UNIT- V

Fermi’s distribution function

It explains how electrons distributed among the different possible energy states or levels. The
assembly of electrons in an electron gas behaves like a system of fermi particles obeying fermi-
Dirac statistics.
Fermi function is defined as the probability of an electron occupying an energy level E,
1
F(E) = (E −E F )/ KT
1+ e
E F is the fermi energy and is a constant for a given system.

At T = 0; for E< E F ; F ( E )=1

for E> E F ; F ( E )=0

In order to understand the behaviour of electrons at finite temperature qualitatively in metals and
pure undoped semiconductors, it is clearly sufficient to treat E F as a constant to a first
approximation. With this approximation, the Fermi-Dirac distribution can be plotted at several
different temperatures. In the figure below, E F was set at 5 eV.

From this figure it is clear that

i) At absolute zero the distribution is a step function. It has the value of 1 for energies
below the Fermi energy. ie) at T =0K, E< E F ; F ( E )=1; which means that the quantum states
with energy less than E F are completely occupied.
ii) At other temperature (any temperature other than zero), E> E F ; F ( E )=0
iii) For finite temperatures the distribution gets smeared out, as some electrons begin to be
thermally excited to energy levels above E F . The figure shows that at room temperature the
distribution function is still not very far from being a step function.
1
iv) If E=E F ; F ( E )= Fermi level: It is the state at which the probability of electron
2
1
occupation is at any temperature above 0K and it is the level of max energy of the filled states
2
at 0K.
1
v) Fermi energy: It is energy of the state at which the electron occupation is at any
2
temperature above 0K.

Effective mass of an electron and the concept of hole

When an electron in a periodic potential of lattice is accelerated by an electric field or magnetic

field, then the mass of an electron is called effective mass(m¿).
Let e be the charge and m be the mass of an electron moving inside a crystal lattice of electric
eE
field E. The acceleration of the electron a= is not constant in the periodic lattice of the
m
crystal. It can be considered that its variation is caused by the variation of electron mass when it
moves in the crystal lattice.
eE
Therefore acceleration ¿ ¿
m
The electrical force on the electron F=m¿ a
Considering the free electron as a wave packet, then the group velocity vg = d/dK
ω=2πν and ν = E/h
2π
dE
ω=2π E/h ; therefore vg = d/dK = h
dk
d v g 2 π d 2 E dk
acceleration a = = . . (multiply∧divide by dk )
dt h d k 2 dt

since the momentum p=ħk and F = dp/dt

d F dk
F= (ħk); =
dt ħ dt
2
1 d E F 2π
Therefore acceleration a= . 2
. since ( =ħ)
ħ dk ħ h
 2
ħ a ¿
F= 2
=m a
d E
2
dk
2
¿ ħ
m= 2
Effective mass of an electron d E
2
dk
a. variation of E with k
The crystal momentum related to the parameter k from the abscise axis whereas the group
velocity and effective mass can be extracted from the slope and concavity of the plot,
respectively.

b. variation of V with k
The electron at the bottom of the conduction band at K=0, whereas the velocity and kinetic
energy are both zero and thus the total energy is equal to the potential energy.

As k increases, velocity also increases and reaching the max. value k 0. This point is called point
π
of inflection. beyond this point, velocity begins to decrease and finally to zero value at k= ± .
a
The negative value of wave vector exhibits the similar behavior.
c. variation of m¿ with k

For the lower portion of E-K curve, d2E/dK2is positive so m* is positive, and increases with
increase of K, attains a maximum value at the point of inflectionK0. For further higher values
of K, is negative, hence m* is negative. As , the effective mass approaches to a
smaller negative value. At the point of inflection [(d2E/dK2) = 0], m* becomes infinite.

Physically, that in the upper half of the band, the electron behaves as having negative mass or as
behaving like particles with positive charges. Suppose an electron starts at K = 0, when an
electric field is applied, the wave vector increases linearly with time. Until the velocity reaches
its maximum value, the electron is accelerated by the field, beyond this maximum velocity the
same field produces a decrease in velocity, i.e., the mass must become negative in the upper part
of the band.

2 2
ħ k ¿
near the bottom of the conduction band the equation E= ¿ is satisfied and hence m has a
2m
constant positive value. But as k increases, m¿ also increases being a function of k. Beyond k 0
velocity decreases that is, acceleration is negative. In this region of k, the lattice exerts a large
retarding force on electron. Then the electron behaves as a positively charged particle ie) hole.
The hole can be understood as an electron with negative effective mass. An electron near the top
of an energy band will have a negative effective mass. A negatively charged particle with a
negative mass will be accelerated like a positive particle with a positive mass.

E(K)

Without the crystal lattice, the hole

cannot exist. It is an artifact of the
periodic potential (Ep) created
by the crystal.

K
/a
Carrier concentration in Intrinsic semiconductor
The charge carriers are electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. since
these carriers are generated due to the breaking of covalent bonds, we have equal number of
electrons and holes.
At 0K, since all the bonds are intact, the semiconductor act as an insulator. As temperature
increases, the covalent bonds are broken and electron-hole pairs are created.
Carrier concentration is the number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band and
number of holes per unit volume in the valence band.
Carrier Density for Electrons in Conduction Band
For the conduction band, the total concentration of electrons, n c is the integral of number of
occupied energy states(density of states) at a given energy per unit volume. E c represents starting
energy level of conduction band, Ev represents the top(final energy) of the valence band and Eg is
the energy gap between valence and conduction band.

..............(1)
The density of states in the energy interval between E and E+dE

Now for electron in the conduction band, we replace mass by effective mass of electron. Also,
for conduction band starting energy

and Fermi distribution function

Consider the situation where E-E F >> KT. In this case the exponential term in the denominator
dominates, so that
Substituting D(E) and F(E) in equation 1,we get

..........(2)
where

................(3)
At this point changing variables by letting

or
also, the limits of integration changes
; and

............(4)
To evaluate the integral here, we note that the gamma function defined as

we have the value of integral as

as

This is an expression of carrier density of electron in Conduction Band

where
Nc is called as Effective density of states in conduction band

Carrier Density for Holes in Valance Band

For the valance band, the total concentration of holes, n v is the integral of number of occupied
energy states at a given energy per unit volume. Ev represents final energy level of valance band.

...........(1)
where have found the density of states

Now for holes in the valance band, we replace mass by effective mass of hole. Also, for valance
band final energy

and the probability that a hole occupies a given state can be expressed in term of absence of
electron

Substituting D(E) and[1-F(E)] in equation 1, we get

.........(2)
where

Using

equation no (2) reduces to

 ...........(3)
At this point changing variables by letting

or

also, the limits of integration changes

and

............(4)
To evaluate the integral here, we note that the gamma function defined as

we have the value of integral as

as

This is an expression of carrier density of holes in Valance Band

where

Nv is called as Effective density of states in valance band

Density of States

The density of states in a semiconductor equals to the number of states per unit energy and per
unit volume.

Calculation of Density of states

We will assume that the semiconductor can be modeled as an infinite quantum well in which
electrons with effective mass, m*, are free to move. The energy in the well is set to zero. The
semiconductor is assumed a cube with side L.
This assumption does not affect the result since the density of states per unit volume should not
depend on the actual size or shape of the semiconductor.
Consider a sphere in k-space. Associated with this sphere volume will be

where k is our “radius" where

We now define a state by the smallest nonzero volume it possesses in k-space. This occurs when

A cube in k-space with size L( Lx = Ly = Lz =L)as indicated on Figure

Thus, within our imagined spherical volume of k-space, the total number of states present is

Next, when dealing with electrons and holes, we must consider spin degeneracy, since two
carriers, possessing opposite spin, can occupy the same state. As a consequence, we multiply the
above expression by 2 to obtain

Density of states is number of states per unit volume per unit energy range, therefore dividing N
with volume (L3) and differentiating it with respect to E

or

as

or

This is our desired density-of-states expression for a bulk three dimensional solid.

Fermi Level of intrinsic Semiconductor

Fermi Level of intrinsic Semiconductor

Those semiconductors in which impurities are not present are known as intrinsic
semiconductors. The electrical conductivity of the semiconductor depends upon the total no of
electrons moved to the conduction band from the valence band. Eg. silicon and germanium.

If the temperature will be maintained at zero Kelvin, then the valence band will be full of
electrons. So, at such a low temperature range it is impossible to cross the energy barrier. It will
act as an insulator at zero Kelvin. The minimum energy required to the break the covalent bond
in germanium crystal is 0.72 eV and for silicon its value is 1.1 eV.

At room temperature thermal energy excite some electrons present in valence electrons to shift
to the conduction band. So, the semiconductor will be able to show some electrical conductivity.
As the temperature increases, the electrons movement from the valence band to the conduction
band will also increase. The holes will be left behind in the valence band in place of electrons.
This vacancy created by the electron after the breakage of the covalent bonding is known as
hole.

At temperature T K, the electron concentration ‘n’ is equal to hole concentration ‘p’ in an

intrinsic semiconductor i.e., n = p.

Taking logarithms on both sides

Therefore

or

( )
¿
2 EF 3 m
= log h¿ +(Ec + E v )/ KT
KT 2 me

( )
¿
3 KT m
EF= log h¿ +(Ec + E v )/2
4 me

Normally is greater than

Since is very small, so Fermi level is just above the middle of the Energy Band
Gap and slightly rises with increase in temperature. In case of = or T=0K

Thus, the Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction band and its
position is independent of temperature.

Kronig Penny Model

According to quantum free electron theory of metals, a conduction electron in a metal

experiences constant (or zero) potential and free to move inside the crystal but will not come
out of the metal because an infinite potential exists at the surface. This theory successfully
explains electrical conductivity, specific heat, thermionic emission and Para magnetism. This
theory is fails to explain many other physical properties, for example: (i) it fails to explain the
difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors, (ii) positive Hall coefficient of
metals and (iii) lower conductivity of divalent metals than monovalent metals.

To overcome the above problems, the periodic potentials due to the positive ions in a metal have
been considered. shown in Fig. (a), if an electron moves through these ions, it experiences
varying potentials. The potential of an electron at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum in
between two ions. The potential experienced by an electron, when it passes along a line through
the positive ions is as shown in Fig. (b).

It is not easy to solve Schrödinger’s equation with these potentials. So, Kronig and Penney
approximated these potentials inside the crystal to the shape of rectangular steps as shown
in Fig. (c). This model is called Kronig-Penney model of potentials.

The energies of electrons can be known by solving Schrödinger’s wave equation in such a
lattice. The Schrödinger time-independent wave equation for the motion of an electron along X-
direction is given by:

The energies and wave functions of electrons associated with this model can be calculated by
solving time-independent one-dimensional Schrödinger’s wave equations for the two regions I
and II as shown in Fig

The Schrödinger’s equations are:

for 0<x<a.............(1)

for -b<x<0.............(2)

We define two real quantities (say) α and β such that:

Hence, Equations (1) and (2) becomes:

for 0<x<a-----------(3)
 for -b<x<0-------------(4)
According to Bloch's theorem, the wavefunction solution of the Schrödinger equation when the
potential is periodic and to make sure the function u(x) is also continuous and smooth, can be
written as:

------------------(5)
Where u(x) is a periodic function which satisfies u(x + a) = u(x).
Differentiating equation(5) twice and substitute in equation (3) and (4), then it becomes
2
d u du
+ 2ik + ( α −k ) u ( x )=0 -----(6)
2 2
2
dx dx
2
d u du
+ 2ik − ( β + k ) u ( x )=0 --------(7)
2 2
2
dx dx

The solution of these two equations are

i ( α−k ) x −i ( α +k ) x
u1 = A e +B e ----------(8)
( β −ik ) x − ( β+ik ) x
u2=C e +D e -----------(9)

A, B, C, and D are arbitrary constants. The value of these constant can be obtained by applying
boundary conditions.
u1=u 2 at x=0

d u 1 d u2
= at x =0
dx dx
u1 ( x=a)=u2 (x=−b)
d u1 d u2
(at x=a)= (at x=−b)
dx dx
Applying these four boundary conditions in equations (8) and (9), then
A+B = C+D
i ( α −k ) A−i ( α + k ) B=( β−ik ) C−( β +ik ) D

A e i (α −k )a + B e−i (α + k ) a=C e−(β −ik ) b+ D e( β +ik ) b

i ( α −k ) a −i ( α +k ) a − ( β −ik ) b ( β +ik ) b
i ( α −k ) A e −i ( α + k ) B e = ( β−ik ) C e −(β +ik) D e
The above equations will have non-vanishing solution if and only if the determinant of the
coefficients A, B, C and D vanishes. The solution of the determinant becomes
2 2
β −α
sinαa . sinhβb+ cosαa. coshβb=cosk (a+ b)
2 αβ
sinhβb→ βb , coshβb=1∧sinαa ; when b → 0
2 2
β −α
sinαa . βb+cosαa=coska
2 αβ
2
2 8π m
2
β −α = 2 (−2E+ V 0) ; since V 0 ≫ E
h
2
2 2 8 π mV 0
β −α = 2
h
Using Bloch theorem and all the boundary conditions for the continuity of the wave function the
solution of Schrodinger wave equation obtained as
Psinαa
+cosαa=coska ---------------(10)
αa
2
4 π abmV 0
Where P = 2
h

Equation(10) shows the relation between the energy (through α) and the wave-vector, k, since
the left hand side of the equation can only range from −1 to 1.

Psinαa
1. The permissible limit of the term +cosαa lies between +1 to -1. By varying αa, a wave
αa
mechanical nature could be plotted as shown in Fig, the shaded portion of the wave shows the
bands of allowed energy with the forbidden region as unshaded portion.
2. With increase of αa, the allowed energy states for an electron increases there by increasing the
band width of the bands, i.e., the strength of the potential barrier diminishes. This also leads to
increase of the distance between electrons and the total energy possessed by the individual
electron.
3. Conversely, if suppose the effect of potential barrier dominate i.e., if P is large, the resultant
Psinαa
wave obtained in terms of +cosαa shows a stepper variation in the region lies between
αa
+1 to -1. This results in the decrease of allowed energy and increase of forbidden energy gap.
Thus, at the extremities,

Case (i) when , the allowed energy states are compressed to a line spectrum.
sinαa=0
nπ
αa=± nπ ; α =
a
2 2
2 n π 2 2 mE
α = 2
similarly α = 2
a ħ
2 2 2
n π ħ
By equating these two equations, E= 2
2 ma

Case (ii) when the energy band is broadened and it is quasi continuous.
cosαa=coska
2 2 2mE
α =k ; α =k = 2
ħ
 2 2
k ħ
E=
2m
2π h
k= ; ħ= ; p=h/ λ
λ 2π
2
p 1 2
Therefore, E= = m v . This equation for completely free particles. Hence no energy levels
2m 2
exist. All energies are allowed to the electron.

Electrical conductivity, Thermal conductivity and Widemann – Franz law

Electrical Conductivity
In metals, the electrical conductivity depends on the number of charge carriers (free electrons)
present in the material.

Let us consider a solid metal (S) of length 'l' and area of cross-section 'A'. Let 'n' be the number
of electrons per unit volume. Then,

Total number of electrons in the metal N = nAl ----(1)

We know, Total charge Q = Total number of electrons in the metal x charge of one electron

∴Total charge Q = N(-e) ----(2)

The negative sign indicates that the charge of the electron is negative.

Substituting equation (1) in (2) we get,

Total charge present in the solid Q = nAl(-e)

Now, when we apply a voltage 'V' to the metal, then the electrons starts to move with an average
velocity called drift velocity (Vd) from one end to another end (through a distance l), giving rise
to current conduction in the metal.
∴The current through the metal I =
Total charge ∈the metal(Q) Q
= ------(4)
Time taken for the movement of charges(τ) τ

nAl(-
Substituting equation (3) in (4) we get, I
e) ........ (5)
=
τ
The current density i.e., the current flowing through the metal per unit area is given by

J I
........ (6)
= A
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6), we get

nAl(-
J
e)
=
τA

nl(-
J
e) ........ (7)
=
τ

We know, drift velocity

Average distance travelled by the electron
Vd =
Time taken

l
Vd = ........ (8)
τ
Substituting equation (8) in equation (7), we get

Current density J = nVd(-e) .....(9)

Due to the applied electric field, the electrons gain the acceleration 'a'

Acceleration (a) Drift velocity (Vd)

= Relaxation time (τ)
(or)

Vd = aτ .....(10)

If E is the field intensity and m is the mass of the electron, then the force experienced by the
electron is,

F = -eE .......(11)

From Newton's second law,

The force experienced by the electron is, F = ma ..........(12)

Comparing equation (10) and (11) we have

-eE = ma
(or)
-
a = eE ........ (13)
m
Substituting equation (13) in (10) we have

e
Vd E
= τ ........ (14)
m

Substituting equation (14) in (9) we have

e
J = n(-e) E τ
m

J ne2Eτ
........ (15)
= m

Here the number of electrons flowing per second through unit area (the current density), depends
on the applied field. Thus if the electric field (E) applied is more, current density (J) will also be
more.

So, we can write J ᾳ E

or J = σE .....(16)

Comparing equation (15) and (16) we can write

ne2Eτ
σE =
m
 ne2τ
σ =
m

Definition for C-efficient of Electrical Conductivity (σ)

It is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per unit area per unit time maintained at unit
potential gradient.

Unit : Ω-1m-1
Thermal Conductivity
Consider a conductor in the form of a uniform rod and a temperature gradient exist along the
rod.
Consider two cross sections, one at A and another at B which are at the temperature T and T-dT
and they are separated by a distance λ. Let n be the density of conduction electron and c be the
root mean square velocity of the electron.
3
At A, the average K.E of electron = KT
2
3
At B. the average K.E of the electron = K (T −dT )
2
3 3 3
Therefore, the electron carries excess energy from A to B = KT − K (T −dT )= KdT
2 2 2
1
Number of electrons cross per unit area in unit time from A to B = nc
6
Therefore, excess energy carried from A to B for unit area in unit time =
3 1 1
KdT . n c= n c KdT
2 6 4
−1
Similarly, the deficiency of energy carried from B to A for unit are in unit time = n c KdT
4
The negative indicates that the energy carried low to high temperature region in the opposite
direction. Therefore net energy transported from A to B for unit are in unit time(or) heat flux
1
Q= n c KdT -
4
−1
4 ( 1
)
n c KdT = n c KdT
2

Thermal conductivity is defined as it is a measure of the ability of a material to transfer heat. Given
two surfaces on either side of the material with a temperature difference between them, the thermal
conductivity is the heat energy transferred per unit time and per unit surface area, divided by the
temperature difference. It is measured in watts per degree Kelvin.
 dT
Q=K A
λ
dT
If the area of cross section A = 1; then Q=K
λ
λ 1 λ 1
Or K¿ Q = n c KdT . = n c Kλ
dT 2 dT 2
3 3
From classical free electron theory, the electronic specific heat capacity C e = R= nk
2 2
1
Therefore, thermal conductivity K = C cλ
3 e
Widemann-Franz law:
This law states that the ratio between the thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity is
K
directly proportional to the absolute temperature. ∝T
σ
K
Or =¿ here L is called as Lorentz number = 2.44 ͯ 10-8 watt ohm.K2 at 293K
σ
2 2
1 ne τ ne λ
Thermal conductivity K = n c kλ and electrical conductivity σ = =
2 m cm
2
K 1 cm 1 c
= n c kλ . 2 = km 2
σ 2 ne λ 2 e
1 2 3
Kinetic energy m c = kT
2 2
K 3 1 3 2 2
Therefore =k . kT . 2 = k e T
σ 2 e 2
K
Or ∝T
σ
K 3 2 2
Or =¿ where L = k e .
σ 2

Superconductors

From free electron theory of metals, we know that by decreasing the temperature of a perfect
metal, the thermal vibrations and electron scattering of ions (or atoms) decrease and hence the
electrical resistance of the substance decreases. One would expect that the electrical resistance
of a substance may become zero as its temperature reaches 0 K. Based on this point,
experiments were conducted on many substances by scientists. In 1911, Kammerling Onnes
found that the electrical resistance of pure mercury vanishes suddenly at 4.2 K as shown in Fig.
1. This temperature is called its superconducting transition temperature and denoted as TC. The
superconducting transition temperature of a few important materials is shown below.

Above the superconducting transition temperature, the material possesses normal resistance and
is said to be in the normal state. Below this temperature, the resistance of the material becomes
zero and its conductivity reaches infinity. This state of the material is called superconducting
state. Now, the superconducting transition temperature can be defined as the temperature at
which the material changes from normal state to superconducting state as it is cooled. The total
disappearance of electrical resistance of these few substances is called superconductivity and
the materials which exhibit this property are called superconductors.

Figure 1 Variation of resistance with decrease of temperature for mercury

The electrical resistivity of a material is caused by electron scattering. This is due to: (a)
temperature, (b) impurities and (c) crystal defects. Figure 2 shows the variation of electrical
resistivity of an impure defective material and pure perfect material with temperature. Curve
‘A’ shows the presence of electrical resistance even at 0 K; this is due to defects and impurities
in the material and curve ‘B’ shows the superconductivity of pure perfect crystalline material.

Figure 2 Shows the variation of electrical resistivity with decrease of temperature. Curve A for
a defective impure crystal and curve B for a perfect pure crystal

General features of superconductors

Superconductors show many features. We could study these features one by one as shown
below:

1. Persistent current: The electrical current in a superconductor, in superconducting state

remains for a very long time. This can be proved by placing a superconducting loop of material
in magnetic field and lowering its temperature to below its superconducting transition
temperature (TC) and the magnetic field is removed. This causes dc current in the
superconductor loop and the current remains for a very long period without attenuation. File
and Mills determined the time taken by the super current to reduce to 1/e of its initial value is
more than 1,00,000 years. This indicates that the dc current in a superconducting material is
persistent.

2. Normally, superconductivity has been observed in metals having valence electrons between 2
and 8 and not 1.

3. Some good conductors of electricity at room temperature will not show superconductivity at
low temperatures. For example, gold, silver, copper, sodium, crystalline iron, ferromagnetic and
anti-ferromagnetic materials.

4. The materials which possess high resistance at room temperatures will show
superconductivity at low temperatures. For example, amorphous thin films of beryllium,
bismuth and iron. Under pressure, antimony, bismuth and tellurium show superconductivity.

5. By reducing the temperature of a material, it changes from normal to superconducting state.

This transition is sharp in case of pure perfect metals and is broad for metals containing
impurities as shown in Fig. 3. shows the transition width of impure metals

6. Isotopic effect: Transition temperature (TC) of a superconducting substance varies with

isotopic mass (M). For example, the transition temperature of three isotopes of mercury is
shown below. It has been observed that TC ∝ M–β (or) TC M β = constant. For large number of
materials, β ≈ +0.5. so, TC M 1/2 = constant.

7. Effect of magnetic field: By applying magnetic field of sufficient strength, the

superconductivity of a material can be destroyed. The minimum magnetic field strength
required to destroy superconductivity of a substance, below TC is called critical magnetic field
(HC) at that temperature. HC varies with temperature. This variation has been shown for a
number of superconducting elements in Fig. 4.

Figure 4 Shows the variation of critical magnetic field with temperature for a few elements

From the graph, we see that the critical magnetic field for different elements will be different at
different temperatures. Also, it shows for a material, the critical magnetic field increases with
decrease of temperature below TC. At TC, no magnetic field is required to change the material
from superconducting to normal state. Maximum magnetic field is required to destroy
superconductivity at 0 K. The critical magnetic field at 0 K is H0. The critical magnetic field

(HC) at any temperature ‘T’ below TC can be represented as:

8. Critical currents: Suppose a material carries electric current in superconducting state, this
current produces magnetic field. If this magnetic field exceeds critical magnetic field (HC) at
that temperature T (< TC), then normal resistance will be included in the material and it will be
in the normal state. Hence, it is not possible to pass large currents through a superconductor.
The maximum current that can be passed through a superconductor in superconducting state is
called critical current, represented by IC.

9. AC Resistivity: The current in a superconductor in normal state is carried by normal

electrons only. When the material changes from normal state to superconducting state, then few
normal electrons are converted into super electrons which carry dc current in superconducting
state without any electrical resistance. If a constant dc current is flowing in a superconductor,
there is no resistance in the material; hence, no electric field in the material. If we apply dc
voltage source to a superconductor [below TC], then current will not increase suddenly but at
the rate at which the electrons accelerate in the electric field. This indicates the presence of
electric field in the material. If we apply ac voltage source to the superconductor, then the super
electrons accelerate in the forward and backward direction; they lag behind the field because of
inertia. Also, under ac fields, current is carried not only by super electrons but also by normal
electrons; this adds resistance to superconductor [below TC]. Under high frequency ac voltages,
a superconductor behaves as a normal material because under ac voltages, electric field exists in
the material that excites super electrons to go into higher states where they behave as normal
electrons.

10. Entropy: Entropy is the measure of disorder in a material. By reducing the temperature of a
material, it goes into superconducting state. Also thermal vibrations and entropy of the material
get reduced. In all superconducting materials, entropy decreases as they change from normal to
superconducting state. The electrons in superconducting state are more ordered than in normal
state.

11. Heat Capacity and energy gap: At all temperatures in normal state, the heat capacity of a
superconductor is almost the same. A sudden change in heat capacity at the transition
temperature was observed. Again, in superconducting state, heat capacity changes
exponentially with temperature. This suggests the existence of an energy gap at the Fermi gas
of the material. This energy gap is represented in Fig. 5.

Figure 5 Represents the existence of energy gap in superconductors

This energy gap separates the superconducting electrons and normal electrons. The
superconducting electrons lie below the energy gap and the normal electrons are above it. The
width of this energy gap is not constant as we see in case of an insulator. In insulators, the
energy gap is attached to the lattice and the width of energy gap will not vary with temperature.
In case of superconductors, the width of energy gap at Fermi gas increases by decreasing
temperature below TC. This energy gap attains maximum at 0 K and reduces to zero at TC.
Giaever confirmed the existence of energy gap in superconductors by electron tunnelling
observation across the superconducting junctions.

12. Thermal conductivity: It has been observed that the thermal conductivity of a material in
superconducting state is less than in normal state. By applying sufficient magnetic field, a
material changes from superconducting state to normal state below TC . In normal state, all free
electrons participate in thermal conductivity; hence, the thermal conductivity is large. Whereas
in superconducting state, the materials have super electrons and normal electrons, the super
electrons will not participate in thermal conductivity; so, thermal conductivity is less. A sudden
drop in thermal conductivity has been observed when a material changes from normal to
superconducting state at a temperature below TC. The thermal conductivities of tin as a function
of temperature in normal and superconducting state are shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6 Shows the variation of thermal conductivity of tin in normal and superconducting
states

13. Mechanical effects: Experimentally, it was found that the superconducting transition
temperature and critical magnetic field change slightly by applying mechanical stress on it.
Small changes in volume, coefficient of thermal expansion and bulk modulus of elasticity were
seen when a material changes from normal state to superconducting state.

14. Acoustic attenuation: When sound wave propagates through a metal, then the ions will be
slightly displaced from their original positions. These displacements produce microscopic
electric fields. These fields increase the energy of electrons present near the Fermi surface. So,
the wave is attenuated. This attenuation has been expressed in terms of attenuation
coefficient, α of the acoustic waves. The ratio of α in superconducting state to normal state of a
material has been expressed as:

At low temperatures,

15. Flux exclusion or Meissner effect: In 1933, Meissner and Ochsen Feld found the
exclusion of magnetic flux lines by a superconductor below TC. They reduced the temperature
of a long superconductor in magnetic field. They observed that the superconductor pushes the
magnetic lines of force out of the body at some low temperature, TC as shown in Fig. 7. When
the material is in normal state, the magnetic force of lines passes through it. The magnetic
induction (B) inside the material is given as

B = μ0(H + M) = μ0H (1 + χ).

Figure 7 Figure shows the superconductor in applied magnetic field (H)

where μ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space. H is the intensity of applied magnetic
field, M is the magnetization of the material and χ is the magnetic susceptibility given
as χ = M/H.

When the temperature reaches below TC, the material enters into superconducting state and it
expels the magnetic force lines. So, B = 0 inside the material. From the above equation, we
write 0 = μ0 (H + M)

⇒H=−M or χ = − 1.0.

In superconducting state, inside the material magnetization takes place which is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied field. The superconductor is a perfect
diamagnetic material (since χ = – 1.0). The exclusion of magnetic lines from a superconductor
when it is cooled in magnetic field to below its transition temperature is called Meissner effect.

Type-I and Type-II superconductors

Depending on the way of transition from superconducting state to normal state by the
application of magnetic field, superconductors are divided into Type-I and Type-II
superconductors. In case of Type-I superconductors, as we increase the intensity of applied
magnetic field, inside the material opposing magnetization takes place up to some applied
magnetic field, up to this applied magnetic field, the material is completely diamagnetic and it
is in superconducting state. As the applied field reaches the critical value, HC, all of a sudden
the magnetic force lines pass through the material and the material changes sharply from
superconducting state to normal state as shown in Fig. 8. This effect (Type-I superconductivity)
was first noted by Silsbee in 1916. So, this effect is also called Silsbee effect. The critical
magnetic field, HC for Type-I superconductors is of the order of 0.1 Tesla or less so, high
magnetic fields cannot be produced using Type-I superconductors. These are called soft
superconductors. Almost all elements show Type-I superconductivity.

Figure 8 Shows the relation between magnetization and applied magnetic field for Type-I
superconductors

In case of Type-II superconductors, as we increase the intensity of applied magnetic field, in the
material opposing magnetization takes place up to some applied magnetic field HC1, called
lower critical magnetic field. Up to this magnetic field, the material completely expels the
magnetic force lines. The material is completely diamagnetic and it is in superconducting state.
If the applied magnetic field exceeds HC1, slowly the magnetic force lines pass through the
material and the transition from superconducting to normal state takes place gradually. The
penetration of magnetic force lines through the material increases gradually from HC1 to HC2.
AtHC2, the magnetic force lines completely pass through the material and the material changes
completely from superconducting state to normal state. Above HC2, the material is in normal
state. The material is in mixed state from HC1 to HC2. The variation of magnetization with
applied magnetic field in Type-II superconductors is shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 9 Figure shows the variation of magnetization with applied magnetic field for Type-II
superconductors

Type-II superconductivity was discovered by Schubnikov et al. in 1930s. The critical magnetic
field HC2 for Type-II superconductors is of the order of 10 Tesla. HC2 is called upper critical
field. Type-II superconductors with a large amount of magnetic hysteresis are called hard
superconductors. Type-II superconductors are alloys or transition metals with high values of
electrical resistivity.

Penetration depth

In 1935, F. London and H. London obtained an expression for penetration of applied magnetic
field into superconducting material from the surface by adding: (i) Meissner effect i.e., the
magnetic induction (B) inside a superconducting material is equal to zero (B = 0) and (ii) zero
resistivity i.e., the intensity of electric field (E) in a superconductor in superconducting state is
equal to zero (E = 0) to Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations. According to them, the applied
magnetic field does not drop to zero at the surface of the superconductor [in superconducting
state] but decreases exponentially as given by the equation:

where H is the intensity of magnetic field at a depth x from the surface, H0 is the intensity of
magnetic field at the surface and λ is called London penetration depth. London penetration
depth is defined as the distance from the surface of the superconductor to a point inside the

material at which the intensity of magnetic field is of the magnetic field at the surface
[i.e., H0/e]. The variation of intensity of magnetic field with distance from the surface into the
material for tin is shown in Fig. 10. The magnetic field is likely to penetrate to a depth of 10 to
100 nm from the surface of a superconductor. If the superconducting film or filament is thinner
than this value, then its properties are significantly different from that of the bulk material. For
example, the critical magnetic field increases with a decrease in thinness. The value of λ for
some materials is given below.

Figure 10 Figure shows the variation of the intensity of magnetic field with distance into the
material for tin

Figure 11 Variation of penetration depth in tin

The penetration depth is not constant but varies with temperature as shown in Fig. 11 for tin.

From the figure, we know that the penetration depth is independent of temperature, but the
penetration depth increases rapidly and approaches infinity as the temperature approaches the
transition temperature of the material. The London penetration depth at temperature T (< TC)
can be obtained using the equation

where λ0 is the London penetration depth at 0 K.

Flux quantization

We know that electric charge is quantized in terms of integral multiples of charge on an

electron [1.6 × 10 –19 C]. Similarly, the magnetic flux lines passing through a superconducting
loop due to persistent current is quantized in terms of integral multiples of
Flux quantization can be proved with the help of a superconducting material in the form of a
hollow cylinder or ring.

Figure 12 Sample cooled in the presence of magnetic field

Magnetic field is applied on the superconducting ring in normal state as shown in Fig. 12. As
its temperature is reduced to below critical temperature, the material expels the magnetic lines
of force and enters into superconducting state. Persistent current is set up in the material this
current will remain in the material even if the applied magnetic field is removed. This persistent
current sets up magnetic force lines in the ring. This magnetic flux adjusts itself such that the
total flux through the cylinder is quantized in integral multiples of If the persistent
current in the superconductor decreases, then the magnetic flux also decreases and adjust to
integral multiples of . Here, 2e is the charge on a pair of electrons. Experimentally, it was
found that the value of h/2e is equal to 2.07 × 10‒15 webers. It confirms the existence of an
electron pair in the superconductor in superconducting state. This is very well agreed with the
Cooper pair concept. The Cooper pair concept plays a major role in BCS theory.

Quantum tunnelling

As shown in Fig. 13(a), if a thick insulating layer is sandwiched between two metals, then
electric current will not pass through this insulating layer. If the insulating layer is very thin (≈
10 to 20 Å), then there is a large probability for electrons to pass from one metal to another
through this insulating layer by quantum mechanical process called tunnelling. If both the
metals are normal conductors, then the V – I characteristics is a straight line as shown in Fig.
13(b).

In 1961, Giaever took a system in which an insulating layer of 10 nm thick has been
sandwiched between a normal metal and a superconductor as shown in Fig. 14(a). Gradually, an
increasing potential has been applied between the metal and superconductor by connecting
them to electrodes. Up to certain voltage, VC, there is no current in the circuit, afterwards the
current increases as shown in Fig. 14(b).

Figure 13 (a) Shows an insulator sandwiched between two metals; (b) V-I characteristics for
the system shown in Fig. 13(a)

Figure 14 (a) Figure shows the sandwich of an insulator between a normal metal and a
superconductor; (b) V-I characteristics for the system shown in Fig. 14(a)

The flow of current through this insulating layer has been explained on the basis of quantum
mechanical tunneling of electrons. Quantum theory says that an electron on one side of the
insulator [barrier] has a certain probability of tunneling through it, if there is an allowed
available equal energy electron state on the other side of the barrier. The quantum tunneling for
the above system can be explained with the aid of electron states in the energy space. Figure
15 shows the energy level diagram for the sandwich consisting of superconductor, insulator and
metal at 0 K. The Fermi energy levels of these materials adjust to a same height after
sandwiching.

The electron tunneling in the above sandwich can be explained in the following way: When
voltage is not applied across the sandwich, then electrons are filled up to the Fermi energy
level EF2 in the normal metal. At this energy, there is a forbidden energy band in
superconductor. So, electron states in the superconductor are not available for the electrons
present at EF2 in normal metal.

So, electron tunneling will not take place. Suppose voltage (V) is applied across the sandwich,
then the electrons present at the Fermi energy level or near to it in the normal metal gain energy
and will go to higher energy level. By the continuous increase of voltage across the sandwich,
the electrons present at the Fermi energy level or near to it will go to excited states. The voltage
across the barrier is raised such that the electrons in a metal should raise to a height of E11 or
higher than that. Then, the electrons in the normal metal can see vacant energy levels in
superconductor and tunnel through the insulating layer and reaches the superconducting
material. Thus, quantum tunneling takes place. Obviously, there is no current until the voltage
becomes equal to VC so that eVC is equal to energy gap E11 – EF2. Thus, the flow of electrons
through a thin insulating layer has been explained based on the quantum mechanical tunneling
process.

Figure 15 Figure shows the energy level diagram for the sandwich consisting of
superconductor–insulator and normal metal
Josephson’s effect

In 1962, Josephson passed electrical current consisting of correlated pairs of electrons across an
insulating gap (~ 10 Å) between two superconductors. This effect is known as Josephson effect.

Josephson effect can be explained in the following way. As shown in Fig. 16(a), a rectangular
superconducting bar is connected in series with a battery (B), plug key (K) and an ammeter (A).
A voltmeter (V) is connected across the superconductor. Since the superconductor has zero
resistance, so the voltmeter shows zero reading. Whereas the ammeter shows the current
through the superconductor. Next, the superconductor is cut into two pieces as shown in Fig.
16(b). If the gap between the two pieces is about 1 cm, then current will not flow through the
superconductor pieces, so ammeter shows zero reading and the voltmeter shows the open
circuit voltage of the battery. If the gap between the superconducting pieces is reduced to 1 nm,
then the voltmeter reading drops to zero and the ammeter shows dc current through the
superconducting pieces and across the gap between the superconducting pieces [Josephson
Junction]. That is without any applied voltage across the gap, dc current passes through the
insulating gap. This effect is known as dc Josephson effect.

The gap between the superconducting pieces is slightly increased and the applied voltage is
increased, the current passes through the gap also increased so that a small dc voltage exists
across the gap. Now, a high-frequency electromagnetic radiation is observed from the gap. That
is the gap emits a high-frequency electromagnetic ray. This indicate a high-frequency ac current
through the gap. This effect is known as ac Josephson effect.

The V–I characteristics of a Josephson junction is shown in Fig. 17. With zero applied voltage
across the Josephson’s junction, a dc current passes across the junction. As shown in figure, the
dc current is in between I0to – I0, where I0 is the maximum dc current under no applied voltage
across the junction. This current is due to the quantum mechanical tunneling of Cooper pairs of
electrons across the junction. These electrons tunnel from one superconductor to another across
the junction (barrier) and returns to the first conductor through the external circuit. If current
exceeds I0, then a potential difference develops across the junction. This indicates resistance in
the junction. The change from zero to finite resistance is not related to the elimination of
superconductivity.

Figure 16 Shows Josephson’s effect: (a) Current through superconductor bar and (b) The bar is
cut into two pieces with a narrow gap between them

Figure 17 V-I characteristics of a Josephson’s junction

The current across the junction can be represented as I = I0 sin ɸ, where ɸ is the phase
difference between the waves associated with Cooper pairs of electrons on two sides of the gap.
As shown in Fig. 17, whenever current exceeds I0, a potential difference (V) exists across the
junction. This shows that the Cooper pairs on both sides of the junction differ by an energy
equal to 2eV, where 2e is the charge on a Cooper pair of electrons. Since in superconductors,
current is carried by Cooper pairs of electrons, if a Cooper pair passes across the gap, then it

emits a photon of energy (hν) equal to 2eV. Then, the frequency of emitted radiation is
. This is the oscillating frequency of sinusoidal current across the gap.

The phase difference ɸ = 2πt/T = 2πtν

Suppose the potential difference across the gap is 1 mV, then the frequency is of the order of
480 GHz, this lies in the microwave region. This enables to construct microwaves resonators.

BCS theory

The existence of energy gap and long-range electronic order in superconducting state pointed
that electrons in superconductor are somehow bound together. The positively charged ions
screen the Coulomb repulsive forces between electrons. In 1950, Frohlich and Bardeen
concluded that a moving electron inside a crystal distorts the crystal lattice and this distortion is
quantized in terms of virtual phonons. That means the reaction between an electron and lattice
phonons represent the vibrations of crystal lattice in a solid. The electron-phonon interaction
can cause resistance or superconductivity. The interaction of electrons and virtual phonons
causes superconductivity. We know generally that superconductors are always poor conductors
at room temperature and the best conductor do not become superconductors. For example, gold,
silver and copper at low temperatures.

In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schriffer put forward a theory [called BCS theory] [Jhon
Bardeen received noble prize twice in physics; in 1947, he invented transistor and later he
developed the key concepts of photocopy machine] which explains very well for all the
properties shown by superconductors, such as zero resistance, Meissner effect, etc. This theory
involves electron interactions through phonons. The basis for BCS theory is: (i) isotopic effect
and (ii) specific heat of superconductors. Isotopic effect, TC M 1/2 = constant, infers that the
transition to superconducting state must involve the dynamics of motions, lattice vibrations and
phonons. Also, as Tc → 0, then M approaches infinity. This suggests non-zero transition
temperature and finite mass of ions.

Description

Suppose an electron approaches a positive ion core in the crystal, then the electron makes an
attractive interaction with a positive ion. This attractive interaction sets in motion the positive
ion and this ion motion distorts the lattice. This distortion of lattice is quantized in terms of
phonons. At that instant, if another electron approaches the distorted lattice, then the interaction
between this second electron and distorted lattice takes place; this interaction lowers the energy
of second electron. Now, the two electrons interact through the lattice distortion or the phonon
field and results in the lowering of energy of the electrons. The lowering of energy indicates
that an attractive force exists between the electrons. This attractive interaction is larger if the
two electrons have opposite spin and momenta. This interaction is called electron-lattice-
electron interaction or electron-electron interaction through phonons as a mediator. Cooper
stated that the presence of an attractive interaction even weak in between two electrons in a
superconductor makes them to form a bound pair. Cooper showed that the lowering of energy
leads to the formation of a bound state. Such bound pairs of electrons formed by the interaction
between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta are known as Cooper pairs. This
interaction can be represented in terms of the wave vector of electrons as shown in Fig. 18. Let
an electron having wave vector K1 emits a virtual phonon q and this phonon is absorbed by
another electron having wave vector K2, then K1 is scattered asK1–q and K2 as K2+q.
Conservation of energy is not satisfied in this reaction. This process is called virtual because
virtual phonons are involved in this process.

Figure 18 Electron-electron interaction through phonons

In this interaction, phonon exchange takes place between electrons. If the phonon energy
exceeds electronic energy, then the interaction is attractive and the attractive force between
these two electrons exceeds the usual repulsive force. These two electrons which interact
attractively in the phonon field are called Cooper pairs. The Cooper pair of electrons are said to
be in the bound state or in the condensed state so that their energy is less than in the free state.
The difference of energy of these electrons between these two states is equal to the binding
energy of Cooper pair. Below critical temperature, the electron-lattice-electron interaction is
stronger than electron-electron coulomb interaction, so electrons tend to pair up. The pairing is
complete at 0 K and is completely broken at critical temperature. According to quantum theory,
a wave function could be associated with a Cooper pair by treating it as a single entity. The
Cooper pairs do not get scattered in the material and the conductivity becomes infinite which is
named as superconductivity. The best conductors such as gold, silver and copper do not exhibit
superconductivity because the electrons in these metals move freely in the lattice that, the
electron-lattice interaction is virtually absent and the Cooper pairs will not form. Hence, these
metals will not show superconductivity.

BCS theory explains the energy gap in superconductors in the following way: The energy gap
at the Fermi surface is the energy difference between the free state of the electron and its paired
state. The energy gap is a function of temperature. The energy gap is maximum at 0 K because
pairing is complete at this temperature. At transition temperature, the energy gap reduces to
zero because pairing is dissolved. The existence of energy gap in superconductors can be
proved by the absorption of electromagnetic waves in microwave region. At temperature close
to 0 K, a superconductor does not absorb energy of incident radiation until the energy of the
incident radiation exceeds the width of the gap (2∆) after absorption of energy, the electrons
become free or normal.

Coherent length

The paired electrons (Cooper pair) are not scattered because they smoothly ride over the lattice
points or to the lattice imperfections. The Cooper pairs are not slowed down. Hence, the
substance does not possess any electrical resistivity. Superconductivity is due to the mutual
interaction and correlation of electrons over a considerable distance called coherent length ( ∊0).
It is found to be of the order of 10–6 m. The coherent length is defined as the maximum distance
up to which the state of paired electrons are correlated to produce superconductivity. The ratio
of London penetration depth (λ) to the coherence length ( ∊0) is represented as (K) = λ/∊0, is a

number. For Type-I superconductors, and for Type-II superconductors, . The

intrinsic coherence (∊0) is realated to the energy gap as where 2∆ is the energy gap.

BCS ground state

Fermi gas in the ground state is bounded by Fermi surface, excited state of an electron can be
formed by taking an electron from the Fermi surface to just above it. According to BCS theory
in superconducting state, there is an attractive interaction between the electrons [Cooper pairs].
In this case, we cannot form an exited state unless we supply an energy which exceeds the
energy of attraction between electrons. These electron states are known as BCS ground states.
This implies that the energy of Cooper pairs of electrons or BCS ground state is separated by a
finite energy gap Eg (= 2∆) from the lowest excited energy state (Fermi energy). Further, the
Cooper pairs are situated within about KBθD of the Fermi energy where θD is the Debye
temperature. The energy gap is situated about the Fermi surface of the Fermi state. The
probability of occupation of the ground state in terms of one partical states is shown in Fig.
19(a).

BCS ground state of superconductor is shown in Fig. 20. Figure 20(a) shows the ground state of
Fermi gas and Fig. 20(b) shows the BCS ground state of electrons with an attractive interaction
between them, states near EF are filled in accordance with the probability shown in Fig. 19(b).
The lowest excited state is separated from the ground state in this case by an energy gap Eg.

The total energy (T.E) of the BCS state is lower than that of the Fermi state. The total energy of
the BCS state consists of K.E and attractive P.E, whereas that of Fermi state comprises K.E
only. Thus, the attractive P.E reduces the T.E of the BCS state. This is in agreement with
experimental observations on the superconducting and normal states.
Figure 19 (a) Ground state of Fermi gas; (b) BCS ground state

Figure 20 (a) Ground state of Fermi gas; (b) BCS ground state of an electron gas

Applications of superconductivity

Superconductors find many applications. Some of them are mentioned below:

9.9.1 Magnetic applications

a. Superconducting magnets

Similar to electromagnets, superconducting magnets can also be formed by using coils of wire
made up of superconducting material. To obtain magnetic fields from electromagnets, current
should be maintained in the coil, whereas in superconducting coils, current once introduced into
the coil will remain for a very long time and during this period magnetic field can be obtained,
provided the temperature of the coil is maintained below its transition temperature [usually at
liquid helium temperature]. The benefit of using superconducting magnets instead of
electromagnets is the cost of power required to maintain superconductors at low temperature
will be 1000 times less than the cost of power required in case of electromagnets to produce the
same magnetic field. The size of superconducting magnets is less than that of electromagnets.
Superconducting magnets are made of Type-II superconducting material because strong
magnetic fields is of the order of 20 Tesla can be produced. Of the many superconducting
materials, niobium-titanium (Nb Ti), a Type-II superconducting material, is mostly used
because it can be easily drawn into thin wires.

The superconducting coils are used in electric machines, transformers and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) instruments. MRI instruments are used in hospitals to obtain human body cross-
sectional images. This process is much safer than using X-rays. Superconductor coils are used
in magnetically levitated vehicles and in high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
instruments. Using NMR instruments, molecular structure of chemical compounds can be
known. Superconducting coils are used in NMR imaging equipment, this equipment is used in
hospitals for scanning the whole human body and diagnoze medical problems.

b. Magnetic bearings

Meissner effect is used in these bearings. Mutual repulsion between two superconducting
materials due to opposite magnetic fields is used in the construction of magnetic bearings.
There is no friction in these bearings.

9.9.2 Electrical applications

a. Loss-less power transmission

DC current through an ordinary metallic wire causes heating effect called Joule’s heating that is
proportional to i2R. This means an amount of electrical energy equal to i2R is wasted for every
second. This dc power loss can be eliminated by passing current through a superconductor wire.
For ac, the superconductors show resistance.
b. Superconductor fuse and breaker

We know some insulating materials that show superconductivity at low temperatures, thin films
of such materials can be used instead of fuse because when more than critical current pass
through them, then they change into normal state. In normal state, they are insulators. They
would not conduct current, so it will act as a fuse. In breaker, a long thin film of superconductor
is used. In normal state, this film possesses high resistance. In this, lead is used.

c. Cryotron switch

In this device, the resistance of a superconducting material can be made to zero or normal value
by appling magnetic field of strength just below and above its critical magnetic field.

The device consists of a thick straight wire (or core), made up of some superconducting
material S1, on the surface of this another long thin wire made up of some other
superconducting material S2, has been wounded. This is called coil. The superconducting
materials S1 and S2 are selected in such a way that the transition temperature of S 1 should be
less than that of S2, hence the critical magnetic field of S1 is less than the critical magnetic field
of S2, at some temperature ‘T’ below their transition temperatures. This set-up is immersed in a
cold enclosure as shown in Fig. 21. The temperature in the enclosure should be less than the
transition temperature of S1 and S2, so that the core and coil is in superconducting state.

The current flowing through the coil is adjusted such that the magnetic field produced is very
close to the critical magnetic field of core at that temperature. Now, by slightly increasing the
current through the coil, the core can be changed from superconducting to normal state; again
by slightly reducing the current through the coil, the core can be brought back to
superconducting state. Because by increasing the current through the coil, the magnetic field
produced will exceed the critical magnetic field of core again by decreasing the current through
the coil, the magnetic field produced can be brought below the critical magnetic field of core.
Even the core changes to normal state, the coil will be in the superconducting state because of
its high transition temperature. Thus, the resistance of core is made ON or OFF by external
control, so that this arrangement functions as a switch. Cryotron may be used as an element in
flip-flop.

To produce low temperature in the enclosure, the liquid helium [TC = 4.2 K] is used, then the
core material could be tantalum [TC = 4.38 K] and coil material will be lead [TC = 7.2 K] or
niobium [TC = 9.3 K].

Figure 21 Cryotron switch

9.9.3 Computer applications

A closed superconducting ring [or a circular ring of superconductor] is used in memory cell.
When persistent current in superconducting state passes through it, then it is said to be in ‘1’
state. In normal state, current will not pass through it, then it is said to be in ‘0’ state. Thus, the
superconducting memory cell is a binary system.

9.9.4 Josephson junction devices

A very small gap between superconductors forms a junction called Josephson Junction. The
devices which use such junctions are called Josephson Junction device. The dc Josephson effect
is used in the construction of sensitive magnetometers. These devices can measure magnetic
fields accurately up to 10-11 gauss. AC Josephson effect is used to generate and detect
electromagnetic radiations from radio frequencies to infrared frequencies.

9.9.5 Maglev vehicles

Maglev vehicles means magnetically levitated vehicles. These vehicles are made to stay afloat
above the guide way. So, it is not in contact with guide way. High speeds can be achieved with
less energy. It is based on Meissner effect.

The Maglev vehicle is shown in Fig. 22. It consists of superconducting magnet at its base.
There is a segmented aluminium guide way above which the maglev can be made to afloat by
magnetic repulsion. The magnetic repulsion is in between the superconducting magnet at the
bottom of Maglev and the magnetic field obtained by passing current through electric coils
arranged in the aluminium guide way.

During the motion of the vehicle, only the part of the guided way over which the vehicle is
located is actuated instantaneously. For this purpose, the guide way is formed into a large
number of segments provided with coils. The currents in the segmented guide way not only
levitate the vehicle but also help to move. Usually, the vehicle is levitated above the guide way
by 10 to 15 cm. The vehicle is provided with retractable wheels. Once the vehicle is levitated in
air, the wheels are pulled into the body, while stopping the wheels are drawn out and the
vehicle slowly settles on the guide way after running a certain distance. Maglev train has been
constructed in Japan, it runs at a speed of 500 km/h.

Figure 9.22 Maglev vehicle

9.9.6 Medical applications

a. Superconducting sensitive magnetometer

Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) are used in the construction of

superconducting sensitive magnetometers. Basically, SQUIDs are superconducting rings that
are used in magnetic flux storage devices. The quantization of magnetic flux in SQUID is the
basis for construction of sensitive magnetometer. With the aid of good electronic feedback
circuit, SQUIDs can measure magnetic field strengths that are less than 1/1000 of a quantum of
magnetic flux. SQUIDs are used in medical diagnostics of heart and brain. They can measure
the magnetic fields generated by heater brain signals. They are of the order of 10 ‒14 Tesla. The
SQUIDs are used to measure the voltages associated with brain, chest and cardiac activity.
Earth magnetic field can be measured accurately using SQUIDs and a magnetic map can be
constructed. This map helps us to detect mineral and oil deposites inside the earth.

b. Superconductors in medicine

(i) Human blood contains iron in certain percentage. Iron supplies oxygen to various parts of
the body. If the iron content is less, then oxygen supply will be reduced and if iron content is
more then it causes heart attack. The disease caused due to the variation of iron content in blood
is called haemochromatosis. It is difficult to diagnise this disease, often overlooked. Doctors
can detect this disease easily and quickly using superconducting susceptometer. In this
instrument, superconducting magnet and SQUIDs are used.

(ii) A disease that produces disorder in nervous system of brain is called epilepsy. This disorder
causes fits and brain malfunctions. The epiliptic attacked part of the brain is short circuited. If
the disease is severe in certain part of the brain, there the nerve path ways get jammed and the
person receives meaningless signals from that damaged region. The only permanent cure for
epilepsy is to operate and remove the damaged portion of the brain. The short-circuited
epileptic centre produces distinctive magnetic signals. Doctors can locate the damaged portion
of the brain by placing an array of a dozen SQUID magnetometers around the patient head and
magnetic signals received by the magnetometers are fed to a computer. Computer analysis
gives a three-dimensional picture of the activity within the brain. Doctors can locate the
damaged portion of the brain in the image. This technique is known as
magnetoencephalography.

Density of states:

It is defined as the number of energy states with a particular value of E depends on how many
combinations of quantum numbers result in the same value of n(degeneracy). To calculate the
number of energy states with all possible energies, a sphere is constructed with radius n in 3D
space. Every point within this space represent as energy state also every integer represents one
energy state.

n2 = n x 2+ n y 2+ n z2

Number of energy states in any volume = volume of the sphere

Number of energy states within the sphere of radius n = 4/3 πn3
Since nx ny and nz can have only positive integer values, we have to consider only one octant of
the sphere. Therefore available energy states = 1/8 . 4/3 πn3