📝 PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR
✅ For Competitive Exams (with Rules, Tricks & Examples)
📍1. Full Stop (.)
📚 Rule:
Used at the end of a declarative sentence or abbreviations.
✅ Example:
● He is a teacher.
● Mr. Sharma lives in Delhi.
💡Exam Trick:
Always capitalize the first word after a full stop.
📍2. Comma (,)
📚 Rules:
● To separate items in a list:
I bought apples, mangoes, bananas, and grapes.
● Before conjunctions (FANBOYS):
I was tired, but I continued studying.
● After introductory words:
Yes, I agree with you.
● Before and after non-essential clauses:
My brother, who is a doctor, lives in Mumbai.
💡Exam Trick:
Never use a comma splice:
✘ He came, he saw, he conquered.
✔ He came, he saw, and he conquered.
📍3. Question Mark (?)
📚 Rule:
Used at the end of direct questions only.
✅ Example:
● Where do you live?
● Is he coming today?
❌ Don't use it with indirect questions:
✘ He asked where do I live?
✔ He asked where I lived.
📍4. Exclamation Mark (!)
📚 Rule:
Used to show strong emotions, commands, or interjections.
✅ Example:
● Help!
● What a wonderful day!
💡Exam Tip:
Avoid overuse! Use it only once even if emotion is strong.
📍5. Apostrophe (')
📚 Rules:
● Possession:
This is Ravi’s book.
● Contractions:
It’s raining. (It is)
💡Exam Confusion:
● its = possessive (like "his", "her")
● it’s = it is / it has
✔ The dog wagged its tail.
✔ It’s going to rain today.
📍6. Quotation Marks (" ")
📚 Rule:
Used to indicate direct speech or quotations.
✅ Example:
● She said, "I am happy."
💡Punctuation Tip:
Always place commas, full stops inside quotes in American English.
He said, “I’m done.”
📍7. Colon (:)
📚 Rules:
● To introduce a list:
Bring: books, pens, and notebooks.
● To explain or elaborate:
He had one goal: success.
📍8. Semicolon (;)
📚 Rule:
● Connect two related independent clauses without using a
conjunction.
● Used in complex lists (with internal commas)
✅ Example:
● He came early; he left late.
● Invite Rahul, the manager; Sneha, the editor; and Ajay, the writer.
📍9. Hyphen (-)
📚 Rule:
Used to connect compound words and word parts.
✅ Example:
● A well-known author
● Mother-in-law
📍10. Dash (—)
📚 Rule:
Used for emphasis, interruption, or afterthought.
✅ Example:
● He promised — and failed.
● I will meet her — if I can.
💡Not the same as hyphen (-)
📍11. Parentheses ( )
📚 Rule:
Used to include extra or explanatory information.
✅ Example:
● The President (who is 75) addressed the nation.
📍12. Ellipsis (...)
📚 Rule:
Used to indicate pause, unfinished thoughts, or omitted text.
✅ Example:
● I was thinking... maybe we shouldn't go.
● “To be, or not to be...”
📍13. Slash (/)
📚 Rule:
Used to indicate alternatives, dates, or fractions.
✅ Example:
● Male/Female
● 12/06/2025
● ¾
🔁 Quick Revision Table
Punctuation Use Example
. Ends statement I am fine.
, List, pause, clause I came, I saw, I won.
? Direct question Are you ready?
! Emotion/command Watch out!
' Possession/Contractio Don’t go.
n
" Quote/Speech He said, “Hi.”
: List or idea Bring: pen, book.
; Join clauses I slept; I woke.
- Compound word Part-time job
— Emphasis He left — sadly.
() Extra info My car (red) is fast.
... Pause/omit Wait... don’t go.
/ Choice/fraction And/or
🎯 EXAM PRACTICE TIPS
✅ DO:
● Check subject–verb agreement even with punctuation.
● Know difference between colon vs. semicolon.
● Know when to omit punctuation (especially in reported speech).
❌ DON’T:
● Confuse its/it's, your/you’re, their/they’re/there.
● Use double punctuation marks (!?, ....., !!!)
● Use comma between subject and verb.
✘ My friend, is a teacher.
📚 COMMON EXAM MCQ QUESTIONS
1. Choose the correct punctuation:
She said I will come tomorrow
○ A. She said. “I will come tomorrow.”
○ B. She said, “I will come tomorrow.” ✅
○ C. She said “I will come tomorrow.”
2. Which is punctuated correctly?
○ A. Its a sunny day.
○ B. It’s a sunny day. ✅
○ C. Its’ a sunny day.
🔴 What is a Clause?
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.
It may or may not express a complete thought.
🔵 Types of Clauses
1. Independent Clause (Main Clause)
● Can stand alone as a sentence.
● Expresses a complete thought.
✅ Example:
● She laughed.
● I finished my homework.
2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause)
● Cannot stand alone.
● Depends on the main clause to complete meaning.
✅ Example:
● Because she laughed. (✘ incomplete)
● I finished my homework because she helped me. (✔)
🟢 Clause Types by Function
1. Noun Clause
Functions as a noun – subject, object, or complement.
Often introduced by: that, what, who, whom, how, why, whether, if,
where, when, whatever
📌 Patterns:
Pattern Example
S + V + Noun Clause I know that she is
honest.
Noun Clause as Subject What you said is true.
Complement after “be” The truth is that he lied.
✅ More Examples:
● I don’t know where she went.
● What he did shocked everyone.
● The question is whether he will come.
2. Adjective Clause (Relative Clause)
Describes a noun or pronoun (like an adjective).
Begins with: who, whom, whose, that, which, where, when
📌 Patterns:
Pattern Example
Noun + Relative Clause The man who came
yesterday is my
uncle.
Object in clause This is the pen that I
lost.
✅ Examples:
● The boy who is playing the guitar is my brother.
● The house that Jack built is big.
● I have a friend whose father is a doctor.
3. Adverb Clause
Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what
condition.
Introduced by: because, although, if, when, since, while, unless,
until, before, after, as, though, even though, as if
📌 Patterns:
Type Example
Time I waited until he arrived.
Cause He left because he was
tired.
Condition If you study, you will
pass.
Concession Although he is rich, he
is humble.
Purpose She practices daily so
that she can
improve.
🟣 Advanced Clause Patterns (High-Level Structures)
1. Cleft Sentences (It is/was... that)
Used for emphasis in written or spoken English.
✅ Examples:
● It was Rahul who broke the window.
● It is English grammar that confuses students.
2. That-Clause after Verbs and Adjectives
Used after reporting verbs: say, believe, think, suggest, propose,
recommend, insist
✅ Examples:
● She said that she was tired.
● I think that he will come.
3. So...that / Such...that Clauses (Result Clauses)
✅ Examples:
● He was so angry that he shouted.
● It was such a hot day that we stayed home.
🟨 Structure:
● So + adjective/adverb + that
● Such + (a/an) + adjective + noun + that
4. Comparative Clauses
✅ Examples:
● She is taller than I am.
● He works as hard as you do.
🟨 Structure:
● More/less + adjective + than
● As + adjective + as
5. Elliptical Clauses (Implied Clauses)
Part of the clause is omitted for conciseness.
✅ Examples:
● He is more intelligent than I (am).
● I would do it if I could. (Implied: "if I could do it")
🧠 Clause Pattern Identification Table
Sentence Clause Type Clause
Function
I know that Noun Clause Object
she lied.
This is the Adjective Modifier
girl who Clause
sang well.
I went home Adverb Reason
because I Clause
was sick.
What he Noun Clause Subject
said was
shocking.
He works as Adverb Manner
if he were Clause
a robot.
🟨 Clause vs Phrase: Key Difference
Clause Phrase
Has subject + verb Does NOT have both
May stand alone Cannot stand alone
Ex: She ran. Ex: Running fast
🧪 Tips for Competitive Exams
🔹 Spot the Clause Type in sentence correction.
🔹 Practice joining & transforming sentences using clauses.
🔹 Focus on conjunctions: because, that, if, although, who, etc.
🔹 Know cleft structures for rearrangement questions.
🔹 Understand noun clause as subject/object in passive voice.
Sure! Here's a detailed explanation of the types of sentences in
English grammar—for competitive exams—with examples and
without using tables:
1. Types of Sentences Based on Structure
a) Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. It expresses
a complete idea and has a subject and a verb.
Example:
● She dances beautifully.
● The sun rises in the east.
There is no dependent clause or extra subject in simple sentences.
b) Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses,
which are usually joined by a coordinating conjunction like and, but,
or, so, for, yet, nor.
Example:
● I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.
● He studied hard, and he passed the exam.
Here, both parts before and after the conjunction can stand alone as
individual sentences.
c) Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. A dependent clause cannot stand alone and usually
starts with subordinating conjunctions like although, because, since,
when, while, if etc.
Example:
● Although he was tired, he finished his work.
● She went to bed early because she had an exam.
The part starting with “although” or “because” is the dependent clause.
d) Compound-Complex Sentence
This type combines both compound and complex sentence structures.
It has at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
Example:
● Although she was sick, she attended the class, and she took
notes.
● While I was cooking, my brother watched TV, and my sister
cleaned the room.
This is the most advanced sentence form, often asked in high-level
grammar.
2. Types of Sentences Based on Function (Purpose)
a) Declarative Sentence
This is the most common sentence type. It makes a statement or gives
information and ends with a full stop.
Example:
● India is the largest democracy.
● The sky is blue.
b) Interrogative Sentence
It asks a question and ends with a question mark.
Example:
● What is your name?
● Did you complete your homework?
These usually begin with words like what, when, where, why, how, do,
does, did etc.
c) Imperative Sentence
This sentence gives a command, advice, instruction, or request. The
subject is usually "you", but it is not mentioned directly.
Example:
● Close the door.
● Please sit down.
● Don’t make noise.
Such sentences can be positive or negative (using “don’t”).
d) Exclamatory Sentence
This expresses strong emotion or surprise and ends with an
exclamation mark.
Example:
● What a beautiful painting!
● How fast he runs!
These sentences start with what or how, but they are not questions.
3. Voice and Mood in Sentences (Advanced)
a) Active Voice
In active voice, the subject performs the action.
Example:
● The teacher explained the lesson.
("Teacher" is the subject, doing the action.)
b) Passive Voice
In passive voice, the subject receives the action.
Example:
● The lesson was explained by the teacher.
("Lesson" becomes the subject receiving the action.)
4. Mood in Sentences
a) Indicative Mood
Used to state facts or ask questions.
Example:
● He lives in Delhi.
● Are you coming to the party?
b) Imperative Mood
Used to give orders, requests, or instructions.
Example:
● Take your books out.
● Don’t touch that.
c) Subjunctive Mood
Used to express wishes, hypothetical situations, or things that are
contrary to reality.
Example:
● If I were a king, I would help the poor.
● It is important that she be informed immediately.
This mood is often tested in sentence correction and error spotting
questions.
🔸 Final Tip for Exams:
To master sentence types, focus on:
● Conjunctions to identify compound or complex forms.
● Clause recognition (independent vs. dependent).
● Sentence purpose (statement, question, command, exclamation).
● Understanding active/passive transformation.
● Spotting subjunctive mood in error correction.
Would you like practice exercises or a PDF summary of this topic?
🔤 Phonetic Transcription – In-Depth Guide
📌 What is Phonetic Transcription?
Phonetic transcription is a way to represent the sounds
of spoken language using special symbols, mainly
from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
It helps understand how words are pronounced,
especially when the spelling is misleading.
🔎 Why Important in Exams:
● Helps in correct pronunciation
● Appears in phonetics section of TGT/PGT/CTET
English
● Useful for decoding silent letters and irregular
spellings
● Improves spoken English and linguistic
awareness
🗣️ Three Levels of Transcription:
1.Orthographic (normal spelling)
➤ Example: Knight
2.Phonemic (Broad) Transcription
➤ Shows distinct sounds (phonemes)
➤ /naɪt/
3.Phonetic (Narrow) Transcription
➤ Shows detailed pronunciation, including
accent or aspiration
➤ [nʰaɪ̯t]
🅰️ Vowel Sounds (Detailed with Examples)
Monophthongs (Single vowels):
IPA Example Word
/ɪ/ short i bit /bɪt/
/iː/ long e beat /biːt/
/ʊ/ short u book /bʊk/
/uː/ long u boot /buːt/
/e/ short e bed /bed/
/ə/ schwa (weak banana
sound) /bəˈnɑːnə/
/ʌ/ short u cup /kʌp/
/ɔː/ long o saw /sɔː/
/ɒ/ short o cot /kɒt/
/ɑː/ long a car /kɑː/
Diphthongs (Double vowel sounds):
IPA Example Word
/aɪ/ i as in eye high /haɪ/
/eɪ/ a as in say day /deɪ/
/ɔɪ/ oy boy /bɔɪ/
/aʊ/ ow cow /kaʊ/
/əʊ/ o go /ɡəʊ/
/ɪə/ ear idea /aɪˈdɪə/
/eə/ air care /keə/
/ʊə/ sure tour /tʊə/
Consonant Sounds (Detailed Table)
IPA Sound Example
/p/ unvoiced pen /pen/
/b/ voiced bat /bæt/
/t/ unvoiced top /tɒp/
/d/ voiced dog /dɒg/
/k/ unvoiced cat /kæt/
/g/ voiced go /gəʊ/
/tʃ/ ch sound chip /tʃɪp/
/dʒ/ j sound jam /dʒæm/
/f/ unvoiced fan /fæn/
/v/ voiced van /væn/
/θ/ unvoiced "th" think /θɪŋk/
/ð/ voiced "th" this /ðɪs/
/s/ unvoiced sip /sɪp/
/z/ voiced zip /zɪp/
/ʃ/ sh shoe /ʃuː/
/ʒ/ zh measure
/ˈmeʒə/
/h/ breathy hat /hæt/
/m/ nasal man /mæn/
/n/ nasal net /net/
/ŋ/ nasal sing /sɪŋ/
/l/ lateral leg /leg/
/r/ rhotic red /red/
/w/ semi-vowel wet /wet/
/j/ semi-vowel yes /jes/
Stress in Phonetic Transcription
● ' before the stressed syllable
➤ Example: banana = /bəˈnɑːnə/ (stress on "na")
● Primary stress: ˈ
● Secondary stress (less often used): ˌ
Words with Transcription Examples:
Word Transcription Notes
Education /ˌedjuˈkeɪʃən/ Stress on "keɪ"
Psychology /saɪˈkɒlədʒi/ Silent "p"
Enough /ɪˈnʌf/ "gh" sounds like
/f/
Honest /ˈɒnɪst/ Silent "h"
Hour /ˈaʊə/ "h" silent
Comb /kəʊm/ Silent "b"
Debt /det/ Silent "b"
Island /ˈaɪlənd/ Silent "s"
🎯 Exam Practice Tip: Minimal Pairs
Words that differ by only one sound, used in MCQs.
Pair IPA 1 IPA 2
Ship / Sheep /ʃɪp/ /ʃiːp/
Bit / Beat /bɪt/ /biːt/
Cot / Caught /kɒt/ /kɔːt/
Fan / Van /fæn/ /væn/
Thin / Then /θɪn/ /ðen/
📘 Common Exam Questions Format:
1.Choose the correct phonetic transcription of a
word
2.Identify the word from the transcription
3.Find the stressed syllable
4.Spot silent letters through IPA
○
