Unit – ii

CURREnt
ELECtRiCitY

Page 1 of 34
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM’S LAW

1. Electric Current
2. Conventional Current
3. Drift Velocity of electrons and current
4. Current Density
5. Ohm’s Law: V-I characteristics (linear and non-
linear)
6. Resistance, Resistivity, Conductance
&Conductivity
7. Temperature dependence of resistance
8. Series and Parallel combination of resistors
9. Cells, Internal resistance of cell & EMF
10. Grouping of Cells

Page 2 of 34
ELECTRIC CURRENT:

The electric current is defined as the charge flowing through any section of the conductor in one
second.
I = q / t (if the rate of flow of charge is steady)
I = dq / dt (if the rate of flow of charge varies with time)

Types of current:
1. Alternating current whose magnitude varies continuously and direction changes periodically
2. Steady current which does not vary with time
3. Varying current whose magnitude varies with time.
4. Conventional Current: Conventional current is the current whose direction is along the direction of
the motion of positive charge under the action of electric field.

Some Definitions:

Electron Density: The number of free electrons per unit volume of a conductor is called as electron
density. It is of the order of 1028m-3.

Thermal Velocity: the velocity of free electrons inside the conductor when no electric field is applied
on it is called thermal velocity. Its value is about 104 – 105 ms-1.

Drift velocity: the velocity of free electrons inside the conductor when external electric field is
applied in it is called drift velocity. Its value is about 10-4 – 10-5 ms-1.

Relaxation Time: the free time of an electron between two successive collisions is called relaxation
time. These collisions are always perfectly elastic.

Mean Free Path: the distance travelled by electron between two successive collisions is called mean
free path.

DRIFT VELOCITY
Average velocity with which an electron gets drifted towards the positive end of the
conductor is known as Drift Velocity.
Consider a conductor of length ‘l’, cross
section area ‘A’, and electron density ‘n’. on
giving a supply of ‘V’ volt, ‘E’ electric field
is developed in the conductor. This electric
field applies a force on the free electrons
(i.e. eE) in a direction opposite to the
direction of electric field. This force
accelerate the electrons during mean free path.
The force on electrons = eE = me a
a = eE/me ……………..(1)

for one electron v = u + aτ

for n free electrons vd = (u1 +u2 +u3 +…………+un)/n + (a1 +a2+a3+……..+an)τ/n

but, (u1 +u2 +u3 +…………+un) = 0 as the average initial velocity of all

electrons is zero due to their random motion

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while (a1 +a2+a3+……..+an) = a

therefore, vd = 0 + aτ

or a = vd/τ

substituting the value of ‘a’ in euuation (1), we get

vd = eEτ /me ……………..(2)

RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY:

Consider a conductor of length ‘l’,
cross section area ‘A’, and electron
density ‘n’.
The volume of the conductor = Al

Number of free electrons inside the

conductor = nAl
Total charge inside the conductor to cause electric current (q) = enAl
Now, electric current (I) = q/t

Therefore I = (neAl)/t
= neAvd (l/t = vd)
I = neAvd

Where vd is drift velocity of the electrons.

Electron Mobility:
The mobility of free electron is defined as the drift velocity of electron per unit electric field applied.
It is denoted by μe .

OHM’S LAW
The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the two ends of the conductor when physical conditions such as temperature, mechanical
strain, etc. remain the same.V
IαV
or V α I
or V = R I
R=V/I

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Graph between Current and Voltage

From Equation of straight line = y=mx+c;

I=(1/R)V + 0;
Where I current along y-axis and V along x-axis. Also m (slope)=(1/R) which denotes a straight line.

PROOF OF OHM’S LAW:

We know that,
vd = eEτ /me ……………..(1)

from the formula I = neAvd, substituting the value of vd in equation (1), we get

I/neA = eEτ /me ………………..(2)

But, electric field is gradient of electric potential, therefore,

I/neA = eVτ/lme ………………..(3)

From the above equation (4), we get

V/I = lme/ne2Aτ = R (Resistance)

RHS of above expression is a constant for a particular conductor, hence representing by a constant R
called resistance.

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

Those conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law (I ∝V) are called non-ohmic conductors. e.g.,
vacuum tubes, transistors, electrolytes, etc. A non-ohmic conductor may have one or more of the
following properties:
(i) The V–I graph is non-linear i.e. V/I is variable.
(ii) The V–I graph may not pass through the origin as in case of an ohmic conductor.
(iii) A non-ohmic conductor may conduct poorly or not at all when the p.d. is reversed.

1. For example: - Behaviour of diodes. Diode is a device which allows unidirectional

flow of current. It does not follow ohm’s law.
2. Behaviour of Water Voltammeters.

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Characteristic curve of a diode. Note the different scales for negative and positive values of the
voltage and current.
Problem:-
A potential difference of 200V is applied across the ends of a conductor of resistance 50 ohms.
Calculate the number of electrons flowing through it in one second?
Answer:-
Given V=200V, R=50Ω; By Ohm’s law: - V=IR
=> I=V/R
=>200/50=4A.
I=Q/t = (ne)/t => n= (It)/e
= (4x1)/ (1.6x10-19) = 2.5x1019

Problem:- A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the

current in the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of
the battery when the circuit is closed?
Answer:- Emf of the battery, E = 10 V
Internal resistance of the battery, r = 3 Ω
Current in the circuit, I = 0.5 A
Resistance of the resistor = R
The relation for current using Ohm’s law is, I= (E/R+r)
R+r = (E/I) = (10/0.5) =20Ω
Therefore R=20-3=17Ω
Terminal voltage of the resistor = V
According to Ohm’s law,
V = IR
= 0.5 × 17
= 8.5 V
Therefore, the resistance of the resistor is 17 Ω and the terminal voltage is8.5 V.

RESISTANCE
 Resistance is the property that resists flow of current.
 From Ohm’s law: - V=IR where R=resistance of the conductor.
 If huge amount of current flows through a circuit it will produce huge amount of heat which
can damage the circuit.
 Resistance helps to avoid damage to the circuit when huge amount of current flows.
 Resistance will control the flow of current.
 When we apply some external field the free electrons will start moving towards the positive
end.

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  They will keep colliding with the positive ions here and there. These collisions give rise to
resistance. Greater the collision more is the resistance and vice-versa.
High resistance: - –
 In case of high resistance too many obstacles in the path of the electron. Collisions will be
more as a result resistance will be more.There for current will be less.

Low resistance:-
 In case of low resistance obstacles are not so many in the path of the electrons.
 Collisions will be less as a result resistance will be less. Therefore current will be more.

FACTORS UPON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS:

The resistance R of a conductor
(i) is directly proportional to its length, i.e., R α l
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of X-section, i.e., R α 1/A
(iii) depends upon the nature of the material
(iv) changes with temperature.

From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have,

where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant of proportionality and is known as resistivity or specific
resistance of the conductor. Its value depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
Resistivity or Specific Resistance:
It can be seen above that
If l = 1 m; A = 1 m2, then R = ρ

Hence specific resistance (or resistivity) of a material is the resistance offered by 1 m length of wire
of the material having area of X-section of 1m 2
SI Unit of resistivity is Ohm-m

From Equation R= ρ (l/A) the factors on which resistance depends:-

1. Length of the conductor. R∝
1. If length increases the resistance also increases.
2. Consider if the length of the conductor increases then electrons have to travel more
distance to reach positive end.
3. There will be more obstacles as a result resistance will increase.
2. Cross-sectional area of conductor. R∝(1/A).
1. If more cross-sectional area resistance will be less and vice-versa.
2. If the cross sectional area is increased the obstacles will remain the same but the
electrons will get more space to move freely without colliding.
3. So there will be fewer collisions therefore resistance tends to decrease.
3. Nature of the material of conductor.ρ

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 1. ρ depends on number density(n), mass of the conductor(m), relaxation time between
each successive collisions(τ) and charge on the conductor(e).
4. Temperature of the conductor.

Effect of Temperature on Resistance:

It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures, the
resistance of a metallic conductor increases linearly with the rise
in temperature. Therefore, resistance/temperature graph is a
straight line as shown in Figure.
Consider a metallic conductor having resistance R 0 at 0°C and R1
at t1°C. Then in the normal range of temperatures, the increase in
resistance.
(i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e.,
R1 – R0∝R0
(ii) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature, i.e.,
R1 – R0∝t1
(iii) depends upon the nature of the material.
Combining the first two, we get,
R1 – R0∝R0t1
R1 – R0 = α R0t1.... (i)
where α is a constant of proportionality and is called temperature co-efficient of resistance. Its value
depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
Rearranging eq. (i), we get,
R1 = R0 (1 + αt1)
Hence, temperature co-efficient of resistance of a conductor is the increase in resistance per ohm
original resistance per °C rise in temperature.
α = (Rt - R0)/ (R0t). => If α is (+) ve, this means Rt>R0 vice versa.
Conclusion:-
 α is positive for conductors.
 α is negative for insulators/semiconductors.

Problem:- A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current
of 3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature
of the heating element if the room temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of
nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10 −4 °C −1?
Answer:- Supply voltage, V = 230 V
Initial current drawn, I1 = 3.2 A
Initial resistance = R1, which is given by the relation,
R1 =V/I =230/3.2 =71.87Ω.
Steady state value of the current, I2 = 2.8 A
Resistance at the steady state = R2, which is given as
R2 =230/2.8 = 82.14Ω.
Temperature co-efficient of nichrome, α = 1.70 × 10−4 °C −1
Initial temperature of nichrome, T1= 27.0°C
Study state temperature reached by nichrome = T2
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T2 can be obtained by the relation for α,
α= (R2 - R1)/ (R1(T2 – T1))
(T2 – 27)0C = (82.14 - 71.87)/ (71.87x1.7x10-4))
(T2 – 27)0C =840.5
T2 = 840.5 + 27
T2 =867.50C
Therefore, the steady temperature of the heating element is 867.5°C.

Problem:- A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100
°C. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver.
Answer:- Temperature, T1 = 27.5°C
Resistance of the silver wire at T1, R1 = 2.1 Ω
Temperature, T2 = 100°C
Resistance of the silver wire at T2, R2 = 2.7 Ω
Temperature coefficient of silver = α
It is related with temperature and resistance as
α = (R2 - R1)/(R1(T2 –T1))
= (2.7 – 2.1)/ (2.1(100-27.5)) =0.0039°C−1

Conductance:
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a conductor has resistance
R, then its conductance G is given by;
G = 1/R
The SI unit of conductance is mho (i.e., ohm spelt backward). These days, it is a usual practice to use
siemen as the unit of conductance. It is denoted by the symbol S.

Conductivity
The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted by the symbol σ. If
a conductor has resistivity ρ, then its conductivity is given by;
σ = 1/ρ
Clearly, the SI unit of conductivity is siemen metre–1 (Sm–1).

Microscopic form of Ohm’s law

 It is known as microscopic as it tells about the phenomenon which takes place inside the
conductor.
 Current density ,J=σE
 J=I/A => I= Anevd ,therefore J=(Anevd)/A
 => nevd = ne(eEτ/m) using vd = (eEτ/m)
 =(ne2Eτ)/m
 Therefore J=(ne2Eτ)/m using ρ=m/(ne2τ)
 J=(1/ρ)E
 J=σE; this is the alternative form of Ohm’s law.

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CURRENT DENSITY
 Current density is defined as current flowing per unit area provided the area is held normal to
the current.
 Current density is a property which describes at a specific point of the conductor.
 Consider a conductor and to know what amount of current is flowing through a particular
point of the conductor at particular time.
 Not only the magnitude but the orientation of the area plays an important role.
 It is denoted by J.
 J=I/A where A=area vector
 It is a vector quantity.
 Current density changes as the orientation of the area changes.

Mathematically:-

J=dI/dA where dI=change of current with unit area.

J.dA = dI ;=>JdAcosθ =>dI

When dA is perpendicular to J then ,θ =900 => cosθ =1

JdA=dI=> I=JA

J=I/A .This is true only when the area vector is held normal to the direction of the current.

Note that -
1. Alternating current whose magnitude varies continuously and direction changes periodically
2. Steady current which does not vary with time
3. Varying current whose magnitude varies with time.
4. Conventional Current: Conventional current is the current whose direction is along the direction of
the motion of positive charge under the action of electric field.
The number of free electrons per unit volume of a conductor is called as electron density. It is of the
order of 1028m-3.
 the velocity of free electrons inside the conductor when no electric field is applied on it is
called thermal velocity. Its value is about 104 – 105 ms-1.
 the velocity of free electrons inside the conductor when external electric field is applied in it
is called drift velocity. Its value is about 10-4 – 10-5 ms-1.
 the free time of an electron between two successive collisions is called relaxation time. These
collisions are always perfectly elastic.
 the distance travelled by electron between two successive collisions is called mean free path.
Current density at a point, within a conductor, is the current through a unit area of the conductor,
around that point, provided the area is perpendicular to the direction of flow of current at that point.

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Problem:-
In the Bohr model of Hydrogen atom, the electron circulates around the nucleus in a path 5.1x10 -11 at
a frequency of 6.8x1015 revolutions per second. Calculate the equivalent current?
Answer:-
Radius r =5.1x10-11 m
Frequency f=6.8x1015 rev/sec
I=Q/t => e/t; where t is the time taken by electron to complete 1 rev.
t= (Distance travelled in 1revolution)/Speed = (2πr)/v
=>v=rω where ω=angular frequency.
=>v=r2πf.
After calculations and simplifications, t=1/f,
I=ef =1.6x10-19 x 6.8x1015 =1.088x10-3A

Problem:-
In a discharge tube, the number of hydrogen ions drifting across a cross section per second is 1x10 18,
while the number of electrons drifting in the opposite direction across another cross-section is
2.7x1018 per second. If the supply voltage is 230V, what is the effective resistance of the tube?
Answer:-
Effective resistance=V/I where I =current through cross-section.
I=Q/t = (ne+ np) e/t= ((2.7x1018+1x1018)1.6x10-19)1sec =0.592A
Therefore Effective resistance =V/I =230/0.592= 3.9x102Ω.

Problem:-
Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper have the same resistance.
Which of the two wires is lighter? Hence explain why aluminium wires are preferred for overhead
power cables.(ρAl = 2.63 × 10–8 Ω m, ρCu = 1.72 × 10–8 Ω m, Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu =
8.9.)
Answer:-
Resistivity of aluminium, ρAl = 2.63 × 10−8 Ω m
Relative density of aluminium, d1 = 2.7
Let l1 be the length of aluminium wire and m 1 be its mass.
Resistance of the aluminium wire = R1
Area of cross-section of the aluminium wire = A1
Resistivity of copper, ρCu = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω m
Relative density of copper, d2 = 8.9
Let l2 be the length of copper wire and m2 be its mass.
Resistance of the copper wire = R2
Area of cross-section of the copper wire = A2
The two relations can be written as:
R1=(ρ1l1)/A1 (i)
R2=(ρ2l2)/A2 (ii)
It is given that, R1=R2
(ρ1l1)/A1 = (ρ2l2)/A2
And,l1 = l2
Therefore (ρ1/A1) = (ρ2/A2)= (A1/A2) = (ρ1/ρ2) =2.63x10-8/ (1.72x10-8)
= (2.63/1.72)
Mass of the aluminium wire,

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m1 = Volume × Density
= A1l1 × d1 = A1 l1d1 … (iii)
Mass of the copper wire,
m2 = Volume × Density
= A2l2 × d2 = A2 l2d2… (iv)
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we obtain
= (m1)/ (m2) = (A1 l1d1)/ (A2 l2d2)
For l1=l2
=m1/m2 = (A1d1)/ (A2d2)
For (A1/A2) = (2.63)/ (1.72)
=m1/m2 =(2.63 x 2.7)/ (1.72 x 8.9)
=0.46.
It can be inferred from this ratio that m1 is less than m2. Hence, aluminium is lighter than copper.
Since aluminium is lighter, it is preferred for overhead power cables over copper.

RESISTIVITY
 Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.
 It is the resistance of the specific material; also it is specific to a material.
 R=ρ, If A and L =1 in Equation R= ρ (L/A).
 Resistivity is defined as resistance of unit length and unit area of a conductor.
 Greater the resistivity, greater the field needed to develop a given current density.
o Consider 2 objects A and B and ρ of A is very high and ρof B is comparatively low.
o If we apply electric field E to B, then the same amount of current I is produced.
o And if same amount of electric field is applied to material A, the same amount of
current (i)won’t be produced as its resistivity is more than B.
o =>(i)<(I).
o In order to have more current more electrons should flow, the obstacles should be less.
o This implies if resistivity is very high then the resistance will be very high as a result
current produced will be less.
o To overcome more resistivity more electric filed is applied.
 Resistivity for perfect conductors is 0.In perfect conductors there is no resistance at all.
 Resistivity for perfect insulators is infinite. There are so many obstacles as a result resistance
is more so current cannot flow at all.
 Resistance tells about the resistance of the conductor as whole whereas resistivity tells about
the resistance of a specific material.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature:

(i) It is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) of the conductor.
Since the value of n depends upon the nature of the material, the resistivity of a conductor
depends upon the nature of material of conductor and not on its dimensions.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the average relaxation time (τ). The value of τ decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice-versa.
Metals: In most of the metals, the value of n does not change with temperature so that
In metals, the resistivity (and hence resistance R = ρl/A) increases with the increase in temperature
and vice-versa.
It is found that resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with temperature and is given by ;
ρ = ρ0 [1 + αr(t – t0)]

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where ρ and ρ0 are the resistivity at temperatures t°C and t 0°C respectively. The term αris called
temperature co-efficient of resistivity.

Resistivity variation with Temperature-Metals

 Case 1:- Normal temperature
o At normal temperature the electrons are free to move the resistance is not so much as a
result some current is flowing in the conductor.
 Case 2:- Hot Metal
o As the temperature is more the metal atoms also start moving randomly.
o As a result collisions will be more as they face more obstacles as a result resistivity
increases.
o As collisions are more frequent therefore the average time between the collisions
decreases as a result τ decreases.
o Therefore drift velocity decreases and as a result current decreases.

Resistivity variation with Temperature-Non Metals

Insulators:
The resistivity (and hence resistance) of an insulator decreases exponentially with the rise in
temperature. A temperature rise in insulators creates many more free electrons than that existed in the
cooler state. Often this increase in the number of free electrons more than offsets the interference to
the drift movement caused by the increased molecular activity.
Hence the resistivity of an insulator decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
Note that at 0 K, both the semiconductor and insulator have infinite value of resistivity.

 In case of non-metals resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.

 In metals there will free electrons in the valence shell but in case of non-metals all the
electrons are tightly bound to nucleus. Free electrons are not present for conduction.
 But when the temperature is increased the atoms start moving away from the nucleus.
 When temperature increases more electrons are available for conduction as they set
themselves loose from the atom. As result conductivity increases as the temperature increases.
 Therefore resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.

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Problem:-
A wire is stretched to make it 0.2% longer. What is the percentage change in resistance?
Answer:-
Initial length l, Area =A and Resistance =R.
Final l’= l+0.2%l
=l+ (0.2/100) l
=1.002l
Area = A’, Resistance =R’
Volume remains constant.
Al=A’l’ => A’ =Al/l’ = (Al)/ (1.002l)
R’=(ρl’)/A’
Percentage change in resistance = ((R’-R/R) x 100) x100%
= ((ΔR/R) x100) %
ΔR = R’ – R =(ρ(l1/A1)) – (ρ(l2/A2)) = ρ((1.002l)/ (A/0.002)) – ρl/A
=(ρl)/A [(1.002)2 -1] = R x0.004
Therefore, ΔR/R =0.004
Therefore, the temperature coefficient of silver is 0.0039°C−1.

Problem:-
A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section 6.0 ×
10−7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivityof the material at the
temperature of the experiment?
Answer:-
Length of the wire, l =15 m
Area of cross-section of the wire, a = 6.0 × 10−7 m2
Resistance of the material of the wire, R = 5.0 Ω
Resistivity of the material of the wire = ρ
Resistance is related with the resistivity as
R= ρ (l/A)
Ρ = (RA)/ (l)
= (5x6x10-7)/15 =2x10-7 Ω m
Therefore, the resistivity of the material is 2 × 10−7 Ω m.

Problem:-
A wire of resistance 5Ω is drawn out so that its length is increased by twice its original length.
Calculate its new resistance?
Answer:-
Initially R=5Ω, Length=l, Area =A
Final Resistance R’, l’=l+2l, Area =A’
=> Al =A’l’

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A’ = (Al)/l’ = (Al)/ (3l) = A/3
R’=(ρl’)/A =ρ (3l)/ (A/3)
= ρ (l/A) 9 =9(ρl)/A
=9R =9x5Ω
R’=45Ω

Semiconductors:
In case of semiconductors, the value of n (i.e., free electron density) is very small as compared to
metals. When the temperature of a semiconductor increases, the value of n increases and that of t
decreases. But the increase in the value of n is greater than the decrease in the value of τ. The net
result is that the resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature.
Therefore, the resistivity (and hence resistance) of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa.

Superconductivity:
There are metals and compounds whose resistivity goes to zero below a
certain temperature TCcalled critical temperature (or transition
temperature). These materials are known as superconductors. This
phenomenon of zero resistance of some metals and compounds when
cooled to critical temperature is called superconductivity.
Figure shows resistance-temperature graph for a superconductor. The
resistance-temperature graph for a superconductor follows that for a
normal metal at temperature above TC(critical temperature).

When the temperature is at or below TC, the resistance drops suddenly to

zero . Recent measurements have shown that resistivities of superconductors below are less than 4 ×
10–25 Ω m which is around times smaller than the resistivity of copper!

Applications (or uses) of superconductors:

The scientists are making continuous efforts to produce room - temperature superconductors. Once
this goal is achieved, the superconductivity will offer the following uses:
(i) It will offer the possibility of loss-free transmission of electric power. It is because
superconducting transmission lines would have zero resistance.
(ii) It will help for the construction of superconducting magnets in which the magnetic field
intensities would be about 10 times greater than those of the best normal electromagnets.
(iii) A superconducting computer would be smaller and faster than today’s computers.
(iv) Superconducting electromagnets offer substantial savings in large particle accelerators for high
energy physics research.
(v) Superconducting transmission lines would permit the transmission of electric power at lower
voltage, making underground power lines possible.

D.C. Circuits:
The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a
d.c. circuit. A d.c. circuit essentially consists of a source of
direct voltage (e.g., battery), the conductors used to carry
current and the load shows a torch bulb (i.e., load) connected
to a battery through conducting wires. The direct current
starts from the positive terminal of the battery and comes
back to the starting point via the load. The direct current
follows the closed path ABCDA and hence ABCDA is a d.c.
circuit. The load for a d.c. circuit is usually a resistance. In a
d.c. circuit,loads (i.e., resistances) may be connected in
series or parallel or series-parallel.

Page 15 of 34
RESISTORS IN SERIES:

A number of resistors are said to be connected in series if the same current flows through each
resistor and there is only one path for the current flow throughout.

Circuit Diagram

Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in series across a battery of e.m.f. E
volts as shown in Figure. Let I be the circuit current. By Ohm’s law,

But E/I is the total or equivalent resistance RS between points A and B.

∴RS= R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.

The following are the characteristics of a series circuit :

(i) The current in each resistor is the same.
(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances plus internal
resistance of the cell if any.
(iii) The voltage drop across any resistor is directly proportional to the resistance of that resistor.
(iv) The current in the circuit is independent of the relative positions of the resistors in the circuit.
(v) The total resistance in the series circuit is more than the largest resistance in the circuit.

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:
A number of resistors are said to be connected in parallel if voltage across each resistor is the same.

Page 16 of 34
Circuit diagram

Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel across a battery of E volts
as shown in Figure. Note that voltage across each resistor is the same (i.e., E volts) and there are as
many paths for current flow as the number of resistors. By Ohm’s law,

But E/I is the total or equivalent resistance RP of the parallel connected resistors so that I/E = 1/R P.

Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit:
(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.
(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
(v) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is decreased.
(vi) The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of resistances.
(vii) If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then net resistance of the circuit is
R/n.
Problem:- A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery with internal resistance of 1Ω, as
shown in Fig. (a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the network. (b) Obtain the current in each
resistor. (c) Obtain the voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD.
Page 17 of 34
Answer:- (a) The network is a simple series and parallel combination of resistors. First the two 4Ω resistors
in parallel are equivalent to a resistor = [(4 × 4)/(4 + 4)] Ω = 2 Ω.
In the same way, the 12 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in parallel are equivalent to a resistor of
[(12 × 6)/(12 + 6)] Ω = 4 Ω.
The equivalent resistance R of the network is obtained by combining these resistors (2 Ω and 4 Ω) with 1 Ω in
series, that is,
R = 2 Ω + 4 Ω + 1 Ω = 7 Ω.
(b) The total current I in the circuit is
I=E/(R+r) =16V/(7+1) Ω =2A.
Consider the resistors between A and B. If I1 is the current in one of the 4 Ω resistors and I2 the current in the
other,
I1 × 4 = I2 × 4
that is, I1 = I2, which is otherwise obvious from the symmetry of the two arms.
But I1 + I2 = I = 2 A. Thus,
I1 = I2 = 1 A
that is, current in each 4 Ω resistor is 1 A. Current in 1 Ω resistor between B and C would be 2 A.
Now, consider the resistances between C and D. If I3 is the current in the 12 Ω resistor,
and I4 in the 6 Ω resistor,
I3 × 12 = I4 × 6, i.e., I4 = 2I3
But, I3 + I4 = I = 2 A
Thus, I3 = (2/3) A,I4= (4/3)A
that is, the current in the 12 Ω resistor is (2/3) A, while the current in the 6 Ω resistor is
(4/3) A.
(c) The voltage drop across AB is
VAB = I1 × 4 = 1 A × 4 Ω = 4 V,
This can also be obtained by multiplying the total current between A and B by the equivalent resistance
between A and B, that is,
VAB = 2 A × 2 Ω = 4 V
The voltage drop across BC is
VBC = 2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V
Finally, the voltage drop across CD is
VCD = 12 Ω × I3 = 12 Ω × (2/3) A=8V.
This can alternately be obtained by multiplying total current between C and D by the equivalent resistance
between C and D, that is,
VCD = 2 A × 4 Ω = 8 V
Note that the total voltage drop across AD is 4 V + 2 V + 8 V = 14 V.
Thus, the terminal voltage of the battery is 14 V, while its Emf is 16 V.
The loss of the voltage (= 2 V) is accounted for by the internal resistance1 Ω of the battery [2 A × 1 Ω = 2 V].

Page 18 of 34
CELL
A cell is a device which provides the necessary potential difference to an electric circuit to maintain a
continuous flow of current in it.
Representation of the cell

 A cell is a device which generates electricity by using chemical energy.

 A cell consists of electrodes and electrolytes.
 Electrodes are the conductors through which current can pass. They can be in a form of wire
or rod or plates.
 In case of galvanic cell as shown in the figure there are 2 electrodes in the form of rod. One is
Zinc and other is copper.
 Electrolyte is a substance where free ions are present because of which it can conduct
electricity.
 In galvanic cell electrolyte is ZnSO4 and CuSO4.
 Zn has the tendency to become Zn ion i.e. to lose 2 electrons present in the valence shell.
o Zn-> 2e- + Zn2+
 Cu ion has the tendency to gain electron and become Cu and stick to electrode.
o Cu2++2e- -> Cu
 If Zn and Cu are joined together with a help of conducting wire, the electrons will flow from
Zn to Cu.
 Flow of electrons constitute current. Current will flow from Cu electrode to Zn electrode.
Note:-
o Current flows from cathode to anode through external circuit.
o Current flows from anode to cathode through electrolyte.

Internal Resistance of a Cell:

The resistance offered by a cell to the current flow is called internal
resistance r of the cell. The internal resistance of a fresh cell is generally low. However, as the cell is
used, its internal resistance goes on increasing. The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the
following factors :
(i) distance between the plates – increases with the increase in distance between the plates
(ii) nature of the electrolyte
(iii) concentration of the electrolyte – increases with the increase in concentration of electrolyte.
(iv) nature of the electrodes
(v) area of the plates – decreases with the increase in plate area.

Page 19 of 34
NOTE -
 Internal resistance is the resistance offered by the electrolyte and electrodes when the current
flows.
 The electrolytes and electrodes oppose the flow of current.
 Denoted by ‘r’.
 Consider a cell and 2 electrolytes are connected by external resistance ‘R’.
 Some current will start flowing from cathode to anode.
 Closed Circuit:- V=V1+V2- Ir
o Where (V1+V2) = initial potential difference,Ir=potential drop across the internal
resistance.
 Therefore V=E-Ir
o Where E=Emf,V=potential difference between 2 electrodes or it is the voltage drop
across external resistance ‘R’.
 =>IR=E-Ir
 Internal resistance plays role only when the circuit is closed.
 It varies from cell to cell.It is negligible where E>>Ir.

E.M.F. and Terminal P.D. of a Cell:

(i) When the cell is delivering no current (i.e., on open-circuit), the
p.d. across the terminals of the cell is equal to e.m.f., (E) of the cell
as shown in Figure.
(ii) When a resistance R is connected across the cell, current I starts
flowing in the
circuit. This current causes a voltage drop ( = Ir) across internal
resistance of the cell so that terminal voltage (V) is less than the
e.m.f.of the cell.

Page 20 of 34
The following points may be noted :
(a) The terminal voltage V of a cell is the voltage across its load when the cell is delivering current
i.e. the cell circuit is closed.
(b) Due to voltage drop in the internal resistance of the cell, the terminal voltage V is less than
e.m.f. E of the cell. The voltage drop in the internal resistance of the cell is Ir so that V = E – Ir.

E.M.F. (E):
1. It is the potential difference across the terminal of the cell when it is delivering no current
i.e. when the cell is in the open circuit.
2. It is independent of circuit resistance and depends upon the nature of the electrodes and the
electrolyte.
3. It maintains potential difference.
4. It is greater than V.
5. The term e.m.f. is used for a source of voltage.
NOTE-
 Emf is defined as the potential difference between electrodes when there is no current in the
cell(cell is in open circuit).
 Emf of the cell initiates the flow of current in the cell.
 The following reactions will take place whether the circuit is open or closed.
o Zn-> 2e- + Zn2+
o Cu2++2e- -> Cu
 Amount of energy involved by Zn to lose 2 electrons is given by potential.
 Potential is the energy per unit coulomb. There is potential associated with Zn and Cu.
 The potential of Zn is higher w.r.t. to electrolyte = V1Thepotential of Cu is lower w.r.t to
electrolyte = V2 volt.
 Therefore Emf= potential difference between 2 electrodes(Zn and Cu).
 Emf =V1 - (–V2) =V1+V2

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V):

1. It is the potential difference across the terminal of the cell when it is
delivering current in the circuit i.e. the cell circuit is closed.
2. It depends upon circuit resistance and circuit current.
3. It causes current to flow in the circuit.
4. It is less than E.
5. The p.d. (V) is the voltage between two points in a closed circuit.

Page 21 of 34
GROUPING OF CELLS:

In some cases higher voltage or higher current or both are required. To meet these needs, a number of
cells are suitably connected or grouped. The combination of cells thus obtained is called a battery.
Depending upon voltage and current requirements, cells may be
connected in three ways to form a battery viz., (i) series grouping (ii) parallel grouping (iii) series-
parallel (mixed) grouping.

CELLS IN SERIES:
When voltage required is more than that of the
e.m.f. of a single cell, a number of cells are
connected in series to meet the requirement. The
cells are said to be connected in series if the
negative terminal of one cell is connected to the
positive terminal of the next cell and so on.
Consider n cells, each of e.m.f. E and internal
resistance r connected in series across an external
resistance R as shown in Figure.

Special Cases:

(i) If R >>n r, then n r can be neglected as compared to R.

(ii) If R <<n r, then R can be neglected as compared to nr.

Hence in order to get maximum current in a series grouping of cells, the external resistance (R)
should be very high as compared to the internal resistance of the battery (nr).

CELLS IN PARALLEL:
When current required is more than that delivered
by a single cell, a number of cells are connected in
parallel to meet the requirement. In parallel
grouping, positive terminals of all the cells are
joined together and in a like manner all the
negative terminals are connected together.
Consider m rows of cells in parallel, each row
containing one cell. Let E and r be the e.m.f. and
internal resistance respectively of each cell.
Further, let this battery be connected across an
external resistance R as shown in Figure.

Page 22 of 34
Special Cases :
(i) If R << r, then mR may be neglected as compared to r.

(ii) If r <<R, then r may be neglected as compared to m R.

Hence in order to get maximum current in parallel grouping of cells, the external resistance (R)
should be very low as compared to the internal resistance of each cell.

SERIES - PARALLEL GROUPING OF CELLS ( I.E. MIXED GROUPING) :

To produce a large voltage, a number of cells are connected in
series and to produce a large current, a number of sets of such
series-connected cells are connected in parallel. Such a
connection is called series-parallel grouping or mixed
grouping. Clearly, series-parallel grouping embraces the
advantages of both series and parallel groupings. Figure shows
series-parallel grouping of cells. Let there be n cells connected
in series and m such rows connected in parallel across an
external resistance R. Further, let E and r be the e.m.f. and
internal resistance of each cell respectively.

Page 23 of 34
Condition for maximum current

As m, n and E are fixed quantities, therefore, numerator of above equation is constant. Hence, current
will be maximum when the denominator of above equation is minimum. The denominator will be
minimum when quantity ( √m R – √n r )2 is minimum. Now the minimum value of a squared quantity
is zero

i.e., External resistance = Total internal resistance of the battery

Hence, in order to get maximum current in series-parallel grouping of cells, the external resistance
(R) should be equal to the total internal resistance of the battery (nr/m).

Problem:-
Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination? b) If the combination is connected to a battery of Emf 12 V and negligible internal
resistance, obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
Answer:-
(a) Three resistors of resistances 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are combined in series. Total resistance of the
combination is given by the algebraic sum of individual resistances.
Total resistance = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 Ω
(b) Current flowing through the circuit = I, Emf of the battery, E = 12 V,
Total resistance of the circuit, R = 6 Ω,
The relation for current using Ohm’s law is,
I= (E/R) = (12/6) =2A
Potential drop across 1 Ω resistor = V1
From Ohm’s law, the value of V1 can be obtained as
V1 = 2 × 1= 2 V ... (i)
Potential drop across 2 Ω resistor = V2
Again, from Ohm’s law, the value of V2 can be obtained as
V2 = 2 × 2= 4 V ... (ii)
Potential drop across 3 Ω resistor = V3
Again, from Ohm’s law, the value of V3 can be obtained as
V3 = 2 × 3= 6 V ... (iii)
Therefore, the potential drop across 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω resistors are 2 V, 4 V, and 6 V respectively.

Problem:-
Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are combined in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of Emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance,
determine the current through each resistor, and the total current drawn from the battery.
Answer:-
(a) There are three resistors of resistances,R1 = 2 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, and R3 = 5 Ω
Page 24 of 34
They are connected in parallel. Hence, total resistance (R) of the combination is given by,
(1/R) =(1/ R1)+(1/R2)+(1/ R3)
=(1/2)+(1/4)+(1/5)=(10+5+4)/20 =(19/20)
R= (20/19)Ω
Therefore, total resistance of the combination is (20/19)Ω.
(b) Emf of the battery, V = 20 V
Current (I1) flowing through resistor R1 is given by,I1 = (V/R1) = (20/2) =10A
Current (I2) flowing through resistor R2 is given by,I2 = (V/R2) = (20/4) =5A
Current (I3) flowing through resistor R3 is given by,I3 = (V/R3) = (20/5) =4A
Total current, I = I1 + I2 + I3 = 10 + 5 + 4 = 19 A
Therefore, the current through each resister is 10 A, 5 A, and 4 A respectively and thetotal current is
19 A.

Page 25 of 34
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM’S LAW

1. Kirchhoff’s Law’s

2. Wheatstone Bridge Principal

3. Electric Energy & Power

Page 26 of 34
KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW: JUNCTION LAW
 Junction Law is also known as Kirchhoff’s First Law.
 It states that at the junction, sum of current entering the junction is equal to the sum of current
leaving the junction.
 Junction is any point in the circuit.
 Consider a case where I1 and I2are the current entering the junction and,currentI4 and I5 are
exiting out of the junction.
 According to Kirchhoff’s law; I1+ I2 =I3+ I4+ I5

KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW: LOOP LAW

 Loop law is also known as Kirchhoff’s Second Law.
 It states that in a closed loop, algebraic sum of Emfsis equal to the algebraic sum of product
of resistances and respective currents flowing through them.
 Consider a simple circuit havingEmfs = E1 and E2; R1 and R2 =resistances; current =I1 and I2.
 Then according to this law : E1+E2=I1R1+ I2R2
 For example:-
o Consider given figure,let Emfs be E1 and E2 internal resistances be R1, R2 and R3.
o Steps to use Kirchhoff’s law:-
 Choose the loop to apply Kirchhoff’s law.
 Assume any direction.
 Emf is +ive if assumed direction leaving +ive terminal of battery.
 IR is +ive if the current in the assumed direction.
o Consider closed loop ABCDFA, using the assumptions;
o E2=+R2I3 +R3I2 ;where I3=current flowing through R 3
o Closed loop FCDEF, +E1= +I1R1 + I3R2
o Closed loop ABDEA, -E1 + E2 = -I1R1 +I2R3
o If the direction of current is taken opposite then
o Closed loop ABCDFA ;- -E2=-R2I3-R3I2
o FCDEF; -E1= -I1R1 - I3R2
o ABDEA; +E1 - E2 = +I1R1 -I2R3

Page 27 of 34
Steps to solve Circuits by Kirchhoff’s Laws:

(i) Assume unknown currents in the given circuit and show their directions by arrows.
(ii) Choose any loop and find the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the algebraic sum of e.m.fs
in that loop and put it equal to zero.
(iii) Write equations for as many loops as the number of unknown quantities. Solve the equations to
find the unknown quantities.
(iv) If the value of assumed current comes to be negative, it means that actual direction of current
is opposite to that of assumed direction.

Problem:- Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in Fig.

Answer:- Each branch of the network is assigned an unknown current to be determined by the
application of Kirchhoff’s rules. To reduce the number of unknowns at the outset, the first rule of
Kirchhoff issued at every junction to assign the unknown current in each branch.
We then have three unknowns I1, I2 and I3 which can be found by applying the second rule of
Kirchhoff to three different closed loops.
Kirchhoff’s second rule for the closed loop ADCA gives,
10 – 4(I1– I2) + 2(I2 + I3 – I1) – I1 = 0 that is, 7I1– 6I2 – 2I3 = 10 (a)
For the closed loop ABCA, we get
10 – 4I2– 2 (I2 + I3) – I1 = 0that is, I1 + 6I2 + 2I3 =10 (b)
For the closed loop BCDEB, we get
5 – 2 (I2 + I3) – 2 (I2 + I3 – I1) = 0that is, 2I1 – 4I2 – 4I3 = –5 (c)
Equations (a, b, c) are three simultaneous equations in three unknowns. These can be solved by the
usual method to give;
I1 = 2.5A, I2 = (5/8) A, I3 = (15/8) A
The currents in the various branches of the network are
AB:(5/8) A, CA: (5/2) A, DEB: (15/8) A
AD: (15/8) A, CD: 0 A, BC: (5/2) A
It is easily verified that Kirchhoff’s second rule applied to the remaining closed loops does not
provide any additional independent equation, that is, the above values of currents satisfy the second
rule for every closed loop of the network. For example, the total voltage drops over the closed loop
BADEB: (5V) + ((5/8) x 4) V – ((15/8) x 4) V equal to zero, as required by Kirchhoff’s second rule.

Problem:- Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in given fig?

Page 28 of 34
Answer:- Current flowing through various branches of the circuit is represented in the given figure.

I1 = Current flowing through the outer circuit

I2 = Current flowing through branch AB
I3 = Current flowing through branch AD
I2 − I4 = Current flowing through branch BC
I3 + I4 = Current flowing through branch CD
I4 = Current flowing through branch BD
By Loop law:-
For the closed circuit ABDA, potential is zero i.e.
10I2 + 5I4 − 5I3 = 0
2I2 + I4 −I3 = 0
I3 = 2I2 + I4 … (1)
For the closed circuit BCDB, potential is zero i.e.
5(I2 − I4) − 10(I3 + I4) − 5I4 = 0
5I2 + 5I4 − 10I3 − 10I4 − 5I4 = 0
5I2 − 10I3 − 20I4 = 0
I2 = 2I3 + 4I4 … (2)
For the closed circuit ABCFEA, potential is zero i.e.
−10 + 10 (I1) + 10(I2) + 5(I2 − I4) = 0
10 = 15I2 + 10I1 − 5I4
3I2 + 2I1 − I4 = 2 … (3)
From equations (1) and (2), we obtain
I3 = 2(2I3 + 4I4) + I4
I3 = 4I3 + 8I4 + I4
− 3I3 = 9I4
− 3I4 = + I3 … (4)
Page 29 of 34
Putting equation (4) in equation (1), we obtain
I3 = 2I2 + I4
− 4I4 = 2I2
I2 = − 2I4 … (5)
It is evident from the given figure that,
I1 = I3 + I2 … (6)
Putting equation (6) in equation (1), we obtain
3I2 +2(I3 + I2) − I4 = 2
5I2 + 2I3 − I4 = 2 … (7)
Putting equations (4) and (5) in equation (7), we obtain
5(−2 I4) + 2(− 3 I4) − I4 = 2
− 10I4 − 6I4 − I4 = 2
17I4 = − 2
I4 = - (2/17)
Equation (4) reduces to
I3 = − 3(I4)
=-3(-2/17) = (6/17) A
I2=-2(I4)
=-2(-2/17) = (4/17) A
I2 - I4 = (4/17) – (-2/17) = (6/17) A
I3+I4 = (6/17) + (-2/17) = (4/17) A
I1 =I3 + I2 = (6/17) + (4/17) = (10/17) A
Therefore, current in branch AB= (4/17) A
In branch BC = (6/17) A
In branch CD = (4/17) A
In branch AD= (6/17) A
In branch BD = (-2/17) A
Total Current =(4/17) +(6/17)+(-4/17)+(6/17)+(-2/17)=(10/17) A

Problem:- Twelve equal wires of resistance(r) are joined to form a skeleton cube. The current enters
at one corner and leaves at the diagonally opposite. Find the total resistance between corners?

Answer:- Here, 12 resistances are arranged such that they form a cube. Now each of the 12 wires
represents a resistor of value ‘R’. We need to calculate the resistance across face diagonal corners.
Now, let us assume that we have attached a voltage source across (or Emf V) the ends of points A
and B and then the current starts to flow in the network. We have also assumed that, a current of ‘6x’
flows through point A and thus splits up equally into three parts of current ‘2x’ each(as resistance is
same in each arm) and each ‘2x’ current further splits into two equal parts of current ‘x’ each. We
need to calculate the equivalence resistance(r) across the terminal AG which is the corner diagonal of
the cube.
Applying Kirchhoff’s law in loop ABCGA, we get
V=2xR+xR+2xrR
Page 30 of 34
So,V=5xR (1)
Now from also from Ohm’s law
V=r.6x (2)
Here, ‘V’ is the potential difference applied,’6x’is the total current supplied and ‘r’ is the net
resistance of the circuit. So, by putting the value of V from (1) in(2),we get
5xR=r.6x
Therefore r=(5/6)R

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 Wheatstone bridge is a special arrangement of resistors as shown in the figure.
 There are 4 resistances R1,R2,R3and R4 arranged in such a manner that there is a galvanometer
placed between the points B and D.
 The arm BD is known as galvanometer arm. AC is known as battery arm.
 And circuit is connected to the battery across the pair of diagonally opposite points A and C.
 According to Wheatstone bridge principle: -
o If (R1/R2)=(R3/R4), then Bridge is said to be balanced.
o If the bridge is balanced there is no current flowing through the galvanometer arm.

Mathematically:-
Assume current across the galvanometer arm Ig =0;
To prove:- P/Q = R/X
Applying loop law to the loop ABDA,
There is no Emf, therefore,
0= I1P - (I-I1)R + IgRG equation (i) where RG=resistance of galvanometer.
Applying loop Law to the loop BCDB,
No Emf, 0=(I1-Ig)Q –(I-I1+Ig)X +Ig RG equation(ii)
Putting Ig=0 in equation(i) and (ii), as no current flows through galvanometer when bridge is
balanced
I1P - (I-I1) R = 0 => I1R1 = (I-I1) R3 equation (iii)
I1Q –(I-I1)X =0 => I1R2 =(I-I1) equation(iv)
Dividing equation(iii) with (iv)

Hence proved.

Page 31 of 34
Problem:- The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge (Fig) have the following resistances: AB = 100Ω, BC =
10Ω, CD = 5Ω, and DA = 60Ω.A galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected across BD. Calculate the
current through the galvanometer when a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across AC.

Answer:- Considering the mesh BADB, we have

100I1 + 15Ig – 60I2 = 0
or 20I1 + 3Ig – 12I2= 0 (a)

Considering the mesh BCDB, we have

10 (I1 – Ig) – 15Ig – 5 (I2 + Ig) = 0
10I1 – 30Ig –5I2 = 0
2I1 – 6Ig – I2 = 0 (b)
Considering the mesh ADCEA,
60I2 + 5 (I2 + Ig) = 10
65I2 + 5Ig = 10
13I2 + Ig = 2 (c)
Multiplying Eq. (b) by 10
20I1 – 60Ig – 10I2 = 0 (d)
From equations (d) and (a) we have
63Ig – 2I2 = 0
I2 = 31.5Ig [(e)]
Substituting the value of I2 into Eq. (c), we get
13 (31.5Ig) + Ig = 2
410.5 Ig = 2
Ig = 4.87 mA.

Problem:- In a metre bridge (Fig.), the null point is found at distance of 33.7 cm from A. If now a resistance
of 12Ω is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and S.

Answer: - From the first balance point, we get

(R/S) = (33.7)/ (66.3) = (3.87) (i)
After S is connected in parallel with a resistance of 12Ω, the resistance across the gap changes from S to S eq,
where

Page 32 of 34
Seq= (12S)/(S+12) and hence the new balance condition now gives
(51.9)/ (48.1) =(R/ Seq) =R(S+12)/ (12S)
Substituting the value of (R/S) from Eq. (i), we get
(51.9)/ (48.1) = ((S+12)/12) x (33.7)/ (66.3)which gives
S = 13.5Ω. Using the value of (R/S) above, we get
R = 6.86 Ω

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER

ELECTRIC ENERGY:
Electric energy (E) can be understood as the heat energy (H)produced in a conductor of resistance R,
when a current (I) passes through it for a given time (t). i.e.
E = H = I2 R t
In general, the work done by a source to maintain a current in an electric circuit is known as
‘electric energy’.
Consider a circuit element ( e.g. heater or bulb) of resistance R through which current I
flows for the time t. Let q be the charge flowing in time t, then
q = It
If V be the potential difference between the two ends of the element , then work done to
carry the charge q from one end to the other end is given by :
W = Vq = VIt
This work done is equal to the electric energy E consumed in the circuit, given by
E = VIt , But V = IR
So, E = (IR) It = I2Rt
This is the form of energy which is converted into heat energy.
V
Also, I = , then
R

V V 2t
E = Vx xt or E =
R R
The unit of energy is joule (J) .
1 joule = 1 volt x 1 ampere x 1 second = 1 VAs
If an energy dissipation of W joule produces H calorie of heat, then
H = W/J , where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat ( J = 4.18 joule/calorie).
Then

VIt I 2 Rt V 2t
H    calorie.
J J RJ
Thus, Joule’s law states that for a current – carrying conductor at a definite temperature (i.e.
resistance of the conductor is constant) the rate of production of heat is directly proportional to the
square of the current or square of the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.

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ELECTRIC POWER:
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated into other forms of energy is called
W
‘electric power (P)’. i.e. P  .
t
Where W is the energy dissipated in time t.
Now, W = VIt joule. Therefore,
VIt
P   VI joule/second or watt.
t

V2
Or P  VI  I 2 R  watt.
R
Commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kWh) ( i.e. 1 kWh = 1000 watt) and
the practical unit of power is horse – power (i.e. h.p.) which is equal to 746 watt.

NOTE -
If two conductors each of resistance R are connected in series or parallel to a battery of voltage V,
then:
(i) Heat produced in series combination of equal resistances in time t is
2
V
H1  .t  Req  R  R  2 R 
2R
(ii) Heat produced in parallel combination of equal resistances in time t is
2V 2  R R R2 R
H2  .t  Req    
R  RR 2R 2
H2
Thus,  4 or H 2  4 H1 .
H1

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