ac and dc bridge
What is a Bridge Circuit?
A bridge circuit is an electrical network used to measure unknown electrical
parameters (resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency, etc.) by comparing them
with known values using a null or balance condition.
1. DC Bridge
Definition:
A DC bridge is a bridge network that works with Direct Current (DC) and is mainly used
to measure resistance.
Working Principle:
It works by balancing the voltage between two branches of a circuit to find unknown
resistance.
Common DC Bridge:
• Wheatstone Bridge – used to measure medium resistance accurately.
Applications:
• Measurement of medium or low resistance
• Calibration of measuring instruments
• Precision laboratory work
Example:
Wheatstone Bridge:
2. AC Bridge
Definition:
An AC bridge is used to measure impedance, capacitance, inductance, and
frequency using an Alternating Current (AC) source.
Working Principle:
It works based on phasor balance (both magnitude and phase must balance), unlike
DC bridges which only consider magnitude.
Common AC Bridges:
• Maxwell Bridge – for inductance
• Hay’s Bridge – for high-Q inductors
• Schering Bridge – for capacitance and dielectric loss
• Wien’s Bridge – for frequency measurement
• De Sauty Bridge – for comparing capacitances
Applications:
• Measurement of unknown AC components
• High voltage AC testing
• Frequency determination
• Capacitance/inductance quality factor testing
Viva Questions and Answers: PMMC, MI, Induction, and Electrostatic Instruments
1. PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) Instrument
Definition:
PMMC instruments work on the principle that a current-carrying coil placed in the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet experiences a torque.
Advantages:
• High accuracy and sensitivity
• Linear scale
• Low power consumption
• Suitable for DC measurements
Disadvantages:
• Cannot be used for AC measurements
• Expensive due to precision construction
• Can be damaged by mechanical shock or overload
2. MI (Moving Iron) Instrument
Definition:
MI instruments use the magnetic effect of current to deflect a moving iron vane or
plunger.
Advantages:
• Can measure both AC and DC
• Simple and rugged construction
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Non-linear scale
• Lower accuracy compared to PMMC
• Affected by stray magnetic fields
3. Induction Type Instrument
Definition:
These instruments operate based on electromagnetic induction and are suitable only
for AC measurements.
Working Principle:
An AC current in coils creates a changing magnetic field, inducing eddy currents in a
disc, which interact with the field to produce torque.
Advantages:
• Accurate for energy measurement (used in energy meters)
• Good damping
• Durable and stable over time
Disadvantages:
• Cannot be used for DC
• Sensitive to frequency and temperature variations
• Bulky and heavy
4. Electrostatic Instrument
Definition:
Electrostatic instruments measure voltage by the electrostatic force between two
charged plates.
Working Principle:
A voltage applied between two plates creates an electrostatic force, causing deflection
proportional to the square of the voltage.
Advantages:
• Measures both AC and DC voltages
• Very high input impedance (draws negligible current)
• Suitable for very high voltage measurements
Disadvantages:
• Delicate and fragile
• Non-linear scale
• Not suitable for low voltages
• Low deflecting torque
Viva Questions and Answers
Experiment: Measurement of Capacitance by De Sauty Bridge
1. What is the principle of De Sauty’s bridge?
De Sauty’s bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. It compares an unknown
capacitance with a known standard capacitor using a balanced condition where no
current flows through the galvanometer.
2. What is the condition for bridge balance in De Sauty’s bridge?
The bridge is balanced when: C1/C2 = R2/R1, where C1 is the known capacitance, C2 is
the unknown capacitance, and R1, R2 are known resistors.
3. What are the components used in a De Sauty bridge?
Two capacitors (one known, one unknown), two non-inductive resistors, a key, a
headphone or ballistic galvanometer, and an AC source.
4. Why is an AC source used instead of DC in De Sauty’s bridge?
Because capacitors block DC current. AC is needed so that capacitive reactance is
present, allowing alternating current to pass and a balance condition to be detected.
5. What is the main limitation of De Sauty’s bridge?
It can only measure perfect capacitors (those having no leakage or resistance). It
cannot balance if the capacitors have dielectric losses or equivalent series resistance
(ESR).
6. What type of capacitor is used as a standard in this experiment?
A standard air capacitor is preferred, as it has negligible dielectric loss and behaves
nearly like an ideal capacitor.
7. What is the role of the galvanometer or headphone in the circuit?
It acts as a null detector. At balance condition, there is no deflection or sound in the
galvanometer or headphone, indicating zero potential difference across it.
8. Why is it difficult to achieve perfect balance in De Sauty’s bridge?
Because real capacitors are not ideal—they have internal resistance, dielectric losses,
and parasitic effects that make perfect balancing difficult.
9. What is capacitive reactance?
Capacitive reactance (Xc) is the opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of AC. It is
given by: Xc = 1 / (2πfC).
10. How is unknown capacitance calculated using De Sauty’s bridge?
When the bridge is balanced, C2 = C1 × (R1/R2). By substituting the values of known
capacitor and resistors, the unknown capacitance is calculated.
11. Why is headphone preferred over galvanometer sometimes?
A headphone is more sensitive to AC current and can easily detect changes in tone or
loudness, which helps in identifying the balance point accurately.
12. What precautions are necessary during this experiment?
Use only non-inductive resistors, avoid touching terminals directly, ensure proper
connections and zero settings, keep the AC source frequency constant, do not exceed
voltage ratings of capacitors.
13. What happens if DC is used in De Sauty’s bridge?
The capacitor will block the DC, no current will flow through the branch containing
capacitors, and no balance condition can be achieved.
14. What type of bridge is De Sauty’s bridge?
It is a Wheatstone-like AC bridge, designed for comparison of capacitances.
15. Can this bridge be used for measuring inductance?
No. De Sauty’s bridge is specifically designed for comparing capacitances only, not
inductances.
Viva Questions and Answers
Experiment: Measurement of Frequency of a Sinusoidal Signal by Wien's Bridge
1. What is Wien's bridge?
Wien's bridge is an AC bridge used to measure the frequency of a sinusoidal signal
accurately. It is also used for measuring unknown capacitance and resistance.
2. What is the principle of Wien’s bridge?
Wien’s bridge works on the principle of balancing impedances in an AC bridge circuit,
where the ratio of impedances in one arm equals the ratio in the opposite arm.
3. What is the condition for balance in Wien's bridge?
The balance condition is: R1/R2 = R3/R4 and ω^2 = 1/(R3 * R4 * C3 * C4), assuming R3 =
R4 and C3 = C4.
4. What are the main components used in Wien’s bridge?
Four resistors, two capacitors, an AC signal generator (usually sinusoidal), and a null
detector such as a headphone or CRO.
5. Why is Wien’s bridge suitable for frequency measurement?
Because at balance condition, the frequency of the AC source can be calculated
precisely using the known values of resistors and capacitors.
6. Write the formula for frequency in Wien's bridge.
f = 1 / (2πRC), where R and C are the values of the resistors and capacitors used in the
frequency-determining arm of the bridge.
7. What happens when the bridge is balanced?
At balance, no current flows through the null detector, indicating that the bridge is in a
balanced state, and the frequency of the signal can be determined accurately.
8. What type of null detector is commonly used?
A headphone or a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is used as a null detector to detect
the balance condition.
9. What are the limitations of Wien’s bridge?
It is less suitable at very high or very low frequencies, and balancing the bridge requires
accurate components and tuning.
10. What are the advantages of Wien’s bridge?
It provides accurate frequency measurement, is simple in construction, and is useful
for audio frequency range analysis.
11. Why are capacitors used in Wien’s bridge?
Capacitors introduce a frequency-dependent reactance which allows the bridge to
determine the signal frequency at balance.
12. What precautions are needed in this experiment?
Ensure accurate component values, avoid stray capacitances and inductances, and
tune the frequency slowly to observe the balance point correctly.
13. Can Wien’s bridge be used to measure any type of waveform?
No, it is specifically designed to measure the frequency of sinusoidal waveforms.
14. How is the frequency determined practically in the lab?
By adjusting the frequency of the signal generator until the bridge balances, and then
using the formula f = 1/(2πRC) to calculate the frequency.
15. What is the role of the signal generator?
It provides a variable sinusoidal AC signal whose frequency is adjusted to balance the
bridge and determine its frequency.
Viva Questions and Answers
Experiment: Measurement of Low Resistance Using Kelvin Double Bridge
Q: What is the principle of the Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: The Kelvin Double Bridge works on the principle of null deflection, similar to the
Wheatstone bridge. It is used for the precise measurement of very low resistances by
eliminating the effect of lead and contact resistances.
Q: Why can't we use a Wheatstone Bridge to measure low resistance?
A: Wheatstone Bridge is not suitable because contact and lead resistances introduce
significant errors which are comparable to the low resistance values being measured.
Q: What is the function of the second set of ratio arms in the Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: The second set of ratio arms compensates for the potential drop across the leads
and contacts, improving the accuracy of the measurement.
Q: What are the main components of the Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: It consists of ratio arms, standard resistor (Rs), unknown resistor (Rx), galvanometer,
DC power supply, and a second pair of ratio arms.
Q: What is the balance condition of the Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: The balance condition is: R1/R2 = Rs/Rx, where R1 and R2 are ratio arms, Rs is
standard resistance, and Rx is the unknown resistance.
Q: What is the advantage of using Kelvin Double Bridge over other methods?
A: It provides high accuracy in the measurement of very low resistances by eliminating
errors due to lead and contact resistances.
Q: What is the role of the galvanometer in the bridge?
A: It detects the presence of current between two points. Zero deflection indicates a
balanced bridge and accurate measurement.
Q: How is the unknown resistance Rx calculated in this experiment?
A: Rx = Rs × (R2/R1), using the known values of Rs, R1, and R2 when the bridge is
balanced.
Q: What are some precautions to take while performing this experiment?
A: Ensure tight connections, use stable DC supply, handle the galvanometer carefully,
and avoid excessive current.
Q: Why is it important to eliminate lead resistance in low resistance measurements?
A: Because lead resistance can be comparable to the resistance under test and cause
large percentage errors.
Q: What types of resistances are typically measured using the Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: Armature windings, transformer windings, low-value shunt resistances, and contact
resistances.
Q: What type of power supply is used in this experiment and why?
A: A DC power supply is used to avoid inductive and capacitive effects and ensure
accurate readings.
Q: How does temperature affect low resistance measurement?
A: Temperature changes resistance values due to the temperature coefficient; even
small changes can cause significant errors.
Q: Can Kelvin Double Bridge measure high resistances too?
A: No, it is specifically designed for low resistance measurements.
Q: What is the range of resistance that can be measured using a Kelvin Double Bridge?
A: Typically from 0.001 ohm to a few ohms.
Q: What is a standard resistor, and why is it used?
A: It is a resistor with a known value and low temperature coefficient, used as a
reference in bridge circuits.
Q: Why is it called “double” bridge?
A: Because it includes two sets of ratio arms: one for main balancing and one for lead
resistance compensation.
Q: What are the possible errors in the Kelvin Double Bridge method?
A: Inaccurate standard resistor, contact resistance, temperature variations, improper
balancing, faulty readings, and external magnetic fields.
Viva Questions and Answers
Experiment: Familiarization with Analog Instruments
Q: What is an analog instrument?
A: An analog instrument is a measuring device that shows the output in a continuous
manner, typically using a moving pointer over a graduated scale.
Q: Name some commonly used analog instruments.
A: Analog Voltmeter, Analog Ammeter, Analog Multimeter, Galvanometer, Wattmeter,
Megger.
Q: What is the working principle of an analog instrument?
A: Most analog instruments work on the electromagnetic deflection principle, where the
pointer deflects due to magnetic interaction caused by current through coils.
Q: What is the function of a galvanometer?
A: It is a sensitive instrument used to detect and measure small electric currents.
Q: What is the difference between analog and digital instruments?
A: Analog instruments use a pointer and continuous scale; digital instruments display
readings in numerical format.
Q: What is the use of a multimeter?
A: It measures voltage, current, and resistance and functions as a voltmeter, ammeter,
and ohmmeter.
Q: How is range selected in an analog multimeter?
A: Using a rotary switch to prevent damage and ensure accurate measurement.
Q: What is meant by least count of an analog instrument?
A: It is the smallest value that can be measured accurately, equal to the smallest
division on the scale.
Q: What are the types of errors in analog instruments?
A: Parallax error, zero error, calibration error, environmental errors.
Q: What is parallax error and how can it be minimized?
A: Parallax error occurs when reading the scale from an angle. Minimized by reading
directly in line with the pointer and using mirrored scales.
Q: What is internal resistance of an analog voltmeter and why is it important?
A: It is very high to draw minimal current and avoid affecting the circuit.
Q: What is the internal resistance of an ammeter and why should it be low?
A: It should be low so it doesn't drop significant voltage and allows most current to flow
through.
Q: Why is it important to connect a voltmeter in parallel and an ammeter in series?
A: Voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage; ammeter in series to measure current.
Q: What are analog instruments mainly used for?
A: To measure voltage, current, and resistance in electrical labs and fieldwork.
Q: Can analog instruments measure both AC and DC?
A: Yes, if designed for both; otherwise modifications like rectifiers are required.
Q: What is damping in analog instruments?
A: It is a mechanism to stop pointer oscillation. Types: air, eddy current, fluid damping.
Q: What is the full-scale deflection (FSD) in analog instruments?
A: The maximum reading an instrument can show with full pointer movement.
Q: What precautions should be taken while using analog instruments?
A: Do not exceed range, observe polarity, avoid parallax error, use correct range,
calibrate as needed.
Q: How does an analog voltmeter measure voltage?
A: By allowing a small current through a high-resistance coil that deflects a pointer
proportionally.
Q: What is the advantage of analog instruments over digital ones?
A: They show continuous trends and fluctuations which help in real-time adjustments.
