿ 60 cm

Height of image (v)

Magnification(M) =
Height of object (u)

hi
0.2 = Hence, hi = 80 x 0.2 = 16cm
80
EXERCISE
1) The distance between the pinhole and the screen of a pinhole camera is 12.5 cm and the plate is 20 cm long. T what
minimum distance from the pinhole must a 1.8 m tall man stand if a full-length photo is required?
2) A body of height 6 cm and it is placed 40 cm in front of pinhole camera 16 cm in length. What is the height of the image?
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
There are two types of reflection:
In regular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a smooth or polished surface are reflected as parallel rays in one direction.
In diffused or irregular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a rough or irregular surface are reflected in various directions.

LAWS OF REFLECTION

When light meets a hard surface or a reflecting surface, it bounces back through the same direction or another direction. We have
the incident ray, the reflected ray, the normal line, the angle of incidence (the angle formed by the incident ray and the normal line),
the angle of reflection ( the angle formed by the normal line and the reflected ray)

Experiments on reflection on light have proved the following laws of reflection;

i) The first law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie
on the same plane.
ii) The second law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (io) is equal to the angle of reflection (ro).
APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION
 Meters like ammeter and voltmeter use a mirror to avoid error due to parallax. The reading is taken from a position such
that the image of the pointer is directly under the pointer.
 A microscope uses a mirror to reflect light to the specimen under the microscope.
 An astronomical reflecting telescope uses a large parabolic mirror to gather dim light from distant stars. A plane mirror is
used to reflect the image to the eyepiece.
  A parabolic mirror is used in touches and car headlamps as reflectors. A small lamb is placed at the focus point of the
mirror to produce parallel rays.
 An overhead projector uses a concave mirror to reflect light from the object to the screen.
REFLECTION ON PLANE SURFACES (PLANE MIRROR)
A plane mirror is the simplest form of mirrors and the most commonly used. In addition to the cosmetic purposes, plane mirrors
have also important applications in medical, industrial and scientific fields. They are used in sextant, periscope and kaleidoscope.
As the name suggests the shape of a plane mirror is a plane area. It is made from a clear plane glass sheet, usually thin and pasted
with suitable reflecting abrasive (for example, mercury) on one side. Once this pasting is done, then the glass becomes opaque but
due to the reflecting property of the abrasive, the plane glass sheet becomes a plane glass reflector or a plane glass mirror.
The characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror are:
 It is virtual.
 It is laterally inverted.
 It is the same size as the object.
 It is erect or upright.
 It is far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
The image below illustrates the reflection of light on a plane mirror.

DEF: Real images are formed by intersection of actual light rays after reflection or refraction.
DEF: Virtual images are formed by intersection of apparent light rays after reflection or refraction

IMAGES FORMED BY INCLINED MIRRORS

When an object is placed in front of two mirrors that are inclined to each other, a number of images can be viewed by an observer.
The number of images (n) is given by the equation
360
n= − 1
θ

where θ is the angle of inclination of the two mirrors.

 If two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 600, determine the number of images produced.
Solution
Angle between the two plane mirrors θ = 60o Number of images, n = ?
360 360
Using n = − 1 n= − 1
θ 60

n = 6 – 1 = 5 images

REFLECTION ON CURVED SURFACES(CURVED MIRRORS)

Curved mirrors differ in size, shape and direction of their curvature. In respect of shape, we have spherical and parabolic mirrors.
The two types of spherical mirrors are concave and convex mirrors.
Concave mirror is hollowed-out toward the incident light like the inside surface of a spoon. It converges incident parallel rays; it has
a real focus. The images formed by a concave mirror are real and inverted unless the object is nearer to the mirror than its focal
length, when the image is then upright, virtual and magnified. If the object is at the centre of curvature of the mirror, the image is
the same size as the object; it is also real and inverted. Concave mirror is also called a converging mirror. The diagram below
illustrates the reflection of light on a concave mirror.
 CONVEX MIRROR
Convex mirror bulge towards the incident light like the back of a spoon. It diverges incident parallel rays. Convex mirror diverges
light when it strikes on its reflecting surface. It always forms a virtual, diminished and erect image, irrespective of the position of the
object from the mirror or the distance between the object and the mirror. Convex mirror is also called a divergent mirror.
When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of the image formed is much smaller than that of
the object. When an object is placed at a finite distance from the mirror, a virtual image is formed between the pole and the focus
of the mirror. The size of the image formed is smaller than that of the object. The image below illustrates a convex mirror.

TERMS USED IN CURVED MIRRORS

 Pole : the midpoint of spherical mirrors.
 Aperture : the width or diameter of the mirror.
 Center of curvature (c) : the center of the large sphere from which the spherical mirror forms a part.

 Radius of curvature (R) : the distance between the center of curvature and the pole of the mirror.
 Principal axis : the imaginary line passing through the pole and the center of curvature.
 Principal focus (F) : the point on the principal axis where the incident rays converges (for concave mirrors) or appear to
diverge (for convex mirror).
  Focal length (f) : the distance between the principal focus and the pole of the spherical mirror. It is always half of the radius
of curvature.
radius of curvature r
Focal length = i.e f =
2 2

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

i) Rear View Mirror for Vehicles : A convex mirror is used as a rear-view mirror because the image provided by a convex
mirror is erect. Convex mirror is used as a driving mirror because of its wider field of view(Advantage). The image produced
is much smaller than the actual size of the object(Disadvantage). It gives a wrong impression of the object
distance(Disadvantage).
ii) Shop Security Mirrors : Shopkeepers install convex mirrors at different places on their shop. This help them keep track of
thieves and shoplifters. Since these mirrors give wide field of view, a large portion of shop can be seen with the help of a
single mirror.
USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

i) Used as Shaving Mirrors and Makeup Mirrors : It is because when they are kept near the face, the face is within the focus
of concave mirror. It produces enlarged virtual image of object.

ii) Used by Dentist to see larger image of teeth : It is because when they are kept near the patient's teeth, the face is within
the focus of concave mirror it produces enlarged virtual image of patient's teeth so that dentist can see the image of the
teeth easily.

iii) Used in torches, beam lights : Light bulb is placed at focus, this produces powerful parallel beam of light. This can be seen
at large distance.

iv) Used in Solar Furnaces to Produce Heat : Concave mirror of large diameter are used as solar collector for solar ovens and
some solar water heater, they concentrate sunlight and reflect it. Hence they convert solar energy into heat energy.
v) Concave mirror of large diameter are used in reflecting telescope.
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY CURVED MIRRORS
The nature and position of the image formed by a concave mirror is dependent upon the place the object is placed in front of the
mirror. We note these facts when drawing ray diagrams.
 A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the principal focus after reflection.
 A ray through the centre of curvature is reflected back along the same path.
 A ray passing through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
The point of intersection of any two of these rays is enough to determine the position of the image. Let us consider some cases.
 The image is; The image is;
real, inverted, diminished, between C and F real, inverted, same size as the object and formed at C

The image is; The image is;

real, inverted, magnified and formed beyond C real, inverted, forms at infinity

The image is;

virtual, upright, magnified and formed at behind the mirror
CONVEX MIRRORS
For convex mirror irrespective of the position of the object, the image is always virtual, diminished, erect and formed behind the
mirror.

MIRROR FORMULA AND LINEAR MAGNIFICATION

The mirror formula is given as;
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Where, f = focal length, u = object distance, v = image distance
The formula is valid for all kinds of spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.
SIGN CONVENTION
The sign convention for spherical mirrors follows a set of rules known as the "New Cartesian Sign Convention" as mentioned below:
 All object distances are positive.
 Focal length of a concave mirror is positive.
 Focal length of a convex mirror is negative.
 All image distance behind the mirror are taken as negative.
 If image is below the principal axis, image height will be negative. It means that image is inverted.
LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
Linear magnification (M) refers to the ratio of image length to object length measured in planes that are perpendicular to the optical
axis. It is the ratio of the image size to the object size.
¿ image (v ) Height of image (v)
Magnification(M) = OR Magnification(M) =
¿ object (u) Height of object (u)
¿
Magnification(M) = Image distance ¿ pole(v ) pole(u)¿
Object distance ¿
Example 1
An object is placed at a distance of 10.0cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15cm. What is the position and
nature of the image formed?
Solution
Object distance, u = 10.0cm, Image distance, v = ? Focal length, f = 15cm
Image distance, v = ?
1 1 1
Using the mirror formula = +
f u v
1 1 1 1 v +10
= + Then = Then 1 x 10v = 15(v + 10)
15 10 v 15 10 v
10v = 15v + 150 Then 10v - 15v = 150 Then -5v = 150
150
v= = -30cm (Since v is negative, therefore the image is formed 30cm behind the mirror, its virtual, its magnified)
−5
Example 2
A converging mirror forms an image which is twice the size of the object. Given that the focal length of the mirror is 5cm,
calculate the object distance and the image distance.
Solution
Magnification m = 2, Focal length, f = 5cm, Object distance, u = ? Image distance, v = ?
v v
Using M = Then 2 = Hence, v = 2u
u u
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2+ 1
Using = + Then = + Then =
f u v 5 u 2u 5 2u
15
1 x 2u = 5(3) Then 2u = 15 Then u = = 7.5cm
2
Remember v = 2u Hence, v = 2 x 7.5 = 15cm
Example 3
An object is placed 30cm from a concave mirror of focal length 15cm. find the linear magnification of the image produced.
Solution
 Object distance u = 30cm, focal length f = 15cm magnification, m = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1
Applying the mirror formula = + Then = +
f u v 15 30 v
1 v +30
Then = Then 1 x 30v = 15(v + 30) Then 30v = 15v + 450
15 30 v
450
Then 30v – 15v = 450 Then -15v = 450 Then v = = -30cm
−15
Example 4
An object of height 2.5cm is placed 20cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10cm. Calculate the height of its image.
Solution
Object height, ho = 2.5cm Object distance, u = 20cm focal length, f = -10cm
Image height, hi = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 v +20
Using = + Then = + Then =
f u v −10 20 v −10 20 v
1 x 20v = -10(v + 20) Then 20v = -10v - 200 Then 20v + 10v = -200
−200
Then 30v = -200 Then v = = -6.67cm(image is behind the mirror)
30
Image distance (v ) v 6.67
Using Magnification(M) = Then M = = = 0.334
Object distance (u) u 20
Height of image (v) hi
Magnification(M) = Then 0.334 =
Height of object (u) 2.5
hi = 0.334 x 2.5 = 0.84cm
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the change in the speed and direction of the waves as they cross the boundary between two media of different
densities.
This change in the direction of the light ray which is due to the difference in the speed of light in different media is called
refraction. When a ray of light travels from optically less dense medium (air) to an optically dense medium (water, glass), it bends
towards the normal. A ray passing from glass or water to air is bent away from the normal.

Refraction of light is one of the most commonly observed phenomena, but other waves like sound waves and water waves also
experience refraction. Refraction makes it possible for us to have optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, lenses and prisms.
It is also because of the refraction of light that we are able to focus light on our retina.
The phenomenon of refraction is responsible for the following:
Incident ray: This is the light ray in the first medium.
Refracted ray: This is the light ray in the second medium.
Angle of incidence: This is the angle at which the incident ray makes with the normal in the first medium.
Angle of refraction: This is the angle at which the refracted ray makes with the normal in the second medium.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
i) The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
 ii) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant.
SNELL’S LAW
It states that the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of media.
Sine of angle of incidence∈medium 1
η
1 2 =
Sine of angle of refraction∈medium 2
Where η is the refractive index of medium 2

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS PRISM

Refraction takes place when light travels from air to glass or from air to water.

OA is the incident ray, OB is the refracted ray. Angle of incidence (io) is the angle the ray makes with the normal ON in air. Angle of
refraction (ro) OB is the angle the refracted ray OB makes with the normal ON in the second medium.
The refractive index of glass with respect to air ang is given as
Sine of angle of incidence∈ air
a g η ==
Sine of angle of refraction∈ glass
Sine of angle of incidence∈ glass
g a η ==
Sine of angle of refraction∈ air
a g η = 1 / gη a
Speed of light ∈air
η ==
a g
Speed of light ∈ glass
Refractive index in terms of wavelength is given as;
Wavelength∈air
η ==
a g
Wavelength∈glass
REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH
Refraction of light can be used to explain a number of phenomena such as mirage, apparent depth of a swimming pool, bending of a
straight object e.g metre rule when immersed partially
Mathematically, real depth, apparent depth and refractive index ‘n’ are related by the equation

The refractive index η of the liquid(water) is given the relation

Real depth
Refractive index =
Apparent depth
Example 1
A fish appears to be 2m below the surface of a pond when viewed directly from above. How far below the surface of the pond is the
fish? (Refractive index of water = 1.33)
Solution
Apparent depth = 2m, refractive index η = 1.33 Real depth, R =?
Real depth
Using Refractive index =
Apparent depth
R
1.33 =
2
R = 1.33 × 2 = 2.66m
Example 2
The wavelength of red light in air is 7 x 10 -7m.
(a) What is its wavelength in a glass of refractive index 1.5?
(b) What is its speed in the glass? (speed of light in air is 3 x 108m/s)
Solution
Wavelength of red light λR = 7 x 10 – 7m. Wavelength of red light in glass = ? Refractive index of glass η = 1.5
Wavelength∈air
(a) Using Refractive index of glass =
Wavelength∈glass
−7
1.5 =
7 x 10
λ
−7
7 x 10 = 4.6 x 10-7m
λ=
1.5
Speed ∈air
(b) Using Refractive index of glass =
Speed ∈ glass
8 8
1.5 =
3 x 10 Hence, V =
3 x 10 = 2 x 10-8ms-1
V 1.5
Example 3
An object is placed directly below a glass block of thickness 3.0 cm. Calculate the lateral displacement of the object if the refractive
index of the glass is 1.5
Solution
The thickness of the glass is the real depth R = 3.0cm, refractive index of glass, η = 1.5
Apparent depth, A = ?
Real depth
Using Refractive index =
Apparent depth
3 3
1.5 = Hence, A = = 2cm
A 1.5
Lateral displacement, d = real depth – apparent depth
d = 3 – 2 = 1cm
Example 4
A ray of light strikes the surface of glass at an angle of incidence of 600. Find the angle of refraction in the glass. (Refractive index of
glass is 1.5)
Solution
Angle of incidence, io = 60o Refractive of glass, η = 1.5 Angle of incidence, ro =?
Sine of angle of incidence∈ air
Using aηg = =
Sine of angle of refraction∈ glass
o o
1.5 =
Sine 60 Then, Sin r =
Sine 60
sin r 1.5
 08660
Sin r = Then Sin r = 0.5773
1.5

r = Sin -1 0.5773 = 0.6o

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light passes at a small angle of incidence from a denser to a less dense medium e.g. from glass to air, there is a strong
refracted ray. There is also a weak ray reflected back into the denser medium.

When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. At a certain increase of the angle of incidence, the
angle of refraction is 90o.
DEF: The critical angle C is the angle of incidence in the denser medium when the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is
less than 90°.
Sine of angle of incidence
The refractive index of the denser medium η =
Sine of angle of refraction
o
η=
sin 90
sin C
1
η=
sin C
For an angle of incidence greater than C, the refracted ray disappears and all the incident light is reflected back into the denser
medium. At this point, the ray is said to experience total internal reflection.
CONDITIONS FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 The light ray moves from a more dense medium to a less dense medium.
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
OPTICAL FIBRES

Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected
each time it hits the edge of the fibre meaning they can be used for; communications, endoscopes, decorative lamps, safety
reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads. Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body.

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Example 1
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the critical angle for glass-air boundary?
Solution
Refractive index of glass η = 1.5, critical angle = Co
1 1 1
Using η = Then 1.5 = Then Sin C =
sin C sin C 1.5
Sin C = 0.6667 Then C = Sin -1 0.6667 Hence, C = 41.8O
Example 2
The diagram below illustrates a ray of light passing through a rectangular transparent plastic block.

(a) Determine the value of the critical angle.

(b) Calculate the refractive index of the block.
Solution

(a) The critical angle, C = 90 – 44 = 46o

1 1 1
(b) Using η = Then η = o = η = 1.39
sin C sin 46 0.7193
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 Mirage - An optical illusion which is responsible for the appearance of the water layer at short distances in a desert or on
the road. It is an example of total internal refraction which occurs due to atmospheric refraction.
 Diamond - When the incident ray falls on every facet of the diamond such that the angle formed by the ray is greater than
the critical angle. This is responsible for the shinning of a diamond.
 Optical fibre - When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal reflection as the angle formed by the ray
is greater than the critical angle. Optical fiber is used in endoscopy.
 Periscope
 Fish’s view
REFRACTION THROUGH THE TRIANGULAR PRISM
A glass prism is a transparent object having two triangular ends and three rectangular sides. The refraction of light in glass prism is
different from a glass slab because, in a glass prism, the incident ray of light is not parallel to emergent ray of light.
When a ray of light enters the glass prism, it gets deviated two times. The first when it enters the glass prism and the second is
when it comes out of the prism. This is because the refracting surfaces of the prism are not parallel to each other.
Also, when the ray of light passes through the prism, it bends towards its base. The angle between each surface is the angle of
prism. Here, the opposite surfaces are equal and parallel.

When a ray of light passes through a prism, it bends towards the base of the prism. The incident ray AB is going from air (rare
medium) into glass (denser medium). Hence, it bends towards the normal BN and goes along the direction BC inside the glass prism.
BC is the refracted ray of light which bends towards the base QR of the prism. When the ray of light BC travelling in the glass prism
comes out into air at point C, refraction takes place again. Since the ray BC is going from the glass into the air, the ray bends away
from the normal MC and goes along the direction CD in the form of emergent ray.
The factors that affect the deviation of ray in a triangular glass prism are:
 The angle of incidence.
 Refracting angle of the prism.
 Refractive index of the material of the prism.
The minimum angle of deviation occurs when the incident and emergent ray are equally inclined to their respective surfaces. The
angle of incidence equals the angle of emergence.
The minimum deviation of a prism is given as:
A + Dm
sin( )
η=
2
A
sin ( )
2
Where, A = internal angle of the prism, Dm = angle of minimum deviation
Example 1
An equilateral triangular glass prism of refractive index 1.5 produces a minimum deviation when a ray of light strikes on one face.
Calculate; (a) the angle of incidence (b) the angle of minimum deviation.
Solution
Refractive index, η = 1.5 Angle of the prism, A = 60o
A 60
At minimum deviation the angle of refraction, ro = = = 30o
2 2
sin i sin i sin i
(a) Using η = Then 1.5 = Then 1.5 =
sin r sin 30 0.5
Then Sin i = 1.5 x 0.5 Then Sin i = 0.75 Then i = Sin-1 0.75
Io = 48.6o
A + Dm 60+ Dm
sin( ) sin( )
2 2
(b) Using η = Then 1.5 = Then 1.5
A 60
sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2
60+ Dm
sin( )
= 2
sin 30
60+ Dm
sin( ) 60+ Dm
Then 1.5 = 2 Then 1.5 x 0.5 = Sin ( ) Then 0.75 = Sin
2
0.5
60+ Dm
( )
2
60+ Dm
Then Sin-1 0.75 = Then 48.59 x 2 = 60 + Dm Then 97.18 = 60 + Dm
2
Hence, Dm = 97.18 – 60 = 37.2o
Example 2
Study the diagram below and use it to answer the questions that follow
Calculate the ;
i) Values of angles P, Q and R
ii) Refractive index η of the glass prism
iii) Value of e
iv) Total deviation
Solution
i) o o
P + 20 = 45 (Vertically opposite angles are equal)
P = 45 – 20
P = 25o
Q + 60o = 180o (Sum of angles on a straight line = 180o)
Q = 180 – 60
Q = 120o
R + P + Q = 180o (Sum of angles in a ∆ = 180o)
R + 25o + 120o = 180o Then R + 145o=180o
R = 180o – 145o
R = 35o
sin i sin 45 0.7071
ii) Using aηg = Then c = =
sin r sin 25 0.4226
Hence, aηg = 1.673
sin e sin e sin e
iii) Using aηg = Then 1.673 = Then 1.673 =
sin R sin 35 0.5736
Then Sin e = 1.673 x 0.5736 Then Sin e = 0.9596 Then e = Sin-1 0.9596
e = 73.7o
iv) Using D = (i + e) – A
D = (45 + 73.7) – 60
D = 58.7o
LENSES
Lenses are transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses light by means of fraction. Below are the common lenses
Lenses come in different shapes and sizes, but they are broadly categorized into two types namely:
1. Converging or convex lens: A converging lens is thicker at the middle than at the edge
2. Diverging or concave lens: a diverging lens is thinner at the middle than at the edge.

TERMS AS APPLIED TO LENSES

Optical centre: It is a point through the lens where light rays pass through undeviated.
Principal Axis: It is the line joining that passes through the optical centre of the lens and joining the centres of curvature of its
surfaces.
The Principal Focus: It is a point in which light rays converge or appear to diverge from after refraction through the lens.
The Focal Length: It is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus.
The Power p of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length. When f is in metres, it is measured in Dioptres.
CONSTRUCTION OF RAYS FOR IMAGES FORMED BY LENSES
Any two of these rays can be used to obtain the position and nature of the image applying the fact that;
1) A ray from the object, parallel to the principal axis, refracts through the lens and passes through the principal focus.
2) A ray from the object which passes through the optical centre does so undeviated.
3) A ray from the object through the principal focus will be parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
 LENS FORMULA
The focal length ‘f’, image distance ‘v’ and object distance ‘u’ are related by the formula
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Where, f = focal length, u = object distance, v = image distance
IMAGE MAGNIFICATION
Linear magnification (M) refers to the ratio of image length to object length measured in planes that are perpendicular to the optical
axis. It is the ratio of the image size to the object size.
¿ image (v ) Height of image (v)
Magnification(M) = OR Magnification(M) =
¿ object (u) Height of object (u)
¿
Magnification(M) = Image distance ¿ pole(v ) pole(u)¿
Object distance ¿
The power (p) of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length and is measured in dioptres when f is in metres.
1
P=
f
SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR LENSES
1. Focal length for convex or converging lens is positive
2. Focal length for concave or diverging lens is negative
3. For virtual image or erected image, v is negative
4. For real or inverted image, v is positive.

Solved Problems
Example 1
A diverging lens has a focal length of 15.0cm, an object 1.5cm high is positioned 30cm in front of the lens. Find:
(a) the image distance (b) the height of the image (c) the magnification
Solution
Focal length, f = – 15cm (diverging lens), object distance u = 30cm, height of object ho = 1.5cm,
1 1 1
(a) Using the lens formula = +
f u v
1 1 1 1 v +30
Then = + Then = Then 1 x 30v = -15(v + 30)
−15 30 v −15 30 v
Then 30v = -15v - 450 Then 30v + 15v = -450 Then 45v = -450
−450
Then v = = -10cm(The negative image distance indicates a virtual image)
45
Height of image Image distance
(b) Using =
Height of object Object distance
hi −10 −10 x 1.5
Then = Then hi = = -0.5cm(The negative height indicates the image is
1.5 30 30
diminished)
hi = 0.5cm
Height of image
(c) Using Magnification(M) =
Height of object
0.5 cm
M= = 0.333
1.5 cm
Example 2
A real image of an object formed by a converging lens of focal length 15cm is three times the size of the object. What is the distance
of the object from the lens.
Solution
Focal length, f = 15cm Magnification, M = 3 Object distance, u = ?
¿ image (v ) v
Using Magnification(M) = 3= Then v = 3u
¿ object (u) u
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3+1
Using = + Then = + Then =
f u v 15 u 3 u 15 3 u
 60
Then 1 x 3u = 15 x 4 Then 3u = 60 Then u = = 20cm
3
Example 3
Find the focal length of a lens with power 0.4D
Solution
1
Using P =
f
1 1
Then 0.4 = Then f = = 2.5cm
f 0.4
(Since f is positive, the lens is a converging lens)

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
Dispersion is defined as the separation of white light into different colours when the light is passed through a prism.
The scattering of light depends on the wavelength of the light. Therefore, it can be said that the degrees of deviation are dependent
on the wavelengths. The deviation in the path of the light is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
When white light is made to pass through a prism, a spectrum of seven colours is formed which shows that white light is a mixture
of seven different colours. These seven colours are: red, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow and red. Prism only acts as a medium for
the separation of the seven colours. When light falls on the glass prism, refraction takes place.
Since the wavelength of different components of light is different and the frequency is constant, each component gets deviated by a
different angle due to the difference in velocity in the glass medium. The red colour which has the maximum wavelength deviates
the least and forms the upper part of the spectrum while violet which has the least wavelength deviates the most. Below is an
image illustrating the dispersion of white light by a glass prism.

PURE SPECTRUM
A pure spectrum is one in which the colours are clearly separated. It can be produced using a triangular prism, two converging
lenses and a narrow slit of white light. The narrow slit is used to produce series of narrow coloured images, which minimizes the
chances of overlapping colours, when the incident rays are incidented on the converging lens which retracts the rays into a parallel
beam and focus it on angle 60 triangular prism. The emergent rays are then focused on another converging lens to produce parallel
of different colours on the screen at its focus.
PRODUCTION OF A PURE SPECTRUM
To produce a pure spectrum, place a source of white light behind and very close to a slotted screen. Then place a prism between
two converging lenses. The source will send a beam of white light through the slit. This beam will fall on the lens and will be
collimated into parallel rays of light. When this beam passes through the prism, each colour in it will be deviated by a different
amount so that the light is split into its spectrum. The spectrum will then fall on the second lens which converges each ray to a point
on the screen.
The colours of a spectrum produced by dispersion with a prism can be recombined using a second prism. This is done by placing an
identical prism close to the first one. The second prism should be inverted with respect to the first one, then shine parallel beams of
white light to the first prism. This prism will disperse the white light into its colours. The second prism will combine the colours into
one beam. Hence white light will be obtained on the screen.
COLOUR ADDITION
ROYGBIV refers to the entire spectrum of visible light. Any three colours of light that produce white light when combined with the
correct intensity is called primary colours of light. Primary colours are three forms of colours which cannot be produced by mixing
any colour together. They occur naturally from the spectrum and they can form other colours when mixed in the right proportion.
These colours are red, blue and green. When the three of them are added together with the proper intensity, white light is formed.
The production of various colours or light by mixing the three primary colours of light is known as colour addition. The addition of
primary colours of light can be demonstrated using a lightbox. The lightbox illuminates a screen with the three primary colours of
light which are often the shape of circles. The result of adding two primary colours of light is easily seen by viewing the overlap of
the two or more circles of primary light.
COLOUR SUBTRACTION
Secondary colours are formed by mixing two primary colours in equal proportions. From what we previously leant, magenta, cyan
and yellow are secondary colours. When light shines on an object, some of it is absorbed while some is scattered back into the eye
of the observer. In colour subtraction, you could imagine colours such as cyan, yellow and magenta to be painted on a white paper.
White light goes through these transparent colours each of which acts as a filter removing a certain colour as light passes through it
and after striking the paper, passes through it again. If all the three colours red, green and blue are filtered out of the white light,
the overlap area is black. If the transparency level of all paints are equal you could write:
Cyan + Yellow + Magenta = Black
Yellow + Magenta = Red
Magenta + Cyan = Blue
Cyan + Yellow = Green
You can see cyan as minus red, yellow as minus blue and magenta as minus green. This means that cyan painted on a white paper
filters out the red component of white light incident on it, yellow removes blue and magenta removes green.
Therefore, the equations written previously means that red, blue and green are removed from the incident white light striking the
white surface on which these overlapping colours are painted and that should be black. That is:
White - Red = Cyan
White - Blue = Yellow
White - Green = Magenta
The overlap of all the three colour filters out red, green and blue colours from the incident light, thereby forming the area of overlap
black.
RULES OF COLOUR SUBTRACTION
The rules of colour subtraction are:
 Red colour absorbs Green and blue and reflect red colour
 Blue colour absorbs green and red and reflect blue colour
 Green colour absorbs red and blue and reflect green colour
 Cyan colour absorbs red and reflect blue + green (cyan) colour
 Magenta colour absorbs green and reflect red + blue ( magenta) light
 Yellow colour absorbs blue and reflect red + green (yellow) light
 Black colour absorbs all colours and reflect no light.
COLOUR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

From the image on the left From the image on the right
Blue + Red = Magenta Magenta + Yellow = Red
Green + Blue = Cyan Cyan + Magenta = Blue
Red and Green = Yellow Yellow + Cyan = Green
 Blue + Red + Green = White Cyan + Yellow + Magenta = Black

COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS
Any two colours of light that when mixed together in equal intensities produce white are said to be complementary colours of each
other. The complementary colour of red light is cyan light. This is reasonable since cyan light is equivalent to a combination of blue
and green light, and blue and green light when added to red light will produce white light. Therefore, red light and cyan light
represent a pair of complementary colours of light.
Each primary colour of light has a secondary colour of light as its complement. The three pairs of complementary colours are:
 Red and Cyan
 Green and Magenta
 Blue and Yellow
The image below is very helpful in identifying complementary colours. Complementary colours are always located directly across
from each other on the image. Cyan is located across red, magenta across green and yellow across blue as shown below.

COLOUR OF OBJECTS
The apparent colour of an object depends on the quality of the light by which it is seen. This is because they absorb other colours
and reflect the light of that colour only, or the combination of reflected light.
For instance, a red dress looks red under ordinary daylight because other colours have been absorbed. But the same red dress when
seen under red light appears pale and whitish because it reflects nearly all the light falling on it. But under green light, it looks black
because it is not able to reflect much of the incoming light.
Objects appear to be in an uncertain colour because they reflect light of that colour only.
The result and reflected and absorbed rays when white light is incident on an object are shown below in the table.

Colour of object Reflected ray

Absorbed
S/N on which light is which one
rays
incident sees

1 Blue Blue Red, green

2 Green Green Red, blue

Green,
3 Red Red
blue

4 Yellow Red, green Blue

5 Cyan Green, blue Red

 6 Magenta Red, blue Green

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
An optical instrument is a device that processes light waves, either to enhance an image for viewing or to analyze and determine
their characteristic properties. They are devices that process light wave to enhance an image for a more clear view. The use of
optical instruments, such as a magnifying lens or any complicated device like a microscope or telescope, usually makes things bigger
and helps us to see in a more detailed manner.
Examples of Optical Instruments
i) The Simple Microscope
ii) The Compound microscope - double convex lens.
iii) The Astronomical Telescope - convex lens
iv) The Slide Projector
v) Camera - combination of convex lenses.
vi) Binoculars - prisms, convex lenses and mirrors.
vii) Holography - convex lens and mirrors.
viii) Periscope - plane mirrors or prisms.
ix) The human eye - convex lens.

THE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE(MAGNIFYING GLASS)

A simple microscope sometimes called a magnifying glass. It consists of a single converging lens with a long focal length. The object
is position between the principal focal and the optical pole. The image produced is:
 Magnified
 Erect
 virtual
The magnifying glass is used for reading tiny writings and for viewing specimens in the laboratory

THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

A compound consist of two converging lens of short focal length. The lens close to the object is called objective lens, while the lens
close to eyes through which the final image is viewed is called the eyepiece. The focal length of the eyepiece is longer than the focal
length of the objective lens. The final image produced by the compound microscope is:
 magnified
 inverted
 virtual
The magnifying power m of the compound microscope is given as:
M = M 1 x M2